The 1918 flu pandemic (commonly referred to as the Spanish flu) was an influenza pandemic that was first found in the United States, appeared in Sierra Leone and France, and then spread to nearly every part of the world. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. It was caused by an unusually severe and deadly Influenza A virus strain of subtype H1N1. Influenzavirus A is a Genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family of Viruses Influenzavirus A includes only one Species: Influenza A virus In biology strain is a low-level Taxonomic rank used in three related ways H1[[Neuraminidase N1]] is a subtype of the species Influenza A virus. Many of its victims were healthy young adults, in contrast to most influenza outbreaks which predominantly affect juvenile, elderly, or otherwise weakened patients. The Spanish flu lasted from March 1918 to June 1920,^[1] spreading even to the Arctic and remote Pacific islands. The Arctic is the Region around the Earth 's North Pole, opposite the Antarctic region around the South Pole. It is estimated that anywhere from 20 to 100 million people were killed worldwide, or the approximate equivalent of one third of the population of Europe,^[2][3][4] more than double the number killed in World War I. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All ^[5] This extraordinary toll resulted from the extremely high infection rate of up to 50% and the extreme severity of the symptoms, suspected to be caused by cytokine storms. A cytokine storm is a potentially fatal immune reaction consisting of a Positive feedback loop between Cytokines and Immune cells with highly elevated

The disease was first observed at Fort Riley, Kansas, United States, on March 4, 1918,^[6] and Queens, New York, on March 11, 1918. Fort Riley is a United States Army installation located in Northeast Kansas, on the Kansas River, between Junction City The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Events 51 - Nero, later to become Roman Emperor, is given the title Princeps iuventutis (head of the youth Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In August 1918, a more virulent strain appeared simultaneously in Brest, France, in Freetown, Sierra Leone, and in the U. Brest (bʁɛst in French, in Breton) is a city in the Finistère department in Bretagne in northwestern France. Freetown is the Capital and largest City of Sierra Leone, and a major Port on the Atlantic Ocean. S. at Boston, Massachusetts. The Allies of World War I came to call it the Spanish flu, primarily because the pandemic received greater press attention after it moved from France to Spain in November 1918. The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. Spain was not involved in the war and had not imposed wartime censorship. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative material which may be considered objectionable harmful or sensitive as determined by a censor ^[7]

Scientists have used tissue samples from frozen victims to reproduce the virus for study. Given the strain's extreme virulence there has been controversy regarding the wisdom of such research. Among the conclusions of this research is that the virus kills via a cytokine storm, which explains its unusually severe nature and the unusual age profile of its victims (the virus caused an overreaction of the body's immune system—the strong immune systems of young adults ravaged the body, while the weaker immune systems of children and middle-aged adults caused less morbidity and mortality). A cytokine storm is a potentially fatal immune reaction consisting of a Positive feedback loop between Cytokines and Immune cells with highly elevated

Mortality

The difference between the influenza mortality age-distributions of the 1918 epidemic and normal epidemics. Deaths per 100,000 persons in each age group, United States, for the interpandemic years 1911–1917 (dashed line) and the pandemic year 1918 (solid line). ^[8]

Chart of deaths in major cities

The global mortality rate from the 1918/1919 pandemic is not known, but is estimated at 2. Mortality rate is a measure of the number of Deaths (in general or due to a specific cause in some population scaled to the size of that population per unit time 5 to 5% of the human population, with 20% or more of the world population suffering from the disease to some extent. Influenza may have killed as many as 25 million in its first 25 weeks (in contrast, AIDS killed 25 million in its first 25 years). Older estimates say it killed 40–50 million people^[9] while current estimates say 50 million to 100 million people worldwide were killed. ^[10] This pandemic has been described as "the greatest medical holocaust in history" and may have killed more people than the Black Death. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia ^[11]

An estimated 7 million died in India, about 2. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country 78% of India's population at the time. In the Indian Army, almost 22% of troops who caught the disease died of it. In the U.S., about 28% of the population suffered, and 500,000 to 675,000 died. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In Britain as many as 250,000 died; in France more than 400,000. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. In Canada approximately 50,000 died. Entire villages perished in Alaska and southern Africa. Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent Southern Africa is the Southernmost Region of the African Continent, variably defined by Geography or Geopolitics. In Australia an estimated 12,000 people died and in the Fiji Islands, 14% of the population died during only two weeks, and in Western Samoa 22%. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Fiji (Matanitu ko Viti फ़िजी officially the Republic of the Fiji Islands (Matanitu Tu-Vaka-i-koya ko Viti फ़िजी द्वीप समूह गणराज्य Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa, is a country governing the western part of the Samoan Islands Archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean

This huge death toll was caused by an extremely high infection rate of up to 50% and the extreme severity of the symptoms, suspected to be caused by cytokine storms. ^[9] Indeed, symptoms in 1918 were so unusual that initially influenza was misdiagnosed as dengue, cholera, or typhoid. Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, bilious fever, Yellow Jack or commonly just typhoid, is an illness caused by the Bacterium One observer wrote, "One of the most striking of the complications was hemorrhage from mucous membranes, especially from the nose, stomach, and intestine. Bleeding from the ears and petechial hemorrhages in the skin also occurred. A petechia (pɨˈtiːkiə plural petechiae (pɨˈtiːkɪiː is a small (1-2mm red or purple spot on the body caused by a minor Hemorrhage (broken Capillary "^[10] The majority of deaths were from bacterial pneumonia, a secondary infection caused by influenza, but the virus also killed people directly, causing massive hemorrhages and edema in the lung. See Pneumonia for a general overview of pneumonia and its other causes An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. Bleeding, technically known as hemorrhaging / haemorrhaging (see American and British spelling differences) is the loss of Blood from Oedema (or Edema in American English formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is the increase of Interstitial fluid in any organ &mdash swelling ^[8]

The unusually severe disease killed between 2 and 20% of those infected, as opposed to the more usual flu epidemic mortality rate of 0. Mortality rate is a measure of the number of Deaths (in general or due to a specific cause in some population scaled to the size of that population per unit time 1%. ^[8][10] Another unusual feature of this pandemic was that it mostly killed young adults, with 99% of pandemic influenza deaths occurring in people under 65, and more than half in young adults 20 to 40 years old. ^[12] This is unusual since influenza is normally most deadly to the very young (under age 2) and the very old (over age 70).

History

While World War I did not cause the flu, the close troop quarters and massive troop movements hastened the pandemic. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Researchers speculate that the soldiers' immune systems were weakened by the stresses of combat and chemical attacks, increasing their susceptibility to the disease.

A large factor of worldwide flu prevalence was increased travel. The modern transportation systems made it easier for soldiers, sailors, and travelers to spread the disease quickly and to communities worldwide.

American Red Cross nurses tend to flu patients in temporary wards set up inside Oakland Municipal Auditorium, 1918

Two poems, dedicated to the Spanish flu, were popular in those days:

I had a little bird,
Its name was Enza,
I opened the window,
And in-flew-enza. The American Red Cross (also known as the American National Red Cross) is a humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance disaster relief and education inside Oakland (ˈoʊklənd founded in 1852 is the eighth-largest city in the U
-American Skipping Rhyme circa 1918

Obey the laws
And wear the gauze.
Protect your jaws
From septic paws.

Patterns of fatality

The influenza strain was unusual in that this pandemic killed many young adults and otherwise healthy victims – typical influenzas kill mostly infants (aged 0-2 years), the elderly, and the immunocompromised. In biology strain is a low-level Taxonomic rank used in three related ways In Medicine, immunodeficiency (or immune deficiency) is a state in which the Immune system 's ability to fight Infectious disease is compromised Another oddity was that this influenza outbreak was widespread in summer and fall (in the Northern Hemisphere). Typically, influenza is worse in the winter months.

People without symptoms could be stricken suddenly and within hours be too weak to walk; many died the next day. Symptoms included a blue tint to the face and coughing up blood caused by severe obstruction of the lungs. In some cases, the virus caused an uncontrollable hemorrhaging that filled the lungs, and patients drowned in their body fluids (pneumonia). Bleeding, technically known as hemorrhaging / haemorrhaging (see American and British spelling differences) is the loss of Blood from lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal In others, the flu caused frequent loss of bowel control and the victim would die from losing critical intestinal lining and blood loss.

In fast-progressing cases, mortality was primarily from pneumonia, by virus-induced consolidation. Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal Consolidation is a clinical term for solidification into a firm dense mass Slower-progressing cases featured secondary bacterial pneumonias, and there may have been neural involvement that led to mental disorders in a minority of cases. The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Some deaths resulted from malnourishment and even animal attacks in overwhelmed communities.

Devastated communities

Street car conductor in Seattle not allowing passengers aboard without a mask in 1918. A mask is an artefact normally worn on the face typically for protection concealment performance or amusement

While in most places less than one-third of the population was infected, only a small percentage of whom died, in a number of towns in several countries entire populations were wiped out.

Even in areas where mortality was low, those incapacitated by the illness were often so numerous as to bring much of everyday life to a stop. Some communities closed all stores or required customers not to enter the store but place their orders outside the store for filling. There were many reports of places with no health care workers to tend the sick because of their own ill health and no able-bodied grave diggers to bury the dead. Mass graves were dug by steam shovel and bodies buried without coffins in many places. A steam shovel is a large steam-powered excavating machine designed for lifting and moving material such as rock and Soil.

Unaffected locales

In Japan, 257,363 deaths were attributed to influenza by July 1919, giving an estimated 0. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. 425% mortality rate, much lower than nearly all other Asian countries for which data are available. The Japanese government severely restricted maritime travel to and from the home islands when the pandemic struck. The only sizeable inhabited place with no documented outbreak of the flu in 1918–1919 was the island of Marajó at the mouth of the Amazon River in Brazil . Marajó is an Island located at the mouth of the Amazon River in Brazil. The Amazon River (Rio Amazonas Río Amazonas of South America is the largest river in the world by volume with a total river flow greater than the next top ten largest rivers |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld In the Pacific, American Samoa^[13] and the French colony of New Caledonia ^[14] also succeeded in preventing even a single death from influenza through effective quarantines. American Samoa (Amerika Sāmoa or sm ''Sāmoa Amelika'' is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme. For other uses see Quarantine (disambiguation Quarantine is voluntary or compulsory isolation typically to contain the spread of something In Australia, only 12,000 perished compared to higher rates in other countries.

Government Response

The Great Influenza was the source of much fear in citizens around the world. Further inflaming that fear was the fact that governments and health officials were downplaying the influenza. While the panic from WWI was dwindling, governments attempted to keep morale up by spreading lies and dismissing the influenza. On Sept. 11, 1918, Washington officials reported that the Spanish Influenza had arrived in the city. The following day, roughly thirteen million men across the country lined up to register for the war draft, providing the influenza with an efficient way to spread. However, the influenza had little impact upon institutions and organizations. While medical scientists did rapidly attempt to discover a cure or vaccine, there were virtually no changes in the government or corporations. Additionally, the political and military events were fairly unaffected due to the impartiality of the disease, affecting either side likewise. ^[15]

Cultural Impact

In the United States, despite the relatively high morbidity and mortality rates that resulted from the epidemic in 1918-1919, the Spanish flu remained a relatively obscure event until the rise in public awareness of bird flu and other pandemics in the 1990s and 2000s. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In Medicine, Epidemiology and Actuarial science, the term morbidity can refer to the state of poor health (from Latin This has led some historians to label the Spanish flu a “forgotten pandemic. ” ^[16] Indeed, one of the only major works of American literature written after 1918 that deals directly with the Spanish flu is Katherine Anne Porter’s Pale Horse, Pale Rider. Katherine Anne Porter ( 15 May 1890 – 18 September 1980) was a Pulitzer Prize -winning American Journalist, Pale Horse Pale Rider (ISBN 0-15-170755-3 is a collection of three short novels by American author Katherine Anne Porter published in 1939 More recently (2006), author Thomas Mullen wrote a novel called The Last Town on Earth, about the impact of the Spanish flu on a fictional mill town in Washington.

Several theories have been offered as to why the Spanish flu may have been “forgotten” by historians and the public over so many years, including the rapid pace of the pandemic (it killed most of its victims in the United States in a period of less than nine months), Americans' familiarity with pandemic disease in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the distraction of the First World War. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All ^[17] Another explanation is shown when observing the age group affected by the disease. The majority of fatalities, in both World War One and by the Spanish Flu, were young adults. The deaths caused by the flu were overlooked due to the deaths from the war. When people would read the obituaries they would see the deaths from war and the deaths from the influenza side by side. Seeing the figures right next to each other lessened the impact the influenza had on individual people. ^[18] The fact that the disease would usually only affect a certain area for a month before leaving, left little time for the disease to have a significant impact on the economy. During this time period pandemic out breaks were not uncommon, the terror of typhoid, yellow fever, diphtheria, and cholera all occurred near the same time period. These outbreaks lessened the impact the Influenza pandemic had on Americans. ^[19]

Spanish flu research

Main article: Spanish flu research

One theory is that the virus strain originated at Fort Riley, Kansas, by two genetic mechanisms – genetic drift and antigenic shift – in viruses in poultry and swine which the fort bred for local consumption. Spanish flu research has long included many theories about the origins and progress of the Spanish flu, but it wasn't until 2005 when various samples recovered from American Fort Riley is a United States Army installation located in Northeast Kansas, on the Kansas River, between Junction City Kansas ( is a Midwestern state in the central region of the United States of America, an area often referred to as the American " Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is In Population genetics, genetic drift is the accumulation of random events that change the makeup of a gene pool slightly but often compound over time Antigenic shift is the process by which at least two different strains of a virus (or different viruses especially Influenza, combine to form a new subtype But evidence from a recent reconstruction of the virus suggests that it jumped directly from birds to humans, without traveling through swine. ^[20] On October 5, 2005, researchers announced that the genetic sequence of the 1918 flu strain, a subtype of avian strain H1N1, had been reconstructed using historic tissue samples. Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^{[21] [22]} On 18 January 2007, Kobasa et al. Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. reported that infected monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) exhibited classic symptoms of the 1918 pandemic and died from a cytokine storm. The Crab-eating Macaque ( Macaca fascicularis) is a primarily Arboreal Macaque native to Southeast Asia. A cytokine storm is a potentially fatal immune reaction consisting of a Positive feedback loop between Cytokines and Immune cells with highly elevated ^[23]

Victims

Alberta farmers wearing masks to protect themselves from the flu. Alberta (ælˈbɝtə is one of Canada's prairie provinces. It became a province on September 1 1905

Famous

• Guillaume Apollinaire, French poet († November 9, 1918)
• Felix Arndt, American pianist († October 16, 1918)
• George Freeth, father of modern surfing and lifeguard († April 7, 1919)
• Sophie Halberstadt-Freud, daughter of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, († 1920)
• Harold Gilman, British painter († February 12, 1919)
• Henry G. Ginaca, American engineer, inventor of the Ginaca machine († October 19, 1918)
• Charles Tomlinson Griffes, American composer († April 8, 1920)
• Joe Hall, Montreal Canadiens defenceman, a member of the Hockey Hall of Fame († April 6, 1919). Guillaume Apollinaire (in French ɡijom apɔliˈnɛʁ ( August 26, 1880 &ndash November 9, 1918) was a French Poet Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Felix Arndt ( May 20, 1889 - October 16, 1918) was an American Pianist and Composer of Popular music. Events 456 - Magister militum Ricimer defeats the Emperor Avitus at Piacenza and becomes master of the western Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common George Freeth ( November 8, 1883 &ndash April 7, 1919) is often credited as being the "Father of Modern Surfing " Events 529 - First draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in Jurisprudence) is issued by Eastern Roman Emperor Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded The British artist Harold John Wilde Gilman ( Rode Somerset, 11 February 1876 - London 12 February 1919) was a founder-member of Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Henry G Ginaca (1876 - 1918 was an American engineer who invented at the direction of Hawaiian Pineapple Magnate James Dole in 1911 a machine Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Charles Tomlinson Griffes ( Elmira New York, September 17 1884 &ndash New York City, April 8 1920) was an American Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Joseph Henry Hall ( May 3, 1882 &ndash April 5, 1919) nicknamed Bad Joe Hall, was a professional Ice hockey defenceman The Montreal Canadiens (Les Canadiens de Montréal are a professional Ice hockey team based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Defence ( defense in the USA in Ice hockey is a player position whose primary responsibility is to prevent the opposing team from scoring. The Hockey Hall of Fame ( Temple de la renommée du hockey in French) is located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
• Phoebe Hearst, mother of William Randolph Hearst, († April 13, 1919)
• Francisco Marto, Fátima child († April 4, 1919)
• Jacinta Marto, Fátima child († February 20, 1920)
• Alan Arnett McLeod, Victoria Cross winner, († 6 November 1918)
• Sir Hubert Parry, British composer, († October 7, 1918)
• William Leefe Robinson, Victoria Cross winner, († December 31, 1918)
• Edmond Rostand, French dramatist, best known for his play Cyrano de Bergerac, († December 2, 1918)
• Egon Schiele, Austrian painter († October 31, 1918). Phoebe Apperson Hearst ( December 3, 1842 &ndash April 14, 1919) was the mother of William Randolph Hearst. For other people named William Randolph Hearst see William Randolph Hearst (disambiguation William Randolph Hearst I (April 29 1863 &ndash Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Francisco Marto ( June 11, 1908 &ndash April 4, 1919) and his sister Jacinta Marto ( March 11, 1910 &ndash Our Lady of Fátima (ˈfatimɐ is the title given to the Blessed Virgin Mary by those who believe that she appeared to three shepherd children at Fátima Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Francisco Marto ( June 11, 1908 &ndash April 4, 1919) and his sister Jacinta Marto ( March 11, 1910 &ndash Our Lady of Fátima (ˈfatimɐ is the title given to the Blessed Virgin Mary by those who believe that she appeared to three shepherd children at Fátima Events 1472 - Orkney and Shetland are left by Norway to Scotland, due to a Dowry payment Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Alan Arnett McLeod VC (20 April 1899 &ndash 6 November 1918 was a Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award See below the section "Separate Commonwealth awards" Note that since Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Sir Charles Hubert Hastings Parry 1st Baronet (27 February 1848 &ndash 7 October 1918 was an English Composer, best known for the choral song Jerusalem The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located A composer (literally meaning 'one who puts together' is a person who creates Music, usually in the medium of notation, for Interpretation and Performance Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar) Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common William Leefe Robinson VC ( 14 July, 1895 &ndash 31 December, 1918) was the first British pilot to shoot down a German Airship See below the section "Separate Commonwealth awards" Note that since Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Edmond Eugène Alexis Rostand ( April 1, 1868 &ndash December 2, 1918) was a French Poet and Dramatist. Cyrano de Bergerac is a play written in 1897 by Edmond Rostand based on the life of the real Cyrano de Bergerac. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Egon Schiele (12 June 1890 &ndash 31 October 1918 (ˈʃiːlə approximately SHEE-luh was an Austrian painter, a protégé of Gustav Klimt, and a Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common His wife Edith, who was six months pregnant, succumbed to the disease only three days before.
• Yakov Sverdlov, Bolshevik party leader and official of pre-USSR Russia († March 16, 1919)
• Mark Sykes, British politician and diplomat († February 16, 1919)
• Max Weber, German political economist and sociologist († June 14, 1920)
• Prince Erik, Duke of Västmanland (Erik Gustav Ludvig Albert Bernadotte), Prince of Sweden and Norway, Duke of Västmanland († September 20, 1918)
• Vera Kholodnaya, The first star of Russian silent cinema († February 16, 1919)
• Dark Cloud (actor), aka Elijah Tahamont, American Indian actor, in Los Angeles (1918). Yakov Mikhaylovich Sverdlov ( Russian Я́ков Миха́йлович Свердло́в known under pseudonyms "Andrei" "Mikhalych" "Max" The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1249 - Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with the Khan of the Mongols Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Ancestry Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Vera Vasilyevna Kholodnaya ( Вера Васильевна Холодная; August 30, 1893 - February 16, 1919) was the first star Events 1249 - Andrew of Longjumeau is dispatched by Louis IX of France as his ambassador to meet with the Khan of the Mongols Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Dark Cloud (1855--1918 was a Native American Silent film actor, born Elijah Tahamont on September 20 1855 at St
• Franz Karl Salvator (1893-1918), son of Archduchess Marie Valerie of Austria and Archduke Franz Salvator, grandson of Empress Elisabeth of Bavaria and Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, died unmarried and childless. Marie Valerie Archduchess of Austria ( April 22, 1868 - September 6, 1924) was the fourth and last child of Franz Josef, Emperor Elisabeth Amalie Eugenie ( 24 December, 1837 &ndash 10 September, 1898) of the House of Wittelsbach, was the Empress Franz Joseph I Karl (- German, in English Francis Joseph I Charles, see the name in other languages) (18 August 1830 &ndash 21 November
• Anaseini Takipō, Queen of Tonga from 1909, consort of King George Tupou II of Tonga, survived by one daughter, († November 26, 1918)
• Louis Botha, first Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa, († August 27, 1919)^[24]
• Harry Elionsky, American champion long-distance swimmer^[25]
• "Admiral Dot" (1864-1918), circus performer under P. T. Barnum^[26]
• Irmy Cody Garlow, daughter of Buffalo Bill Cody^[27]
• Harold Lockwood, silent film star, († October 19, 1918)^[28]

Fictional

• Elizabeth Masen and Edward Anthony Masen Sr. The Kingdom of Tonga is an Archipelago in the south Pacific Ocean comprising 169 islands 36 of them inhabited stretching over a distance of about 800 kilometres (500 miles Siaosi Tupou II King of Tonga ( George Tupou II in English) ( 18 June 1874 — 5 April 1918) was the king Events 43 BC - The Second Triumvirate alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus ("Octavian" later "Caesar Augustus" Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Louis Botha (27 September 1862 &ndash 27 August 1919 was an Afrikaner and first Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa —the forerunner of the modern } The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day state of the Republic of South Africa. Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Phineas Taylor Barnum (July 5 1810 &ndash April 7 1891 was an American Showman remembered for Hoaxes and for founding the Circus that became the William Frederick "Buffalo Bill" Cody (February 26 1846 &ndash January 10 1917 was an American soldier bison hunter and Showman. Harold A Lockwood ( April 12, 1887 in Newark New Jersey – October 19, 1918 in New York City, New York Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common , fictional characters in the Twilight series by Stephenie Meyer. Stephenie Morgan Meyer (born December 24 1973 is an American Author. Their son, Edward Cullen was almost killed until saved by being changed into a Vampire by Carlisle Cullen. Edward Cullen (né Edward Anthony Masen) is a Fictional character from Stephenie Meyer 's ''Twilight'' series. († 1918)
• Hazel Forrest Bellamy, a fictional character in the television series "Upstairs, Downstairs" (played by Meg Wynn Owen) († 1918)
• William Krichinsky, a fictional character in the film "Avalon", directed by Barry Levinson
• Fanny and Jemma Macgregor in If I Die Before I Wake by Jean Little

References

Further reading

External links

• Video from Expert Panel Discussion on Avian Flu
• Nature "Web Focus" on 1918 flu, including new research
• Influenza Pandemic on stanford.edu
• Article: The Deadliest Fall
• Influenza 1918 in the United States on pbs.org
• Secrets of the Dead: Killer Flu (PBS)
• Flu by Eileen A. Lynch. The devastating effect of the Spanish flu in the city of Philadelphia, PA, USA
• Dialog: An Interview with Dr. Jeffery Taubenberger on Reconstructing the Spanish Flu
• The Deadly Virus - The Influenza Epidemic of 1918, by the National Archives and Records Administration (see actual pictures and records of the time).
• The 1918 Influenza Pandemic in New Zealand - includes recorded recollections of people who lived through it
• Experts Unlock Clues to Spread of 1918 Flu Virus - The New York Times
• PBS - recovery of flu samples from Alaskan flu victims
• An Avian Connection as a Catalyst to the 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic
• Alaska Science Forum - Permafrost Preserves Clues to Deadly 1918 Flu
• Pathology of Influenza in France, 1920 Report
• "Deadly secret of 1918 flu virus unmasked", Cosmos magazine, September 2006
• Yesterday's News blog, 1918 newspaper account on impact of flu on Minneapolis
• "Lethal secrets of 1918 flu virus" BBC News, January 2007
• "Study uncovers a lethal secret of 1918 influenza virus" University of Wisconsin - Madison, January 17, 2007
• "The site of origin of the 1918 influenza pandemic and its public health implications" Journal of Translational Medicine, January 20, 2004