Σπάρτα Sparta ← 11th century BC – 371 BC →   →   → Territory of ancient Sparta Capital Sparta Language(s) Doric Greek Religion Polytheism Government Monarchy Historical era Classical Antiquity  - Dorian invasion 11th century BC  - Peloponnesian League 546-371 BC  - Peace of Callias 371 BC

The city of Sparta (Doric Σπάρτα; Attic Σπάρτη Spartē) lay at the southern end of the central Laconian plain, on the right bank of the Eurotas River. The Dark Ages (ca 1150 BC–800 BC refers to Greek history from the presumed Dorian invasion and end of the Mycenaean civilization in the 11th century Thebes may refer to one of the following places Thebes Greece, Boeotia Prefecture Ancient Thebes (Boeotia (gmy 𐀳𐀣 The Achaean League (Ἀχαϊκὴ Συμμαχία or (Ἀχαϊκὴ Συμπολιτεία was a Confederation of Greek city states in Achaea The Antigonid dynasty was a dynasty of Macedonian Hellenistic kings descended from Alexander the Great's general Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-eyed" Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national Capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist the capital was moved or the capital For the modern Doric dialect of Scotland see Doric dialect (Scotland Doric was a dialect of ancient Greek. A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Greek religion encompasses the collection of beliefs and rituals practiced in Ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean The Dorian invasion is a concept devised by historians of Ancient Greece to explain the replacement of pre-classical dialects and traditions in southern Greece by The Peloponnesian League was an alliance of states in the Peloponnese in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. The Peace of Callias is a purported treaty established around 449 BC between the Delian League (led by Athens) and Persia, ending the Persian For the modern Doric dialect of Scotland see Doric dialect (Scotland Doric was a dialect of ancient Greek. Attic Greek is the Prestige dialect of Ancient Greece that was spoken in Attica, which includes Athens. The Eurotas or Evrotas (Greek Ευρώτας is a river in the Peloponnese in southern Greece. It was a strategic site, guarded on three sides by mountains and controlling the routes by which invading armies could penetrate Laconia and the southern Peloponnesus via the Langhda Pass over Mt Taygetus. Geographical features Kouakiou river Rintomo gorge * Viros gorge Places on the Taygetus At the same time, its distance from the sea – Sparta was 27 miles from its seaport, Gythium – made it difficult to blockade. Gytheio ( Greek, Modern Γύθειο Ancient/ Katharevousa: Γύθειον (Meaning Land of the Gods also Gythio, Githeio, Githio

Contents 1 History 1.1 Antiquity 1.2 Rise and decline 1.3 Constitution 1.4 State organization 1.5 Foreign policy 2 The Spartan world 3 Society 3.1 Military life 3.2 Role of women 3.3 Culture 3.4 Criticism 4 Archaeology 5 Eugenics 6 Famous Spartans 7 See also 8 References 9 Notes and further reading 10 External links

History

Antiquity

Main article: History of Sparta

The recorded history of Sparta began with the Dorian invasions, when the Peloponnesus was settled by Doric Greek tribes coming from Epirus and Macedonia through the northeast region of Greece, submitting or displacing the older Achaean Greek inhabitants. This article covers the history of Sparta from its founding to the present concentrating primarily on the Spartan state during the height of its power from the 6th The Dorian invasion is a concept devised by historians of Ancient Greece to explain the replacement of pre-classical dialects and traditions in southern Greece by The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus ( Greek: Πελοπόννησος Pelopónnisos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large Peninsula The Dorians or Dorian Greeks ( Greek:, Dōrieis singular, Dōrieus were Epirus (from Ionic Greek Ήπειρος - Ēpeiros, Doric Greek: Ἅπειρος - Apeiros, in Albanian Macedonia ( Μακεδονία, Makedonía,) is a geographical and historical region of Greece in southeastern Europe ^[1] The Mycenaean Sparta of Menelaus described in Homer's Iliad was an older Greek civilization, whose link to post-Mycenaean Sparta was only by name and location. In Greek mythology, Menelaus ( Ancient Greek:) was a king of Ancient Sparta, the husband of Helen, and a central figure in the The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient ^[1] What is widely known today as ancient Sparta refers to state and culture that were formed in Sparta by the Dorian Greeks, some eighty years after the Trojan War. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her ^[2] It did not take long for Sparta to subdue all cities in the region of Laconia and turn it into its kingdom. For the Laconian dialect see Doric Greek For the Ancient Kingdom see Sparta For the laconic expression see Laconic In the 7th century BC it also incorporated Messenia. Messenia or Messinia (Μεσσηνία is a prefecture in the Peloponnese, a region of Greece. In the 5th century BC, Sparta and Athens were reluctant allies against the Persians, but after the foreign threat was over, they soon became rivals. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The greatest series of conflicts between the two states, which resulted in the dismantling of the Athenian Empire, is called the Peloponnesian War. The city-state Athens' attempts to control Greece and take over the Spartan role of 'guardian of Hellenism' ended in failure. Following the defeat of Athens, Sparta briefly became a great naval power. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's The first ever defeat of a Spartan hoplite army at full strength occurred at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC, after which Sparta's position as the dominant Greek city-state swiftly disappeared with the loss of large numbers of Spartiates and the resources of Messenia. The word hoplite ( Greek: hoplitēs; pl hoplitai) derives from hoplon ( plural hopla) meaning an item of armour or equipment thus 'hoplite' The Battle of Leuctra (or Leuktra was a battle fought between the Thebans and the Spartans and their respective allies amidst the post- Corinthian War conflict Events By place Greece A fresh peace congress is summoned at Sparta. By the time of the rise of Alexander the Great in 336 BC, Sparta was a shadow of its former self, clinging to an isolated independence. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Events By place Persian Empire The young king of Persia, Arses, objects to being controlled by Bagoas and attempts During the Punic Wars Sparta was an ally of the Roman Republic. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Spartan political independence was put to an end when it was eventually forced into the Achaean League. The Achaean League (Ἀχαϊκὴ Συμμαχία or (Ἀχαϊκὴ Συμπολιτεία was a Confederation of Greek city states in Achaea

During the Roman conquest of Greece, Spartans continued their way of life and the city became a tourist attraction for the Roman elite who came to observe the "unusual" Spartan customs. Supposedly, following the disaster that befell the Roman Imperial Army at the Battle of Adrianople (AD 378), a Spartan phalanx met and defeated a force of raiding Visigoths in battle. The second Battle of Adrianople ( August 9 378) sometimes known as the Battle of Hadrianopolis, was fought between a Roman army led by the Events By Place Roman Empire Mid- February - The Lentienses cross the frozen Rhine invading the Roman Empire. The phalanx (Ancient Greek φάλαγξ Modern Greek φάλαγγα phālanga (plural phalanxes or phalanges (Ancient and Modern Greek φάλαγγες The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East There is, however, no genuine evidence of this occurring.

Modern Sparti owes its existence to an 1834 decree of King Otto of Greece. Sparti (el Σπάρτη is a municipality of Laconia, Greece. Otto of Greece (Όθων Βασιλεύς της Ελλάδος Othon Vasileus tis Ellados) (1 June 1815 – 26 July 1867 was made the first modern king of Greece

Rise and decline

In the Second Messenian War, Sparta established itself as a local power in Peloponnesus and the rest of Greece. During the following centuries, Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequaled. ^[3] In 480 BC a small force of Spartans, Thespians, and Thebans led by King Leonidas (approximately 300 were full Spartiates, 700 were Thespians, and 400 were Thebans; these numbers do not reflect casualties incurred prior to the final battle) ,^[4] made a legendary last stand at the Battle of Thermopylae against the massive Persian army, inflicting a very high casualty rate on the Persian forces before finally being encircled. Leonidas ( Greek:; "Lion's son" "Lion-like" was a king of Sparta, the 17th of the Agiad line one of the sons Last stand is a loose Military term used to describe a body of Troops holding a defensive position in the face of overwhelming odds In the Battle of Thermopylae, which occurred in August 480 BC (and was detailed almost entirely by Herodotus) an alliance of Greek City-states fought The superior weaponry, strategy, and bronze armor of the Greek hoplites and their phalanx again proved their worth one year later when Sparta assembled at full strength, and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at Plataea. Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus The Battle of Plataea was the final major Battle of the Greco-Persian Wars in southern Greece. The decisive Greek victory at Plataea put an end to the Greco-Persian War along with Persian ambition of expanding into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Greek army, credit was given to Sparta, who besides being the protagonist at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the de facto leader of the entire Greek expedition. ^[5]

In later Classical times, Sparta along with Athens, Thebes and Persia had been the main powers fighting for supremacy against each other. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Thebes ( Classic Greek Θῆβαι, Mod Θήβα) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range which divides The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia As a result of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditionally continental culture, became a naval power. At the peak of its power Sparta subdued many of the key Greek states and even managed to overpower the powerful Athenian navy. By the end of the 5th century BC it stood out as a state which had defeated at war the Athenian Empire and had invaded Persia, a period which marks the Spartan Hegemony. The Delian League was an association of approximately 150 5th-century BC Greek City-states under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to continue The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The period of Spartan hegemony is a moment in classical Greek history that extends from the end of the Peloponnesian War in 404 BC to the Battle During the Corinthian War Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos. The Corinthian War was an ancient Greek conflict lasting from 395 BC until 387 BC pitting Sparta against a coalition of four allied states Thebes Thebes ( Classic Greek Θῆβαι, Mod Θήβα) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range which divides Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Corinth, or Korinth ( Greek Κόρινθος ( is a city in Greece. Argos ( Greek: Ἄργος, Árgos ˈaɾɣos is a city in Greece in the Peloponnese near Nafplio, which was its historic harbor The alliance was initially backed by Persia, whose lands in Anatolia had been invaded by Sparta and which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black ^[6] Sparta achieved a series of land victories but many of her ships were destroyed at Cnidus by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The Battle of Cnidus ( 394 BC) was a joint Athenian and Persian operation against the Spartan naval fleet in the Corinthian War. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until Conon the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a helot revolt. Conon ( Greek: Κόνων) was an Athenian general at the end of the Peloponnesian War, in charge during the decisive loss of the navy at the The helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were an unfree population group that formed the ^[7] After a few more years of fighting, the "King's peace" was established, according to which all Greek cities of Ionia would remain independent, and Persia's Asian border would be free of the Spartan threat. Geography Physical Ionia was of small extent not exceeding 90 geographical miles in length from north to south with a breadth varying from 40 to 55 miles but to this ^[7] Sparta entered its long-term decline after a severe military defeat to Epaminondas of Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra. Epaminondas ( Greek:) (ca 418 BC&ndash362 BC was a Theban General and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek The Battle of Leuctra (or Leuktra was a battle fought between the Thebans and the Spartans and their respective allies amidst the post- Corinthian War conflict This was the first attested time that a Spartan army would lose a land battle at full strength. As Spartan citizenship was inherited by blood, Sparta started facing the problem of having a helot population vastly outnumbering its citizens. The alarming decline of Spartan citizens was commented on by Aristotle. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Yet even during her decline, Sparta never forgot its claims on being the "defender of Hellenism" and its Laconic wit. A " laconic phrase " is a very concise or terse statement named after Laconia (a An anecdote has it that when Philip II sent a message to Sparta saying "If I enter Laconia I will level Sparta to the ground", the Spartans responded with the single, terse reply: "If". Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse ^[8]

Even when Philip of Macedon created the league of the Greeks on the pretext of unifying Greece against Persia, Spartans were excluded of their own will. Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most The League of Corinth, also sometimes referred to as Hellenic League (original name Hellenes - 'The Greeks' was a federation of Greek states created by Philip Philip, who was well aware of Spartan stubbornness, chose not to put his hegemony at risk by attempting to take Laconia by force. The Spartans, for their part, had no interest in joining a pan-Greek expedition if it didn't mean Spartan leadership. According to Herodotus the Macedonians were a people of Dorian stock, akin to the Spartans, but that didn't make any difference. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash The Dorians or Dorian Greeks ( Greek:, Dōrieis singular, Dōrieus were Thus, upon the conquest of Persia, Alexander the Great sent to Athens 300 suits of Persian armour with the following inscription "Alexander son of Philip, and the Greeks - except the Spartans - from the barbarians living in Asia". Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' ^[9]

Constitution

Little is known of the internal development of Sparta. Many Greeks believed there had been none, and that "the stability of the Spartan constitution" had lasted unchanged from the days of Lycurgus. Lycurgus ( Greek:, Lukoûrgos; 700 BC?&ndash630 BC was the legendary lawgiver of Sparta, who established the military-oriented reformation of Because most Spartan laws were passed down orally and committed to memory, little is known about Spartan society. Spartan society was considered primitive by ancient Greek standards. Settlements were scattered and mirrored the dwellings used during Greece's 'Dark Age' (1150–700 BC) which means that they were mostly thatched houses. Stone construction was reserved for public works such as temples, government halls, and gymnasiums. What we do know of Spartan society comes from historians of that time. Sparta's constitutional system was mixed: it was composed of elements of monarchical, oligarchical, and democratic systems.

The Spartans had no historical records, literature, or written laws, which were, according to tradition, expressly prohibited by an ordinance of Lycurgus (excluding, of course, the 'Great Rhetra,' supposedly given by Lycurgus himself). History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society The word tradition comes from the Latin traditionem acc of traditio which means "a giving up delivering up surrendering" and is used in a number of The Doric state of Sparta, copying the Doric Cretans, developed a mixed governmental state. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Mixed government, also known as a mixed constitution, is a form of government that integrated facets of government by Democracy, Oligarchy, and Monarchy The state was ruled by two hereditary kings of the Agiad and Eurypontids families, both descendants of Heracles and equal in authority, so that one could not act against the veto of his colleague, though the Agiad king received greater honour in virtue of the seniority of his family for being the oldest in existence (Herod. A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations Family denotes a group of People affiliated by consanguinity affinity or co-residence In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or A veto, Latin for "I forbid" is used to Denote that a certain party has the right to stop unilaterally a certain piece of Legislation. vi. 5). The origins of the powers exercised by the assembly of the citizens, or apella, are virtually unknown, due to the paucity of historical documentation and Spartan state secrecy.

There are several legendary explanations for this unusual dual kingship, which differ only slightly; for example, that King Aristodemus had twin sons, who agreed to share the kingship, and this became perpetual. A legend ( Latin, legenda, "things to be read" is a Narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to In Greek mythology, Aristodemus was a son of Aristomachus and brother of Cresphontes and Temenus. Twins are Offspring resulting from the same Pregnancy, either of the same or opposite Sex. Modern scholars have advanced various theories to account for the anomaly. Scholarly method &mdash or as it is more commonly called scholarship &mdash is the body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Some theorize that this system was created in order to prevent absolutism, and is paralleled by the analogous instance of the dual consuls at Rome. Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Others believe that it points to a compromise arrived at to end the struggle between two families or communities. In biological terms a community is a group of interacting Organisms sharing an environment. Other theories suggest that this was an arrangement that was met when a community of villages combined to form the city of Sparta. Subsequently the two chiefs from the largest villages became kings. Another theory suggests that the two royal houses represent respectively the Spartan conquerors and their Achaean predecessors: those who hold this last view appeal to the words attributed by Herodotus (v. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash 72) to Cleomenes I: "I am no Dorian, but an Achaean;" although this is usually explained by the (equally legendary) descent of Aristodemus from Heracles. Cleomenes (kliːˈɑməniːz Greek Κλεομένης (d c 489 BC was an Agiad King of Sparta in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or Either way, kingship in Sparta was hereditary and thus every king Sparta had was a descendant of the Agiad or Eurypontids family. Accession was given to the male child who was first born after a king's accession.

The duties of the kings were primarily religious, judicial, and militaristic. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or They were the chief priests of the state, and performed certain sacrifices and also maintained communication with the Delphian sanctuary, which always exercised great authority in Spartan politics. A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions In the time of Herodotus (about 450 BC), their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses, adoptions and the public roads. Events By place Greece Athenian General Cimon sails to Cyprus with two hundred Triremes of the "Heir" and "Heiress" redirect here For the men and women fragrances endorsed by Paris Hilton see Heiress (fragrance. Adoption is the act of legally placing a child with a Parent or parents other than those to whom they were born Civil cases were decided by the ephors, and criminal jurisdiction had been passed to the ephors, as well as to a council of elders. An ephor ( Classical Greek) (from the Greek, epi, "on" or "over" and, horaō, "to see" i The term criminal law, sometimes called penal law, refers to any of various bodies of rules in different Jurisdictions whose common characteristic is the potential An ephor ( Classical Greek) (from the Greek, epi, "on" or "over" and, horaō, "to see" i The term Elder (or its equivalent in another language is used in several different countries and organizations to indicate a position of authority By 500 BC the Spartans had become increasingly involved in the political affairs of the surrounding city-states, often putting their weight behind pro-Spartan candidates. Shortly before 500 BC, as described by Herodotus, such an action fueled a confrontation between Sparta and Athens, when the two kings, Demeratus and Cleomenes, took their troops to Athens. However, just before the heat of battle, King Demeratus changed his mind about attacking the Athenians and abandoned his co-king. For this reason, Demeratus was banished, and eventually found himself at the side of Persian King Xerxes for his invasion of Greece twenty years later (480 BC), after which the Spartans enacted a law demanding that one king remain behind in Sparta while the other commanded the troops in battle. Xerxes I of Persia was a King of Persia (reigned 485–465 BC of the Achaemenid dynasty.

Aristotle describes the kingship at Sparta as "a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship" (Pol. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. iii. I285a), while Isocrates refers to the Spartans as "subject to an oligarchy at home, to a kingship on campaign" (iii. Isocrates ( Greek: Ἰσοκράτης 436–338 BC an Ancient Greek rhetorician, was one of the ten Attic orators. Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment 24). Here also, however, the royal prerogatives were curtailed over time. Dating from the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to declare war, and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. A declaration of war is a formal performative Speech act or signing of a document by an authorised party of a government in order to initate a state of War He was supplanted also by the ephors in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figure-heads except in their capacity as generals. Real power was transferred to the ephors and to the gerousia. The Gerousia was the Spartan Senate (council of elders It was created by the Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus in the seventh century BC in his Great Causes for this change lay partly in the fact that the ephors, chosen by popular election from the whole body of citizens, represented a democratic element in the constitution without violating those oligarchical methods which seemed necessary for the state's administration. An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity They also lay partly in the weakness of the kingship, the dual character of which inevitably gave rise to jealousy and discord between the two holders of the office, often resulting in a practical deadlock. Another cause lay in the loss of prestige suffered by the kingship, especially during the 5th century, owing to these aforementioned quarrels, to the frequency with which kings ascended the throne as minors making the creation of regencies necessary. This article is about royal thrones for the order of Angels by the same name see Thrones. The dual kingship's prestige also suffered because the kings were, rightly or wrongly, suspected of having taken bribes from the enemies of the state at one time or another. Bribery, a form of pecuniary corruption is an act usually implying money or gift given that alters the behaviour of the recipient in ways not consistent with the duties of that person

State organization

After the ephors were introduced, they, together with the two kings, were the executive branch of the state. ^[10] Ephors themselves had more power than anyone in Sparta, although the fact that they only stayed in power for a single year reduced their ability to conflict with already established powers in the state. Since reelection was not possible, an ephor who abused his power, or confronted an established power center, would have to suffer retaliation.

The difference with today's states is that Sparta had a special policy maker, the gerousia, a council consisting of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings. The Gerousia was the Spartan Senate (council of elders It was created by the Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus in the seventh century BC in his Great High state policy decisions were discussed by this council who could then propose action alternatives to the Damos, the collective body of Spartan citizenry, who would select one of the alternatives by voting. The Great Rhetra was one of the two greatest bodies of classical Greek Direct democracy, the other being the Athenian assembly.

Not all inhabitants of the Spartan state were considered to be citizens (part of Demos). Only the ones that had followed the military training, called the agoge, were eligible. The agoge (Άγωγή was a rigorous education and training regime for all Spartan citizens except the sons in the ruling houses However, usually the only people eligible to receive the agoge were Spartiates, or people who could trace their ancestry to the original inhabitants of the city although there were two exceptions. The agoge (Άγωγή was a rigorous education and training regime for all Spartan citizens except the sons in the ruling houses Spartiates were the males of Sparta with full citizenship They were the elite warrior class of the rigidly hierarchical Spartan society Trophimoi or "foster sons" were foreign students invited to study. The Trophimoi ( Greek: τρόφιμοι students or pupils from τροφός trophós food) were children of non-Spartiatae Xenophon sent his two sons to Sparta for their education as trophimoi. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca The other exception was that sons of helots could be enrolled as syntrophoi if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way. If a syntrophos did exceptionally well in training he might be sponsored to become a Spartiate himself.

Others in the state were the perioeci, who can be described as civilians, and helots who were the state owned serfs that made up 90 percent of the population. The perioeci, or perioikoi, were the members of an autonomous group of free but non-citizen inhabitants of Sparta. Because descendants of non-Spartan citizens were not able to follow the agoge, and Spartans could lose their citizenship if they couldn't afford to pay the expenses of the agoge, the actual number of the Spartan citizens was constantly reduced, known as oliganthropia.

Foreign policy

Sparta, by the 4th century BC, was the most powerful nation in all of Greece. Unlike many of the Greek city-states it had only one colony, Taras, and most of its power came from alliances with other regions. Not to be confused with Toronto. Taranto ( Ancient Greek: Tarās; Modern Greek: Tarantas) is a coastal city in Sparta was not an empire: no tribute was paid except in times of war. What Sparta essentially formed was a league, and they chose their allies strategically. For example, Sparta favoured Corinth because of its naval fleet, and indeed Corinth sat on the ithsmus between Attica and the Pelopennese, an important strategical position, seeing as any Infantry invasion would have to go through Corinth. Corinth, or Korinth ( Greek Κόρινθος ( is a city in Greece. Corinth, or Korinth ( Greek Κόρινθος ( is a city in Greece. The allies would vow to have the same friends and enemies, follow Sparta wherever they led, and not go to war unless all the allies were in consensus. The league's governmental structure was an oligarchy run by aristocrats; it met in Corinth and was led by Sparta. Corinth, or Korinth ( Greek Κόρινθος ( is a city in Greece. The Congress, as it was called, consisted of representatives from each of the allied city states who each held one vote.

The Spartan world

Around the middle of the 6th century BC, the southern Peloponnese was Spartan territory. The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. The territory was divided into two parts, Laconia and Messenia, which were separated by the Taygetos mountain range. Geographical features Kouakiou river Rintomo gorge * Viros gorge Places on the Taygetus Unlike other Greek cities, Sparta controlled much arable land. In Geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to Plough) is an agricultural term meaning land that can be used for Earliest archeological evidence testifying settlement in Sparta dates from around 950 BC.

Classical sources tell us that Sparta was founded in the 10th century BC. It consisted of the four villages of Pitane, Mesoa, Limnai and Konooura, which were later united under one government.

Around 750 BC, Sparta began expanding slowly but steadily. The subjugated population of Laconia either became helots or perioeci. The helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were an unfree population group that formed the The perioeci, or perioikoi, were the members of an autonomous group of free but non-citizen inhabitants of Sparta. The helots kept their farmland but were required to deliver half of their output to the Spartan state, while the perioeci were inhabitants of cities that remained autonomous, save in matters of foreign affairs and military actions. The perioeci formed a vital part of Spartan society. As Spartans were forbidden non-military pursuits and occupations, the perioeci worked as traders, craftsmen, and artists. From 650 to 620 BC, Sparta brought Messenia under its control. Messenia or Messinia (Μεσσηνία is a prefecture in the Peloponnese, a region of Greece. In the first third of the 6th century Sparta was defeated by the city of Argos, and later by Tegea. The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. Argos ( Greek: Ἄργος, Árgos ˈaɾɣos is a city in Greece in the Peloponnese near Nafplio, which was its historic harbor Tegea was a settlement in ancient Greece and it is also a municipality in modern Arcadia, Greece, with its seat in the village Stadio. It was against the backdrop of the Messenian war and the following defeats that the unique Spartan way of life developed, which made Sparta famous in Ancient Greece. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca

From 550 BC onwards, the goals of the Spartan cosmos – toughness of body and mind as well as military efficiency – seem to have been achieved. Sparta did not suffer under the rule of any tyrant or dictator, and its phalanxes were considered undefeatable. The term "Spartan" still remains synonymous for anyone rigorously self-disciplined or courageous in the face of pain, danger, or adversity. According to Byzantine sources, some parts of the Laconian region remained pagan until well into the 10th century AD, and Doric-speaking populations survive until today. Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world For the modern Doric dialect of Scotland see Doric dialect (Scotland Doric was a dialect of ancient Greek.

Society

Sparta was, above all, a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth. Shortly after birth, the mother of the child bathed it in wine to see whether the child was strong. If the child survived it was brought before the elders of the tribe by the child's father. The elders then decided whether it was to be reared or not. If found defective or weak, the baby was left on the wild slopes of Mount Taygetos - also known as Apothetae, or as the Place of Rejection - to die; but it was also common for these rejected children to be adopted by the helots. Geographical features Kouakiou river Rintomo gorge * Viros gorge Places on the Taygetus The helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were an unfree population group that formed the In this way the Spartans attempted the maintenance of high physical standards in their population. From the earliest days of the Spartan citizen, the claim on his life by the state was absolute and strictly enforced.

It was customary in Sparta that before the males would go off to war, their wives or another female of some significance would present them with their shield and say: "With this, or upon this" (Ancient Greek: Ή τάν ή Επί τᾶς)—meaning Spartans could only return to Sparta in one of two ways: victorious or dead. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c If a Spartan hoplite were to return to Sparta alive and without his shield, it was assumed that he threw his shield at the enemy in an effort to flee; an act punishable by death or banishment. The word hoplite ( Greek: hoplitēs; pl hoplitai) derives from hoplon ( plural hopla) meaning an item of armour or equipment thus 'hoplite' It is interesting to note that a soldier losing his helm, breastplate or greaves (leg armour) was not similarly punished, as these items were personal pieces of armour designed to protect one soldier. However, the shield not only protected the individual soldier but in the tightly packed Spartan phalanx was also instrumental in protecting the soldier to his left from harm. Thus the shield was symbolic of the individual soldier's subordination to his unit, his integral part in its success, and his solemn responsibility to his comrades in arms—messmates and friends, often close blood relations. It could not be lost.

Burials in Sparta were also considered an act of honor, and marked headstones would only be granted to Spartan soldiers who died in combat during a victorious campaign (or females who died in service of a divine office or in childbirth).

A strong emphasis was placed on honor and carrying out acts because it was the 'right thing to do. ' Xenophon wrote about the Spartans as he observed them during an Olympic game:

An elderly man was trying to find a place to sit and observe the Olympic Games, as he went to each section. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca All the other Greeks laughed as he tried to make his way through. Some ignored him. Upon entering the Spartan section all the Spartans stood and offered the elderly man their seats. Suddenly the entire stadium applauded. All the Greeks knew what was the right thing to do, but the Spartans were the only ones who did it.

Military life

Spartan citizen boys left home for military boarding school at the age of seven and were required to serve in the army until age of thirty. Leonidas ( Greek:; "Lion's son" "Lion-like" was a king of Sparta, the 17th of the Agiad line one of the sons ^[11] Then they passed into the active reserve, where they remained until the age of sixty. Spartan education from the ages of seven to thirty emphasized physical toughness, steadfastness in military ranks, and absolute obedience to orders. The ordinary Spartan was a citizen-warrior, or hoplite, trained to obey and endure; he became a politician only if chosen as ephor for a single year. The word hoplite ( Greek: hoplitēs; pl hoplitai) derives from hoplon ( plural hopla) meaning an item of armour or equipment thus 'hoplite' He could be elected a life member of the council after his sixtieth year, in which he would be free from military service. Men were encouraged to marry at the age of twenty but could not live with their families until they left their active military service at age thirty. ^[11] The Spartans perfected the craft of hoplite warfare. They called themselves "homoioi" (equals), pointing to their common lifestyle and the discipline of the phalanx, which demanded that no soldier be superior to his comrades. The phalanx (Ancient Greek φάλαγξ Modern Greek φάλαγγα phālanga (plural phalanxes or phalanges (Ancient and Modern Greek φάλαγγες ^[12]

When the Spartans began military training - aged seven - they would enter the agoge system for the education and training—everything from physical training such as hunting and dancing, to emotional, and spiritual training. The agoge (Άγωγή was a rigorous education and training regime for all Spartan citizens except the sons in the ruling houses At that age they would have to go through what was known as the gauntlet. They would have to run around a group of older children, who would flog them continually with whips, sometimes to death. As they were lightly clothed, and had no bedding to speak of, children would often put thistles in their pallet because the prickling sensation made them feel warmer. This article is about the plant for other uses see Thistle (disambiguation. On leaving the agoge they would be sorted into groups, whereupon some were sent into the countryside with nothing and forced to survive on their skills and cunning; this was called the krypteia, believed to be an initiation rite to seek out and kill helots who were considered to be troublesome to the state, or were found to be wandering the countryside with no good reason. Krypteia or crypteia in( Gr κρυπτεία / krupteía, from κρυπτός / kruptós, “hidden secret things” was a tradition involving The helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were an unfree population group that formed the

At the age of twenty, the Spartan citizen began his membership in one of the syssitia (dining messes or clubs), composed of about fifteen members each, of which every citizen was required to be a member. The syssitia (in Classical Greek / ta syssítia) was in Ancient Greece, a common meal for men and youths in social or religious groups especially in Here each group learned how to bond and rely on one another. The Spartan exercised the full rights and duties of a citizen at the age of thirty. Only native Spartans were considered full citizens, and needed to undergo the training as prescribed by law, and participation in and contribution to one of the dining-clubs. Those who fulfilled these conditions were considered "peers" (homoioi), citizens in the fullest sense of the word, while those who failed were called "lesser citizens," and retained only the civil rights of citizenship.

Spartan citizens were debarred by law from trade or manufacture, which consequently rested in the hands of the perioeci, and were forbidden (in theory) to possess either gold or silver. Marble is a nonfoliated Metamorphic rock resulting from the Metamorphism of Limestone, composed mostly of Calcite (a crystalline form of The word hoplite ( Greek: hoplitēs; pl hoplitai) derives from hoplon ( plural hopla) meaning an item of armour or equipment thus 'hoplite' The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. The perioeci, or perioikoi, were the members of an autonomous group of free but non-citizen inhabitants of Sparta. Spartan currency consisted of bars of iron, thus making thievery and foreign commerce very difficult and discouraging the accumulation of riches. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Wealth was, in theory at least, derived entirely from landed property, and consisted in the annual return made by the helots, who cultivated the plots of ground allotted to the Spartan citizens. But this attempt to equalize property proved a failure: from the earliest times, there were marked differences of wealth within the state, and these became even more serious after the law of Epitadeus, passed at some time after the Peloponnesian War, removed the legal prohibition of the gift or bequest of land. Epitadeus was an early 4th century BCE Spartan Ephor, who strengthened conservative class distinctions by allowing gifts of land to independent citizens (Spartiates Helots were ruthlessly controlled, partly through the custom of krypteia.

Full citizens, released from any economic activity, were given a piece of land (kleros), which was cultivated and run by the helots. As time went on, greater portions of land were concentrated in the hands of large landholders, but the number of full citizens declined. Citizens had numbered 10,000 at the beginning of the 5th century BC, but had decreased by Aristotle's day (384–322 BC) to less than 1,000, and had further decreased to 700 at the accession of Agis IV in 244 BC. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. For other uses of this name see Agis. Agis IV ( Gr, c 265 - 241 BC the elder son of Eudamidas II, was the 24th Events By place Greece Agis IV succeeds his father Eudamidas II as King of Sparta. Attempts were made to remedy this situation by creating new laws. Certain penalties were imposed upon those who remained unmarried or who married too late in life. These laws, however, came too late and were ineffective in reversing the trend.

Perhaps the most widely known event on the efficiency of the Spartan war-machine is related to the Persian Wars. The Spartan stand at the Battle of Thermopylae has been repeatedly cited in a military grand strategy context as a role model concerning the advantages of training, strategy and bravery against extremely overwhelming odds and is often referred to as the greatest last stand of a military force in documented history. In the Battle of Thermopylae, which occurred in August 480 BC (and was detailed almost entirely by Herodotus) an alliance of Greek City-states fought Grand strategy is military Strategy at the level of movement and use of an entire Nation state or Empire 's resources

Role of women

Spartan women enjoyed a status, power and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. They controlled their own properties, as well as the properties of male relatives who were away with the army. It is estimated that women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta. ^[13] The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women. Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit (an epikleros), the woman was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative. Epikleros (ἐπίκληρος (plural epikleroi) was the term used to describe an heiress in ancient Athens and in other ancient Greek city states ^[14] Spartan women received as much education as men, as well as a substantial amount of physical education and gymnastic training. They rarely married before the age of 20, and unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore short dresses and went where they pleased. It was possible for them to appear entirely nude even publicly, which they did customarily only at festivals, as did the men. ^[11][15]

Women, being more independent than in other Greek societies, were able to negotiate with their husbands to bring their lovers into their homes. According to Plutarch in his Life of Lycurgus, men both allowed and encouraged their wives to bear the children of other men, due to the general communal ethos which made it more important to bear many progeny for the good of the city, than to be jealously concerned with one's own family unit. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c However, some historians argue that this 'wife sharing' was only reserved for elder males who had not yet produced an heir. ^[16]

Culture

Until the age of seven, boys were educated at home and were taught to fight their fears as well as general superstition by their nurses, who were prized in Greece. Their official training was then undertaken by the state in the agoge system and supervised by the paidonomos, an official appointed for that purpose. This training consisted for the most part in physical exercises, such as dancing, gymnastics, and ball-games. The Dorians were the first to practice nudity in athletics, as well as oiling the body during exercise to enhance its beauty, a costly practice which broke with the customary frugality of the Spartans. ^[17] According to Plato this practice was introduced from Crete to Sparta, and then to the rest of Greece. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece The Dorian Cretans had most likely inherited it from Minoans. The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which arose on the island of Crete.

Between leaving the agoge and joining the syssitia a select few young men were arranged into groups, and were sent off into the countryside with nothing, and were expected to survive on wits and cunning. It was assumed that they would steal their food, yet anyone caught stealing was severely punished. Many speculate that this was to teach the young Spartans stealth and quickness. If you were caught, it was concluded that you were not quick enough or silent enough. This was called the crypteia, secret (ritual). Krypteia or crypteia in( Gr κρυπτεία / krupteía, from κρυπτός / kruptós, “hidden secret things” was a tradition involving This was very probably, in origin, an old initiation rite, a preparation for their later career as elite soldiers. A rite of passage is a Ritual that marks a change in a person's social or sexual status Other sources claim that the crypteia (or krypteia) was an "adolescent death squad" made up of the most promising young Spartans. Their job was to roam the countryside killing helots at night in order to instill fear in the slave population and prevent rebellion. The helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were an unfree population group that formed the

Spartan men were required to marry at age 20 after completing the crypteia. A Spartan wedding was not highly ritualized and consisted of the intended bride being abducted with simulated violence. After the wedding night the husband remained living in his barracks and would have no further contact with his wife except for the purpose of procreation. Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced This was ritualized with the wife having to shave her head and dress in male clothing while the husband would wait until his friends had gone to sleep before leaving the barracks to do his duty and then returning before they were aware of his absence. ^[18]

Training in music and literature occupied a subordinate position. The tireless emphasis on physical training gave Spartans the reputation for being “laconic”, economical with words, a word derived from the name of their homeland of Laconia. A " laconic phrase " is a very concise or terse statement named after Laconia (a For the Laconian dialect see Doric Greek For the Ancient Kingdom see Sparta For the laconic expression see Laconic Education was also extended to girls, in the belief that strong and intelligent mothers would produce strong and intelligent children. Thus modern day historians, with the corroboration of ancient writers, tend to conclude that Spartan women were among the most educated in the ancient Greek world. Both sexes exercised nude and because of this a strong emphasis was placed on the physical fitness of men as well as women. Nudity is the state of wearing no Clothing. The term' "nudity" can also occasionally be used to refer to wearing significantly less clothing than expected Despite their physical fitness, women could not compete in the Olympic Games, according to the Olympic rules (they competed in the Heraea Games instead). The Ancient Olympic Games, originally referred to as simply the Olympic Games (Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες Olympiakoi Agones) were a series of Athletic The ancient Heraea Games, dedicated to the goddess Hera (also spelled Heraia) is the first sanctioned (and recorded women's athletic competition to be held in the There were also contests to see who could take the most severe flogging, an ordeal known as diamastigosis. Flagellation is the act of whipping (Latin flagellum, "whip" the human body

Poor knowledge on Spartan traditions is the result of Sparta's secrecy. Most modern theories are based on assumptions derived from ancient sources and parallels drawn between Sparta and contemporary Dorian Greek societies such as Crete. Some scholars assume that the custom of pederasty paralleled the mentoring relations between Spartan males and adolescent boys, common in Dorian societies. Spartan pederasty, the traditional intimate and pedagogic friendship between a man and a boy a custom held in common with other Dorian tribes is thought to have either Some of the ancient scholars seem to have supported an opposing view: Xenophon writes that Lycurgus efficiently managed to cultivate chaste pederasty in the Spartan society. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca ^[19] This however tends to be viewed as an attempt of praise towards Sparta, and not necessarily as a sincere remark. Aristotle also wrote that Sparta belonged to the type of military society that was based on heterosexual relationship, unlike other Greek states of his time. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Cicero furthermore asserts that, "The Lacedaemonians, while they permit all things except outrage (stuprum, i. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman e. "illicit sexual intercourse", OLD) in the love of youths, certainly distinguish the forbidden by a thin wall of partition from the sanctioned, for they allow embraces and a common couch to lovers. '^[20] In antiquity it was thought that a youth was expected to find himself an older lover, and that pederasty, a social practice common throughout most of Greece, was especially so in Sparta, they were the best army in the world where the ephors fined any eligible man who did not have chaste relationships with youths. Greek Pederasty, as idealised by the Greeks from archaic times onward was a relationship and bond between an adolescent boy and an adult man outside ^[21] However, according to one author, an examination of the historical details reveals that "references to particular homosexual attachments of Spartans are conspicuous even by Greek standards". ^[19]

Criticism

According to Aristotle, the Spartan military culture was actually short-sighted and ineffective. He observed:

It is the standards of civilized men not of beasts that must be kept in mind, for it is good men not beasts who are capable of real courage. Those like the Spartans who concentrate on the one and ignore the other in their education turn men into machines and in devoting themselves to one single aspect of city's life, end up making them inferior even in that. ^[22]

Archaeology

There is a well-known passage in Thucydides which runs thus:

"Suppose the city of Sparta to be deserted, and nothing left but the temples and the ground-plan, distant ages would be very unwilling to believe that the power of the Lacedaemonians was at all equal to their fame. Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek

"Their city is not built continuously, and has no splendid temples or other edifices; it rather resembles a group of villages, like the ancient towns of Hellas, and would therefore make a poor show" (i. 10, trans. Jowett).

The first feeling of most travellers who visit modern Sparta is one of disappointment with the ancient remains. A better "show" is put on by Byzantine Mistra, with its grass-grown streets, its decaying houses, its ruined fortress and its beautiful churches. Mystras (also Mistra, Mystra and Mistras Greek: Μυστράς Μυζηθράς Mizithras or Myzithras in the Until the early twentieth century, the chief ancient buildings at Sparta were the theatre, of which, however, little showed above ground except portions of the retaining walls; the so-called Tomb of Leonidas, a quadrangular building, perhaps a temple, constructed of immense blocks of stone and containing two chambers; the foundation of an ancient bridge over the Eurotas; the ruins of a circular structure; some remains of late Roman fortifications; several brick buildings and mosaic pavements. A retaining wall is a structure that holds back Soil or rock from a Building, structure or area Leonidas ( Greek:; "Lion's son" "Lion-like" was a king of Sparta, the 17th of the Agiad line one of the sons In Greek mythology, Eurotas (Εὐρώτας was a son of Myles and grandson of Lelex.

The remaining archaeological wealth consisted of inscriptions, sculptures, and other objects collected in the local museum, founded by Stamatakis in 1872 (and enlarged in 1907). Year 1872 ( MDCCCLXXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Year 1907 ( MCMVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Excavations were carried on near Sparta, on the site of the Amyclaeum in 1890 by (?) Tsounas, and in 1904 by Furtwängler, and at the shrine of Menelaus in Therapne by Ross in 1833 and 1841, and by Kastriotis in 1889 and 1900. Organized digs were attempted in the area of Sparta proper; partial excavation of the round building was undertaken in 1892 and 1893 by the American School at Athens. The structure has been since found to be a semicircular retaining wall of Hellenic origin that was partly restored during the Roman period.

In 1904, the British School at Athens began a thorough exploration of Laconia, and in the following year excavations were made at Thalamae, Geronthrae, and Angelona near Monemvasia as several medieval fortresses were being surveyed. For the Laconian dialect see Doric Greek For the Ancient Kingdom see Sparta For the laconic expression see Laconic Monemvassia (Μονεμβασία Μονεμβάσια Μονεμβασιά and known by the Franks as Malvasia, is a well-known Medieval fortress with an adjacent In 1906, excavations began in Sparta itself, yielding many finds, which have been published in the British School Annual, vol. xii. sqq.

A small circus described by Leake proved to be a theatre-like building constructed soon after AD 200 around the altar and in front of the temple of Artemis Orthia. William Martin Leake, FRS ( January 14, 1777 – January 6, 1860) British Antiquarian and Topographer Events By Place World Human population reaches about 257 million The Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, an Archaic site devoted in Classical times to Artemis, was one of the most important religious sites in the Greek Here musical and gymnastic contests took place as well as the famous flogging ordeal (diamastigosis). The temple, which can be dated to the 2nd century BC, rests on the foundation of an older temple of the 6th century, and close beside it were found the remains of a yet earlier temple, dating from the 9th or even the 10th century. The 2nd century BC started the first day of 200 BC and ended the last day of 101 BC. The votive offerings in clay, amber, bronze, ivory and lead found in great profusion within the precinct range, dating from the 9th to the 4th centuries BC, supply invaluable evidence for early Spartan art; they prove that Sparta reached her artistic zenith in the 7th century and that her decline had already begun in the 6th. A votive deposit or votive offering is an object left in a Sacred place for Ritual purposes

In 1907, the sanctuary of Athena "of the Brazen House" (Chalkioikos) was located on the acropolis immediately above the theatre, and though the actual temple is almost completely destroyed, the site has produced the longest extant archaic inscription of Laconia, numerous bronze nails and plates, and a considerable number of votive offerings. The Greek city-wall, built in successive stages from the 4th to the 2nd century, was traced for a great part of its circuit, which measured 48 stades or nearly 10 km (Polyb. See also List of cities with defensive walls A defensive wall is a Fortification used to defend a city or settlement from potential aggressors 1X. 21). The late Roman wall enclosing the acropolis, part of which probably dates from the years following the Gothic raid of AD 262, was also investigated. Besides the actual buildings discovered, a number of points were situated and mapped in a general study of Spartan topography, based upon the description of Pausanias. Pausanias ( Greek:) was a Greek traveller and Geographer of the 2nd century CE, who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Excavations showed that the town of the Mycenean Period was situated on the left bank of the Eurotas, a little to the south-east of Sparta. The settlement was roughly triangular in shape, with its apex pointed towards the north. Its area was approximately equal to that of the "newer" Sparta, but denudation has wreaked havoc with its buildings and nothing is left save ruined foundations and broken potsherds.

Eugenics

Main article: Eugenics

In Sparta infants were examined at birth and if they were extremely deformed, cachectic or sickly they were placed in the Apothetae ^[23](Greek language, Αποθέτας), meaning "depository" as Plutarch describes. Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c This practice was part of the Spartan institution known as agoge. The agoge (Άγωγή was a rigorous education and training regime for all Spartan citizens except the sons in the ruling houses This was a chasm under Taygetus. Geographical features Kouakiou river Rintomo gorge * Viros gorge Places on the Taygetus ^[24] Criminals of the worst kind^[25] and sometimes even prisoners^[26] were thrown in a pit known as Kaiadas^[27](Greek language,Καιάδας) in the same mountain in an account by Thucydides. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek ^[28] Much later, Suda, a Byzantine Greek historical encyclopædia from the 10th century AD, mentions the same fact, that evildoers were thrown in this pit. The Suda or Souda ( also, Suidas) is a massive 10th century Byzantine Greek historical encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ^[29] There is some confusion between the Kaiadas and the Apothetae regarding the fate of the exposed infants^[30]. This exposure was practiced in other Greek regions as well, including Athens. ^[31]Some of the exposed infants were saved and became θρεπτοί δούλοι meaning "house-born", "house-nourished" slave by being adopted by families. ^[32] Adolf Hitler considered Sparta to be the first "Völkisch State," and much like Ernst Haeckel before him, praised Sparta due to its primitive form of eugenics practice of selective infanticide policy which was applied to deformed children. The völkisch movement is the German interpretation of the populist movement with a romantic focus on Folklore and the "organic" Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel ( February 16, 1834 — August 9, 1919)also written von Haeckel, was an eminent German ^[33][34][35]

Famous Spartans

• Agis I - king
• Agis II - king
• Agesilaus II - king
• Cleomenes I - king
• Leonidas I (c. Agis I ( Gr) was a legendary king of Sparta and Eponym of the Agiad dynasty. For other uses of this name see Agis. Agis II ( Gr) (d c 401 BC was the 17th Eurypontid king of Sparta Agesilaus II, or Agesilaos II ( Greek) (444 BC &ndash 360 BC was a king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid dynasty ruling from approximately Cleomenes (kliːˈɑməniːz Greek Κλεομένης (d c 489 BC was an Agiad King of Sparta in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC Leonidas ( Greek:; "Lion's son" "Lion-like" was a king of Sparta, the 17th of the Agiad line one of the sons 520-480 BC) - king, famous for his actions at the Battle of Thermopylae
• Cleomenes III - king and reformer
• Lysander (5th-4th century BC) - general
• Lycurgus (10th century BC) - lawgiver
• Chionis (7th century BC) - athlete
• Cynisca (4th century BC) - princess and athlete

See also

• Sparti (municipality)
• Laconophilia (adulation of Sparta)
• Sparta in popular culture
• "Serbian Sparta" is a historical popular reference to Cetinje, Montenegro's capital
• Gymnopaedia
• Tsakonians
• Spartiates
• Spartan Army
• Spartathlon
• Gates of Fire
• 300 (film)

References

Notes and further reading

• W. G. Forest. A History of Sparta, 950–192 B. C. . New York: W. W. Norton & Co. , 1968.
• Ernle Bradford. Ernle Bradford (born Jan 11, 1922, at Cole Green Norfolk, England - died May 8 1986) was a noted 20th century British The Battle for the West-Thermopylae 480. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
• Cartledge, Paul. Paul Cartledge is a Professor of Greek History at Cambridge University, and a fellow of Clare College. Spartan Reflections. London: Duckworth, 2001.
• Cartledge, Paul. "What have the Spartans Done for us?: Sparta’s Contribution to Western Civilization", Greece & Rome, Vol.  51, Issue 2 (2004), pp.  164–179.

This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone

External links

• GTP - Sparta
• GTP - Ancient Sparta
• Sparta Reconsidered - History, beliefs and culture of Ancient Sparta
• Journal of Laconian Studies - A peer-review open source Journal for the study of Laconian history
• Sparta - An educational periodical for Sparta & Greek history
• Ancient History Sourcebook: 11th Brittanica: Sparta
• History of Ancient Sparta
• Facts on Sparta

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