Citizendia

Spirulina

Scientific classification
Domain:Bacteria
Phylum:Cyanobacteria
Class:Chroobacteria
Order:Oscillatoriales
Family:Phormidiaceae
Genus:Arthrospira
Species

About 35. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of Bacteria that obtain their energy

  • Arthrospira maxima
  • Arthrospira platensis

Spirulina is the common name for human and animal food supplements produced primarily from two species of cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae): Arthrospira platensis, and Arthrospira maxima. Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of Bacteria that obtain their energy These and other Arthrospira species were once classified in the genus Spirulina. Spirulina is a Genus of Cyanobacteria, which is also considered blue-green Algae. There is now agreement that they are distinct genera, and that the food species belong to Arthrospira; nonetheless, the older term Spirulina remains the popular name. Spirulina is cultivated around the world, and is used as a human dietary supplement as well as a whole food and is available in tablet, flake, and powder form. "Whole Foods" redirects here See also Whole Foods Market and Whole food supplements. It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture, aquarium, and poultry industries. In Agriculture, fodder or animal feed is any Foodstuff that is used specifically to feed Domesticated Livestock, such as Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including Molluscs Crustaceans and aquatic plants An aquarium (plural aquariums or aquaria) is a Vivarium consisting of at least one transparent side in which Water -dwelling Plants Poultry is the category of Domesticated Birds which some humans keep for the purpose of collecting their eggs, or kill for their Meat and/or [1]

Contents

Biology

Spirulina are free-floating filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by cylindrical, multicellular trichomes in an open left-hand helix. A cylinder is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes the Surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given Straight line, the axis Trichomes, from the Greek meaning "growth of Hair " are fine outgrowths or appendages on Plants and certain Protists These are of diverse A helix (pl helixes or helices) from the Greek word έλιξ, is a special kind of Space curve, i Spirulina occurs naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with high pH and high concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. In Chemistry, a carbonate is a salt or Ester of Carbonic acid. In Inorganic chemistry, bicarbonate ( IUPAC -recommended nomenclature hydrogencarbonate) is an intermediate form in the Deprotonation A. platensis occurs in Africa, Asia and South America, whereas A. maxima is confined to Central America. [1]

History

An illustration from the Florentine Codex showing how the Aztecs harvested Spirulina off lakes by skimming the surface with ropes and then drying the algae into square cakes that would be eaten as a nourishing condiment.
An illustration from the Florentine Codex showing how the Aztecs harvested Spirulina off lakes by skimming the surface with ropes and then drying the algae into square cakes that would be eaten as a nourishing condiment. The Florentine Codex is the name given to 12 books created under the supervision of Bernardino de Sahagún between approximately 1540 and 1585

Spirulina is believed to have been a food source for the Aztecs and other Mesoamericans until the 16th-century; its harvesting from Lake Texcoco and subsequent sale as cakes is described by one of Cortés' soldiers. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined Lake Texcoco (Lago de Texcoco was a natural Lake formation within the Valley of Mexico, a basin with an average Elevation of 2236 m Above Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca ( 1485&ndash December 2, [2] The Aztecs called it Teocuitlatl, meaning stone's excrement. Spirulina was found in abundance at the lake by French researchers in the 1960s, but there is no reference to its use there as a daily food source after the 16th century. The first large-scale Spirulina production plant, run by Sosa Texcoco, was established there in the early 1970s. [1]

Leo Szilard postulated the development of algae-based food supplements (which he called "Amruss") in his 1961 short story, The Voice of the Dolphins. Leó Szilárd (Szilárd Leó February 11, 1898 – May 30, 1964) was an Hungarian - American Physicist who

Spirulina may have an even longer history in Chad, as far back as the 9th century Kanem Empire. Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. The Kanem Empire (700 - 1376 was located in the present countries of Chad and Libya. It is still in daily use today, dried into cakes called Dihé, which are used to make broths for meals, and also sold in markets. The Spirulina is harvested from small lakes and ponds around Lake Chad. Lake Chad (in French Lac Tchad) is a historically large shallow lake in Africa, whose size has varied greatly over the centuries [3]

Cultivation

Most cultivated spirulina is produced in open-channel raceway ponds, with paddle-wheels used to agitate the water. A raceway pond is a shallow artificial pond used in the cultivation of Algae. The largest commercial producers of spirulina are located in the United States, Thailand, India, Taiwan, China, and Myanmar (i. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. e. Burma). [1]

Nutrients and other chemicals

Protein

Spirulina contains unusually high amounts of protein, between 55 and 77% by dry weight, depending upon the source. It is a complete protein, containing all essential amino acids, though with reduced amounts of methionine, cysteine, and lysine, as compared to standard proteins such as that from meat, eggs, or milk. See also Protein in nutrition A complete protein (or whole protein) is a Protein that contains all of the Essential amino acids for An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an Amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to Methionine ( abbreviated as Met or M) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2CH2CH2SCH3 Not to be confused with Cystine, its oxidized dimer Cysteine (abbreviated as Cys or C) is an α- Amino acid with Lysine (abbreviated as Lys or K) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2(CH24NH2 It is, however, superior to all standard plant protein, such as that from legumes. A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants [4][5]

Essential fatty acids

Spirulina tablets
Spirulina tablets

Spirulina is rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), and also provides alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA). γ -Linolenic acid ( gamma-linolenic acid or GLA, sometimes called gamolenic acid) is an Essential fatty acid found primarily in α -Linolenic acid ( ALA) is an organic compound found in many common vegetable oils. Linoleic acid (LA is an unsaturated Omega-6 fatty acid. It is a colorless liquid Stearidonic acid is an ω-3 Essential fatty acid, sometimes called moroctic acid. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA or also icosapentaenoic acid is an Omega-3 fatty acid. Docosahexaenoic acid (commonly known as DHA; 226(ω-3 all-cis -docosa-4710131619-hexa- enoic acid Trivial name cervonic Arachidonic acid (AA sometimes ARA is an Omega-6 fatty acid 204(ω-6 [5][6]

Vitamins

Spirulina contains vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (nicotinamide), B6 (pyridoxine), B9 (folic acid), vitamin C, vitamin D, and vitamin E. For the similarly spelled pyrimidine see Thymine Thiamin or thiamine, also known as Vitamin B1 Riboflavin ( E101) also known as vitamin B2, is an easily absorbed Micronutrient with a key role in maintaining Health Nicotinamide, also known as niacinamide and nicotinic acid amide, is the Amide of Nicotinic acid (vitamin B3 Pyridoxine is one of the compounds that can be called Vitamin B6, along with Pyridoxal and Pyridoxamine. Folic acid (also known as Vitamin M and Folacin) and Folate (the Anionic form are forms of the water-soluble Vitamin B9 Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble Prohormones, the two major forms of which are vitamin D2 (or Ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (or See also Tocopherol, Tocotrienol Vitamin E is the collective name for a set of 8 related Tocopherols and Tocotrienols which are fat-soluble [5][6] The bioavailability of vitamin B12 in Spirulina is in dispute. In Pharmacology, bioavailability is used to describe the fraction of an administered Dose of unchanged drug that reaches the Systemic circulation, one of Several biological assays have been used to test for the presence of vitamin B12. [7] The most popular is the US Pharmacopeia method using the Lactobacillus leichmannii assay. Studies using this method have shown Spirulina to be a minimal source of bioavailable vitamin B12. [8] However, this assay does not differentiate between true B12 (cobalamin) and similar compounds (corrinoids) that cannot be used in human metabolism. Cyanotech, a grower of spirulina, claims to have done a more recent assay, which has shown Spirulina to be a significant source of cobalamin. However the assay is not published for scientific review and so the existence of this assay is in doubt. [9] The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada in their position paper on vegetarian diets state that spirulina can not be counted on as a reliable source of active vitamin B12. The American Dietetic Association ( ADA) is the United States ' largest organization of Food and Nutrition professionals with nearly 67000 members Dietitians of Canada is the Professional organization of Dietitians in Canada. Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes Meat (including game and slaughter by-products Fish (including Shellfish and other sea [10]

Minerals

Spirulina is a rich source of potassium, and also contains calcium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium, sodium, and zinc. Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 Chromium (ˈkroʊmiəm is a Chemical element which has the symbol Cr and Atomic number 24 Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Magnesium (mægˈniːziəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Mg, Atomic number 12 Atomic weight 24 Manganese (ˈmæŋgəniːz is a Chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Selenium (səˈliniəm is a Chemical element with the Atomic number 34 represented by the chemical symbol Se, an atomic mass of 78 Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 [5][6]

Photosynthetic pigments

Spirulina contains many pigments including chlorophyll-a, xanthophyll, beta-carotene, echinenone, myxoxanthophyll, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, diatoxanthin, 3'-hydroxyechinenone, beta-cryptoxanthin, oscillaxanthin, plus the phycobiliproteins c-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin. Chlorophyll is a green Pigment found in most Plants Algae and Cyanobacteria. Xanthophylls (originally phylloxanthins) are yellow Pigments from the Carotenoid group Beta-carotene is an Organic compound - a Terpenoid, a red-orange pigment abundant in plants and fruits Zeaxanthin is one of the two Carotenoids contained within the Retina of the Eye. Canthaxanthin is a Carotenoid pigment widely distributed in nature Phycobiliproteins are water-soluble Proteins present in Cyanobacteria and certain algae ( Rhodophytes cryptomonads, Glaucocystophytes Phycocyanin is a Pigment from the light-harvesting Phycobiliprotein family along with Allophycocyanin and Phycoerythrin. Allophycocyanin (from Greek: (allos meaning "other" (phykos meaning “alga” and (kyanos meaning "blue" is a [1]

Evidence of health and healing effects

Despite existing research supporting Spirulina's health and healing properties, detractors claim that these are frequently overstated by Spirulina advocates. Conversely, Spirulina advocates have accused health food detractors of dismissing all such claims without acknowledging this research. Two online publications exemplify these opposing positions, respectively: Wellness Letter on Blue Green Algae, and Superfoods For Optimum Health: Chlorella and Spirulina. Many positive claims are based on research done on individual nutrients that Spirulina contains, such as GLA, various antioxidants, etc. An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules , rather than on direct research using Spirulina. What follows is research on the health and healing effects of Spirulina. In vitro research (e. In vitro ( Latin: within the glass refers to the technique of performing a given experiment in a controlled environment outside of a living Organism g. , studying cells in a petri dish) may suggest the possibility of similar results in humans but, due to the drastically different conditions of the research, provides only hints at the potential for human effects. Animal research can also provide evidence of potential human effects. Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. Human research focuses on actual effects in humans - however, the validity and reliability of the research depends on the design of the study. Human subject research (HSR or human subject use (HSU involves the use of human beings as research subjects In Psychology, validity has two distinct fields of application In Statistics, reliability is the consistency of a set of measurements or measuring instrument often used to describe a test. A study design is an analytic approach to conduct an Epidemiological investigation such as a Clinical trial. The strongest evidence comes from well designed and controlled clinical trials, which are one type of human research study. In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices Human subject research (HSR or human subject use (HSU involves the use of human beings as research subjects

In vitro research

Spirulina extract inhibits HIV replication in human T-cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and Langerhans cells. Human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV) is a Lentivirus (a member of the Retrovirus family that can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome T cells belong to a group of White blood cells known as Lymphocytes, and play a central role in Cell-mediated immunity. A Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell (PBMC is a Blood cell having a round nucleus such as a Lymphocyte or a Monocyte. Not to be confused with the Beta cells making up the Islets of Langerhans. [11]

Animal research

Spirulina helps prevent heart damage caused by chemotherapy using Doxorubicin, without interfering with its anti-tumor activity. Cardiotoxicity is the occurrence of heart muscle damage The heart becomes weaker and is not as efficient in pumping and therefore circulating blood Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. Doxorubicin ( INN,; trade name Adriamycin; also known as hydroxydaunorubicin) is a drug used in cancer Chemotherapy. [12] Spirulina reduces the severity of strokes and improves recovery of movement after a stroke;[13] reverses age-related declines in memory and learning;[14] and prevents and treats hay fever. One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of Memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Hay Fever is a comic play written by Noel Coward in 1924 and first produced in 1925 with Marie Tempest as the first Judith Bliss [15]

Human Research

Spirulina is effective for the clinical improvement of melanosis and keratosis due to chronic arsenic poisoning;[16] improves weight-gain and corrects anemia in both HIV-infected and HIV-negative undernourished children;[17] and protects against hay fever. Melanism μέλας is an increased amount of black or nearly black Pigmentation (as of Skin, Feathers or Hair) of an organism resulting from Keratosis is a growth of Keratin on the skin More specifically it can refer to Actinic keratosis (also known as Solar keratosis) Arsenic Poisoning kills by Allosteric inhibition of essential metabolic Enzymes, leading to death from multi-system Anemia ( AmE) or anæmia/anaemia ( BrE) (from the Ancient Greek grc-Latn anaîmia, meaning “without blood” is defined as a qualitative Malnutrition is a general term for a medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient diet. [18]

A 2007 study [19] found that 36 volunteers taking 4. 5 grams of spirulina per day, over a six week period, exhibited significant changes in cholesterol and blood pressure: (1) lowered total cholesterol; (2) increased HDL cholesterol; (3) lowered triglycerides; and (4) lowered systolic and diastolic blood pressure. However, as this study did not contain a control group, we can not be confident that the changes observed are due totally - or even partially - to the effects of the Spirulina Maxima as opposed to other confounding variables (i. In statistics a confounding variable (also confounding factor, lurking variable, a confound, or confounder) is an Extraneous variable e. , history effects, maturation effects, demand characteristics). Internal validity is the validity of (causal inferences in scientific studies usually based on experiments as experimental validity. In research and particularly Psychology, demand characteristics refers to an experimental artifact where participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and

Advocates

An organization called the Intergovernmental Institution for the Use of Micro-algae Foods Spirulina Against Malnutrition. [20] aspires to build a consensus to make Spirulina a key driver to achieve food security and improve human health conditions throughout the world.

Spirulina has been proposed by both NASA (CELSS)[21] and the European Space Agency (MELISSA)[22] as one of the primary foods to be cultivated during long-term space missions. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program Controlled (or Closed) Ecological Life Support Systems (acronym CELSS) are a type of scientific endeavor to create a self-supporting Life support The European Space Agency ( ESA) established in 1975 is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space, currently with 17 member Melissa is a Given name for a Female. It has a Greek origin meaning Honey bee.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Vonshak, A. (ed. ). Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.
  2. ^ Diaz Del Castillo, B. The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico, 1517-1521. London: Routledge, 1928, p. 300.
  3. ^ Abdulqader, G. , Barsanti, L. , Tredici, M. "Harvest of Arthrospira platensis from Lake Kossorom (Chad) and its household usage among the Kanembu. " Journal of Applied Phychology. 12: 493-498. 2000.
  4. ^ Ciferri, O. "Spirulina, the Edible Microorganism. " Microbiological Reviews. 47, 4, Dec. 1983.
  5. ^ a b c d Babadzhanov, A. S. , et al. "Chemical Composition of Spirulina Platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan. " Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 40, 3, 2004.
  6. ^ a b c Tokusoglu, O. , Unal, M. K. "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana. " Journal of Food Science. 68, 4, 2003.
  7. ^ Variations in the Growth Response of Four Different Vitamin B12 Assay Microorganisms to the Same Tissue and Standard Preparations. Elizabeth A. Cook and Lillian N. Ellis. Appl Microbiol. 1968 December; 16(12): 1831–1840.
  8. ^ Watanabe, F. et al. "Characterization and bioavailability of vitamin B12-compounds from edible algae. " Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology, Oct. 2002, 48 (5):325-331.
  9. ^ Spirulina Pacifica as a Source of Cobalamin Vitamin B-12. Jan. 1999.
  10. ^ Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets
  11. ^ Ayehunie, S. et al. "Inhibition of HIV-1 Replication by an Aqueous Extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis). " JAIDS: Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes & Human Retrovirology. 18, 1, May 1998: 7-12.
  12. ^ Khan, M. , et al. "Protective effect of Spirulina against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. " Phytotherapy Research. 2005 Dec;19(12):1030-7.
  13. ^ Wang, Y. , et al. "Dietary supplementation with blueberries, spinach, or spirulina reduces ischemic brain damage. " Experimental Neurology. May, 2005 ;193(1):75-84.
  14. ^ Gemma, C. , et al. "Diets enriched in foods with high antioxidant activity reverse age-induced decreases in cerebellar beta-adrenergic function and increases in proinflammatory cytokines. " Experimental Neurology. July 15, 2002; 22(14):6114-20.
  15. ^ Chen, LL, et al. "Experimental study of spirulina platensis in treating allergic rhinitis in rats. " 中南大学学报(医学版) = Journal of Central South University (Medical Sciences). Feb. 2005. 30(1):96-8.
  16. ^ Mir Misbahuddin, AZM Maidul Islam, Salamat Khandker, Ifthaker-Al-Mahmud, Nazrul Islam and Anjumanara. Efficacy of spirulina extract plus zinc in patients of chronic arsenic poisoning: a randomized placebo-controlled study. (Risk factors ). Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 44. 2 (March 2006): p135(7).
  17. ^ Simpore, J. , et al. "Nutrition Rehabilitation of HIV-Infected and HIV-Negative Undernourished Children Utilizing Spirulina. " Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 49, 2005: 373-380.
  18. ^ Mao, TK, et al. "Effects of a Spirulina-based dietary supplement on cytokine production from allergic rhinitis patients. " Journal of Medicinal Food. Spring 2005;8(1):27-30.
  19. ^ Torres-Duran, Ferreira-Hermosillo, & Juarez-Oropeza. (2007). Antihyperlipemic and antihypertensive effects of Spirulina maxima in an open sample of mexican population: A preliminary report. Lipids in Health and Disease. 6, 33
  20. ^ IIMSAM, Permanent Observer Mission to the United Nations
  21. ^ Characterization of Spirulina biomass for CELSS diet potential. Normal, Al. : Alabama A&M University, 1988.
  22. ^ Cornet J. F. , Dubertret G. "The cyanobacterium Spirulina in the photosynthetic compartment of the MELISSA artificial ecosystem. " Workshop on artificial ecological systems, DARA-CNES, Marseille, France, October 24-26, 1990

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