Battle of Gravelines
Part of the Anglo-Spanish War
Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588-08-08 by Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg, painted in 1797, depicts the battle of Gravelines. The Anglo–Spanish War (1585–1604 was an intermittent conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and England, which was never formally declared Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. Philip James de Loutherbourg, also seen as Philippe-Jacques and Philipp Jakob and with the appellation the Younger ( 31 October 1740
Date August 8, 1588 Location English Channel, near Gravelines, France (then part of the Netherlands) Result Strategic English/Dutch victory
Belligerents
Kingdom of England Dutch Republic	Spain Kingdom of Portugal
Commanders
Elizabeth I of England Charles Howard Francis Drake	Philip II of Spain Duke of Medina Sidonia
Strength
34 warships 163 armed merchant vessels 30 Dutch flyboats	22 galleons 108 armed merchant vessels
Casualties and losses
50–100 dead[1] ~400 wounded 6,000-8,000 died from disease	600 dead, 800 wounded,[2] 397 captured, 62 ships [1] 15,000-20,000 Soldiers and Sailors dead[2]

The Spanish Armada (Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada "Great and Most Fortunate Navy" or Armada Invencible, "Invincible Navy")^[3] was the Spanish fleet that sailed against England under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia in 1588, leading to the Norris-Drake Expedition or English Armada of 1589. Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. Gravelines (Grevelingen is a small historic town and commune on the northern coast of France on the river Aa 15 miles (25 km south west of Dunkirk This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The Kingdom of England was a State (927-1707 located in Western Europe dating from the ninth or tenth century to the early eighteenth century when it was legally "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries The Kingdom of Portugal was Portugal 's general designation under the monarchy. Charles Howard 1st Earl of Nottingham (1536 &ndash 14 December 1624) was an English statesman and admiral Sir Francis Drake, Vice Admiral, (c 1540 &ndash 27 January 1595 was an English Privateer, navigator, Slaver, and politician Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 Don Alonso Pérez de Guzmán el Bueno 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia ( es: Don Alonso Pérez de Guzmán el Bueno séptimo duque de Medina Sidonia) ( September 10 A galleon was a large multi-decked Sailing ship used primarily by the nations of Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries Habsburg Spain refers to the history of Spain over the 16th and 17th centuries (1516-1700 when this country was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty (also associated to England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Don Alonso Pérez de Guzmán el Bueno 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia ( es: Don Alonso Pérez de Guzmán el Bueno séptimo duque de Medina Sidonia) ( September 10 The English Armada (also known as the Counter Armada, or the Drake-Norris Expedition) was a fleet of warships sent to the Iberian coast by Queen Elizabeth

King Philip II of Spain had been king consort of England until the death, in 1558, of his wife, Queen Mary I of England, and he took exception to the policies pursued by her successor, his sister-in-law Elizabeth I. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 King consort is a title given in some Monarchies to the husband of a Queen regnant. Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death The aim of his expedition was to invade and conquer England, thereby suppressing support for the United Provinces – that part of the Spanish Netherlands in possession of the Dutch rebels – and cutting off attacks by the English against Spanish possessions in the New World and against the Atlantic treasure fleets. "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Southern Netherlands (Zuidelijke Nederlanden Países Bajos del Sur Pays-Bas du sud were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain ( Spanish The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. Beginning in the 16th century the Spanish treasure fleets (or simply West Indies Fleet from Spanish Flota de Indias) transported various metal resources and agricultural The king was supported by Pope Sixtus V, who treated the invasion as a crusade, with the promise of a further subsidy should the Armada make land. Pope Sixtus V ( December 13, 1521 &ndash August 27, 1590) born Felice Peretti di Montalto, was Pope from 1585 to 1590 The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents ^[4][5]

The Armada's appointed commander was the highly experienced Álvaro de Bazán, but he died in February 1588, and Medina Sidonia took his place. Don Álvaro de Bazán 1st Marquis of Santa Cruz, lord of the Villas of Viso and Valdepeñas largest Commander of León Member of his Majesty Council Captain General The fleet set out with 22 warships of the Spanish Royal Navy and 108 converted merchant vessels, with the intention of sailing through the English Channel to anchor off the coast of Flanders, where the Duke of Parma's army of tercios would stand ready for an invasion of the south-east of England. Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Alexander Farnese ( Italian: Alessandro Farnese, Spanish: Alejandro Farnesio, ( August 27 1545 &ndash The Tercio (Also known as Tercio Español, literally " Spanish tercio " and from tercio meaning "one-third"

The Armada achieved its first goal and anchored outside Gravelines, at the coastal border area between France and the Spanish Netherlands. Gravelines (Grevelingen is a small historic town and commune on the northern coast of France on the river Aa 15 miles (25 km south west of Dunkirk This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Southern Netherlands (Zuidelijke Nederlanden Países Bajos del Sur Pays-Bas du sud were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain ( Spanish While awaiting communications from Parma's army, it was driven from its anchorage by an English fire ship attack, and in the ensuing battle at Gravelines the Spanish were forced to abandon their rendezvous with Parma's army. Alexander Farnese ( Italian: Alessandro Farnese, Spanish: Alejandro Farnesio, ( August 27 1545 &ndash A fire ship, used in the days of wooden rowed or Sailing ships was a ship filled with combustibles deliberately set on fire and steered (or where possible allowed to drift

The Armada managed to regroup and withdraw north, with the English fleet harrying it for some distance up the east coast of England. A return voyage to Spain was plotted, and the fleet sailed into the Atlantic, past Ireland. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world But severe storms disrupted the fleet's course, and more than 24 vessels were wrecked on the north and western coasts of Ireland, with the survivors having to seek refuge in Scotland. Of the fleet's initial complement, about 50 vessels failed to make it back to Spain.

The expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo–Spanish War (1585–1604). The Anglo–Spanish War (1585–1604 was an intermittent conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and England, which was never formally declared

Contents 1 The planned invasion of England 2 The Battle of Gravelines 2.1 Tilbury speech 2.2 Return to Spain around the British Isles 3 Consequences 3.1 English Armada 4 Other meanings 5 See also 6 References 6.1 Literature 7 Online resources 8 Bibliography

The planned invasion of England

Prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip II of Spain to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences. Pope Sixtus V ( December 13, 1521 &ndash August 27, 1590) born Felice Peretti di Montalto, was Pope from 1585 to 1590 Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents An indulgence, in Roman Catholic Theology, is the full or partial Remission of temporal punishment due for Sins which have already been forgiven The blessing of the Armada's banner on 25 April 1588 was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar. The Battle of Lepanto ( Greek: Ναύπακτος Naupaktos, pron ^[6] On 28 May 1588 the Armada set sail from Lisbon, headed for the English Channel. Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Lisbon (Lisboa liʒˈboɐ is the Capital and largest city of Portugal. The fleet was composed of around 130 ships, 8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers, and bore 1,500 brass guns and 1,000 iron guns; it took two days for the last vessel to leave port. It contained 28 real warships: twenty galleons, four galleys and four galleasses; the remainder of the heavy vessels mainly consisted of armed carracks and hulks; also 34 light ships were present. A galleon was a large multi-decked Sailing ship used primarily by the nations of Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries A galley (from Greek γαλέα - galea is an ancient Ship which can be propelled entirely by human oarsmen, used for Warfare A galley (from Greek γαλέα - galea is an ancient Ship which can be propelled entirely by human oarsmen, used for Warfare A carrack or nau was a three- or four- masted Sailing ship developed in the Atlantic Ocean in the 15th century by the Portuguese A hulk is a Ship that is afloat but incapable of going to sea In the Spanish Netherlands an army of 30,000 men awaited its arrival, the plan being to use the fleet to convey the continental army on barges to a place near London; the Spanish admirals probably intended to first land the ship-bound force in the west of England, though this had been explicitly forbidden by Philip. All told, it was envisaged to muster 55,000 men, a huge army for that time. On the day of the fleet's departure, Elizabeth's ambassador in the Netherlands, Dr Valentine Dale, met Parma's representatives to begin peace negotiations. On July 17 negotiations were abandoned, and the English fleet stood prepared – though ill-supplied – at Plymouth, awaiting news of Spanish movements, after having in vain tried to intercept the Armada in the Bay of Biscay. Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians Cantabrian Sea redirects here Not to be confused with Biscay Bay Newfoundland and Labrador or Biscayne Bay.

The Armada was delayed by bad weather, forcing the four galleys and one galleon to leave the fleet, and was not sighted in England until July 19, when it appeared off St Michael's Mount in Cornwall. Events 711 - Muslim forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by their king Roderic. St Michael's Mount (Carrack Looz en Cooz is a Tidal island located off the Mount's Bay coast of Cornwall, United Kingdom. Cornwall ( Kernow ˈkɛɹnɔʊ is the most southwesterly county of England, on the Peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar The news was, albeit slowly, conveyed to London by a system of beacons that had been constructed along the length of the south coast of England. Beacons are aids to Navigation devices Intentionally conspicuous beacons help guide navigators to their destinations During the evening the English fleet was trapped in Plymouth harbour by the incoming tide. The Spanish convened a council of war, where it was proposed to ride into the harbour on the tide and incapacitate the English ships at anchor and from there to attack England; but Medina Sidonia declined this advice, and that same night 55 ships of the English fleet set out in pursuit from Plymouth under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, with as Vice Admiral Sir Francis Drake. Plymouth ( is a city and unitary authority area on the coast of Devon, England about south west of London. Charles Howard 1st Earl of Nottingham (1536 &ndash 14 December 1624) was an English statesman and admiral Sir Francis Drake, Vice Admiral, (c 1540 &ndash 27 January 1595 was an English Privateer, navigator, Slaver, and politician Howard gave Drake, being the more experienced naval commander, some control during the campaign. Rear Admiral was Sir John Hawkins. Admiral Sir John Hawkins (also spelled as John Hawkyns) ( Plymouth 1532 &ndash November 12 1595) was an English shipbuilder

The next night, in order to execute their "line ahead" attack, the English tacked upwind of the Armada, thus gaining the weather gage, a significant advantage. The weather gage is a Nautical term used to describe the advantageous position of a fighting Sailing vessel, relative to another Over the next week there followed two inconclusive engagements, at Eddystone and the Isle of Portland. The Isle of Portland ( is a limestone tied island long by wide in the English Channel. Two Spanish ships, the carrack Rosario and the galleon San Salvador, were abandoned after having been severely damaged by accidents; they were taken by the English who thereby captured a large supply of much-needed gunpowder. At the Isle of Wight the Armada had the opportunity to create a temporary base in protected waters and wait for word from Parma's army. The Isle of Wight is an English Island and county in the English Channel between three and five miles (8 km from the south coast of the In a full-scale attack, the English fleet broke into four groups – Martin Frobisher now also being given command over a squadron – with Drake coming in with a large force from the south. Sir Martin Frobisher (c 1535 or 1539 &ndash November 22, 1594) was an English seaman (from Wakefield, Yorkshire) who made three At the critical moment Medina Sidonia sent reinforcements south and ordered the Armada back in to open sea to avoid sandbanks. There were no secure harbours nearby, so the Armada was compelled to make for Calais, without regard to the readiness of Parma's army.

On July 27, the Armada anchored off Calais in a tightly packed defensive crescent formation, not far from Dunkirk, where Parma's army, reduced by diseases to 16,000, was expected to be waiting, ready to join the fleet in barges sent from ports along the Flemish coast. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Calais (kaˈlɛ in English often kæˈleɪ traditional English pronunciation /ˈkælɨs/ Kales is a town in northern France. Dunkirk ( French: Dunkerque, dœ̃kɛʀk or; Dutch:; is a harbour city and a commune in the northernmost part of France, in the Communications had proven to be far more difficult than anticipated, and it only now transpired that this army yet had to be assembled in port, which would take at least six days, while Medina Sidonia waited at anchor; and that Dunkirk was blockaded by a Dutch fleet of thirty flyboats under Lieutenant-Admiral Justin of Nassau. The flyboat was a European light Warship of between 70 to 200 tons used in the late 16th and early 17th century the name was subsequently applied to a number of disparate vessels Justinus van Nassau (1559 - Leiden, 1631 was the only extramarital child of William of Orange. Parma desired that the Armada send its light petaches to drive away the Dutch, but this was not acted upon by Medina Sidonia because he feared to need these ships himself for his protection. There was no deep-water port where the fleet might shelter – always acknowledged as a major difficulty for the expedition – and the Spanish found themselves vulnerable as night drew on. At midnight on July 28 the English set alight eight fireships, sacrificing regular warships by filling them with pitch, brimstone, some gunpowder, and tar, and cast them downwind among the closely-anchored vessels of the Armada. Events 1540 - Thomas Cromwell is executed at the order of Henry VIII of England on charges of Treason. Tar is a viscous black Liquid derived from the Destructive distillation of organic matter The Spanish feared that these uncommonly large fireships were 'hellburners'^[7], specialised fireships filled with large gunpowder charges, which had been used to deadly effect at the Siege of Antwerp. Hellburners ( Dutch: hellebranders; brander is Dutch for "fireship" are specialised fireships used in the Siege of Antwerp (1584-1585 ^[8]: two were intercepted and towed away, but the remainder bore down on the fleet. Medina Sidonia's flagship and the principal warships held their positions, but the rest of the fleet cut their cables and scattered in confusion. No Spanish ships were burnt, but the crescent formation had been broken, and the fleet now found itself too far to leeward of Calais in the rising south-westerly wind to recover its position. The English closed in for battle.

The Battle of Gravelines

The small port of Gravelines was then part of Flanders in the Spanish Netherlands, close to the border with France and the closest Spanish territory to England. Gravelines (Grevelingen is a small historic town and commune on the northern coast of France on the river Aa 15 miles (25 km south west of Dunkirk Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. The Southern Netherlands (Zuidelijke Nederlanden Países Bajos del Sur Pays-Bas du sud were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain ( Spanish Medina Sidonia tried to re-form his fleet there, and was reluctant to sail further east owing to the danger from the shoals off Flanders, from which his Dutch enemies had removed the sea-marks.

The English had learned more of the Armada's strengths and weaknesses during the skirmishes in the English Channel, and had concluded it was necessary to close within a hundred metres to penetrate the oak hulls of the Spanish ships. In the first engagements they had spent most of their gunpowder and had after Wight been forced to conserve their heavy shot and powder for a final decisive attack near Gravelines. During all engagements, the Spanish heavy guns proved unwieldy, and their gunners had not been trained to reload – in contrast to their English counterparts, they fired once and then jumped to the rigging to attend to their main task as marines ready to board enemy ships. Boarding, in its simplest sense refers to the insertion onto a ship's deck of people In fact, evidence from Armada wrecks in Ireland shows that much of the fleet's ammunition was never spent. Their determination to thrash out a victory in hand-to-hand fighting proved a weakness for the Spanish; it had been effective on occasions such as the Battle of Lepanto and at the Battle of Punta Delgada (1582), but the English were aware of this strength and sought to avoid it. The naval Battle of Ponta Delgada, also called the Battle of Terceira, took place on July 26 1582, in the sea of the Azores near Terceira Island

With its superior maneuverability, the English fleet provoked Spanish fire while staying out of range. Once the Spanish had lost their heavy shot, the English then closed, firing repeated and damaging broadsides into the enemy ships. This also enabled them to maintain a position to windward so that the heeling Armada hulls were exposed to damage below the water-line. Windward is the direction from which the wind is blowing at the time in question

Five Spanish ships were lost. The galleass San Lorenzo ran aground at Calais and was taken by Howard after murderous fighting, between the crew, the galley slaves, the English and the French who ultimately took possession of the wreck. The galleons San Mateo and San Felipe drifted away in a sinking condition, ran aground on the isle of Walcheren the next day and were taken by the Dutch. Walcheren is a former Island in the Province of Zeeland in the Netherlands at the mouth of the Scheldt Estuary One carrack ran aground near Blankenberge, another foundered. This article relates to the Belgian coastal town of Blankenberge Many other Spanish ships were severely damaged, especially the Spanish and Portuguese Atlantic-class galleons who had to bear the brunt of the fighting during the early hours of the battle in desperate individual actions against groups of English ships. The Spanish plan to join with Parma's army had been defeated, and the English had afforded themselves some breathing space. But the Armada's presence in northern waters still posed a great threat to England.

Tilbury speech

Main article: Speech to the Troops at Tilbury

On the day after the battle of Gravelines, the wind had backed southerly, enabling Medina Sidonia to move his fleet northward away from the French coast. The Speech to the Troops at Tilbury was delivered on 9 August Old Style, 19 August New Style 1588 by Queen Elizabeth I of Although their shot lockers were almost empty, the English pursued in an attempt to prevent the enemy from returning to escort Parma. On August 2 Old Style, August 12 New Style, Howard called a halt to the pursuit in the latitude of the Firth of Forth off Scotland. Events 338 BC - A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid By that point, the Spanish were suffering from thirst and exhaustion, and the only option left to Medina Sidonia was to chart a course home to Spain, along the most hazardous parts of the Atlantic seaboard.

The threat of invasion from the Netherlands had not yet been discounted, and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester maintained a force of 4,000 soldiers at West Tilbury, Essex, to defend the estuary of the River Thames against any incursion up-river towards London. Robert Dudley 1st Earl of Leicester ( 24 June 1532 /1533 &ndash 4 September 1588) was the long standing Favourite of Elizabeth West Tilbury is a village situated on the top of a river terrace overlooking the river Thames. The Thames ( is a major River flowing through southern England.

On August 8 (Old Style), August 18 New Style, Queen Elizabeth went to Tilbury to encourage her forces, and the next day gave to them what is probably her most famous speech:

“

My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that we are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but, I do assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. Events 293 BC - The oldest known Roman temple to Venus is founded starting the institution of Vinalia Rustica. Let tyrants fear, I have always so behaved myself, that under God I have placed my chiefs' strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and goodwill of my subjects; and, therefore, I am come amongst you as you see at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of battle, to live or die amongst you all - to lay down for my God, and for my kingdoms, and for my people, my honour and my blood even in the dust. I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king - and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which, rather than any dishonour should grow by me, I myself will take up arms - I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarded of every one of your virtues in the field. I know already, for your forwardness, you have deserved rewards and crowns, and, we do assure you, on the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. For the meantime, my Lieutenant-General Leicester shall be in my stead, than whom never prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject; not doubting but by your obedience to my General, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over these enemies of my God, of my kingdom and of my people.

”

Return to Spain around the British Isles

The Armada sailed around Scotland and Ireland into the North Atlantic. The ships were beginning to show wear from the long voyage, and some were kept together by having their hulls bundled up with cables. Supplies of food and water ran short, and the cavalry horses were cast overboard into the sea. The intention would have been to keep well to the west of the coast of Scotland and Ireland, in the relative safety of the open sea. However, there being at that time no way of accurately measuring longitude, the Spanish were not aware that the Gulf Stream was carrying them north and east as they tried to move west, and they eventually turned south much further to the east than planned, a devastating navigational error. Longitude (ˈlɒndʒɪˌtjuːd or ˈlɒŋgɪˌtjuːd symbolized by the Greek character Lambda (λ is the east-west Geographic coordinate measurement The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension towards Europe the North Atlantic Drift, is a powerful warm and swift Atlantic Ocean current that Off the coasts of Scotland and Ireland the fleet ran into a series of powerful westerly gales, which drove many of the damaged ships further towards the lee shore. The terms lee shore and weather or windward shore are nautical terms used to describe a stretch of Shoreline. Because so many anchors had been abandoned during the escape from the English fireships off Calais, many of the ships were incapable of securing shelter as they reached the coast of Ireland and were driven on to the rocks. The late 1500s, and especially 1588, were marked by unusually strong North Atlantic storms, likely associated with a high accumulation of polar ice off the coast of Greenland, a characteristic phenomenon of the "Little Ice Age. The Little Ice Age (LIA was a period of cooling occurring after a warmer era known as the Medieval Warm Period or Medieval Climate Optimum "^[9] As a result many more ships and sailors were lost to cold and stormy weather than in combat.

Following the gales it is reckoned that 5,000 men died, whether by drowning and starvation or by execution at the hands of English forces in Ireland. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. The reports from Ireland abound with strange accounts of brutality and survival, and attest on occasion to the brilliance of Spanish seamanship. Some survivors were concealed by Irish people, but few shipwrecked Spanish survived to be taken into Irish service, fewer still to return home. In the end, 67 ships and around 10,000 men survived. Many of the men were near death from disease, as the conditions are very cramped and most of the ships ran out of food and water. Many more died in Spain, or on hospital ships in Spanish harbours, from diseases contracted during the voyage. It was reported that, when Philip II learned of the result of the expedition, he declared, "I sent the Armada against men, not God's winds and waves". ^[10] Greatly disappointed, he still forgave the Duke of Medina Sidonia.

Consequences

English losses were comparatively few, and none of their ships were sunk. But after the victory, typhus, dysentery and hunger killed many sailors and troops (estimated at 6,000–8,000) as they were discharged without pay: a demoralising dispute occasioned by the government's fiscal shortfalls left many of the English defenders unpaid for months, which was in contrast to the assistance given by the Spanish government to its surviving men. Dysentery (formerly known as flux or the bloody flux) is an infection of the digestive system that results in severe Diarrhea containing mucus and blood

Although the English fleet was unable to prevent the regrouping of the Armada at the Battle of the Gravelines, requiring it to remain on duty even as thousands of its sailors died, the outcome vindicated the strategy adopted, resulting in a revolution in naval warfare with the promotion of gunnery, which until then had played a supporting role to the tasks of ramming and boarding. The battle of Gravelines is regarded by specialists in military history as reflecting a lasting shift in the naval balance in favour of the English, in part because of the gap in naval technology and armament it confirmed between the two nations, '^[11] which continued into the next century. In the words of Geoffrey Parker, by 1588 'the capital ships of the Elizabethan navy constituted the most powerful battlefleet afloat anywhere in the world. Noel Geoffrey Parker (born 1943 in Nottingham, England is a leading expert on Military history. '^[12] Historians now recognize that the Armada campaign did not have lasting consequences upon the naval balance of power. In fact it led the Spanish Navy undergoing a major reform which helped it to continue dominating European waters well into the next century.

In England, the boost to national pride lasted for years, and Elizabeth's legend persisted and grew well after her death. The repulse of Spanish naval might gave heart to the Protestant cause across Europe, and the belief that God was behind the Protestant cause was shown by the striking of commemorative medals that bore the inscription, He blew with His winds, and they were scattered. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. He blew with His winds and they were scattered is a famous quotation on the aftermath of the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. There were also more lighthearted medals struck, such as the one with the play on Julius Caesar's words: Venit, Vidit, Fugit (he came, he saw, he fled). The victory was acclaimed by the English as their greatest since Agincourt. The Battle of Agincourt was an English victory against a larger French army in the Hundred Years' War.

English Armada

However, an attempt to press home the English advantage failed the following year, when a comparable English fleet sailed against Spain in 1589 during the Norris-Drake Expedition or English Armada which met a similar fate, limping home after being held by the Spanish on the coasts of Portugal. The English Armada (also known as the Counter Armada, or the Drake-Norris Expedition) was a fleet of warships sent to the Iberian coast by Queen Elizabeth

The supply of troops from England to Philip II's enemies in the Netherlands and France continued, but with dwindling success. High seas buccaneering against the Spanish also persisted but with little success. The Anglo-Spanish War thereafter generally favoured Spain. It was not until half a century later that the Dutch interrupted Spanish dominance at sea at the Battle of the Downs in 1639. The naval Battle of the Downs took place on 31 October 1639 ( New style) during the Eighty Years' War and was a decisive defeat of the The strength of Spain's tercios – the dominant fighting unit in European land campaigns for over a century – was likewise broken by the French at the Battle of Rocroi in 1643. The Tercio (Also known as Tercio Español, literally " Spanish tercio " and from tercio meaning "one-third" The Battle of Rocroi, fought on May 19 1643, resulted in a decisive victory of the French army under the Duc d'Enghien, against the

Other meanings

1. Spanish Armada (Armada Española) can also describe the modern navy of Spain, part of the Spanish Armed Forces. The Armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces ( Spanish: Fuerzas Armadas Españolas) The Spanish navy has participated in a number of military engagements, including the dispute over the Isla Perejil. This is not a reference to the Armada above – "armada" simply means "navy" in Spanish.
2. In Tennis slang, Spanish Armada is used to refer to the group of highly ranked Spanish players, such as Rafael Nadal, Felix Mantilla, Albert Portas, Juan Carlos Ferrero, Carlos Moyá, and others. Tennis is a sport played between two players ( singles) or between two teams of two players each ( doubles) Rafael Nadal Parera (rafaˈel naˈðal (born June 3 1986 is a Spanish professional Tennis player who has been ranked World No Félix Mantilla may refer to Félix Mantilla Botella, Spanish professional tennis player Felix Mantilla Lamela, former Major League Albert Portas Soy (born on November 15 1973, in Barcelona, Catalonia) is a professional Tennis player Juan Carlos Ferrero Donat (born February 12 1980) or JCF is a former World No Carlos Moyà Llompart (born August 27 1976) also known as Carles Moyà, Carlos Moyá and Carlos Moya, is a former world number

See also

• Black Legend
• Spanish Armada in Ireland
• Francisco de Cuellar
• Fernando Sánchez de Tovar - Landed Spanish forces in England
• Carlos de Amésquita - Landed Spanish forces in England
• Spanish Empire

References

Literature

• Geoffrey Parker, 'The Dreadnought Revolution of Tudor England', Mariner's Mirror, 82 (1996): 269-300.
• Armada (1988) ISBN 0-575-03729-6
• A History of England, from the Defeat of the Armada to the Death of Elizabeth, Edward Cheyney ISBN 1428629106
• The Defeat of the Spanish Armada, Garrett Mattingly ISBN 0-395-08366-4
• England and the Spanish Armada (1990) ISBN 0-7317-0127-5
• The Expedition of Sir John Norris and Sir Francis Drake to Spain and Portugal, 1589, edited by RB Wernham ISBN 0-566-05578-3
• The Enterprise of England (1988) ISBN 0-86299-476-4
• The Return of the Armadas: the Later Years of the Elizabethan War against Spain, 1595–1603, RB Wernham ISBN 0-19-820443-4
• Sir Francis Drake: the Queen's Pirate, Harry Kelsey ISBN 0-300-07182-5
• The Spanish Armada, Michael Lewis (1960). Garrett Mattingly ( May 6 1900 &ndash December 18 1962) was a professor of European history at Columbia University who First published Batsford, 1960 – republished Pan, 1966
• The Spanish Armada, C. Martin & G. Parker. (1988) ISBN 0-241-12125-6
• The Spanish Armada: the Experience of the War in 1588, Felipe Fernández-Armesto ISBN 0-19-822926-7
• The voyage of the Armada (1981) ISBN 0-00-211575-1
• Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors vols. Felipe Fernández-Armesto (born 1950 is a British Historian and author of several popular works of History. 2 & 3 (London, 1885–1890)
• John O'Donovan (ed. ) Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (1851)
• Cyril Falls Elizabeth's Irish Wars (1950; reprint London, 1996) ISBN 0-09-477220-7
• T. P. Kilfeather Ireland: Graveyard of the Spanish Armada (Anvil Books, 1967)
• Winston Graham The Spanish Armadas (1972; reprint 2001) ISBN 0-14-139020-4
• The Prince, Nicolo Machiavelli – numerous editions, including ISBN 1-85326-306-0
• Historic Bourne etc. , J. J. Davies (1909)
• Chambers Biographical Dictionary, J. O. Thorne. (1969) SBN [sic] 550-16001-9
• Dutch Republic and the links from it give an insight into the politics in the Netherlands which ran parallel with political developments in England. "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
• BBC-ZDF etc TV coproduction Natural History of Europe
• Discovery Civilization Battlefield Detectives – What Sank The Armada?
• The Atlas of the Crusades, Jonathan Riley-Smith. Jonathan Simon Christopher Riley-Smith MA LittD FRHistS, (June 27 1938 -) is an historian of the Crusades and a former Dixie Professor of Ecclesiastical History. (1999) ISBN 0192853643.

Online resources

• The Defeat of the Spanish Armada. Insight into the context, personalities, planning and consequences. Wes Ulm
• translation of Francisco de Cuellar's account of his service in the Armada and on the run in Ireland
• Elizabeth I and the Spanish Armada – a learning resource and teachers notes from the British Library
• Before, During and After the Armada: England's changing attitudes to Spain, 1588-1999 – an essay by M. G. Sanchez
• Top Ten Myths and Muddles. Wes Ulm

Bibliography

• From Merciless Invaders: The Defeat of the Spanish Armada, Alexander McKee, Souvenir Press, London, 1963. Second edition, Grafton Books, London, 1988.
• The Armada, Garrett Mattingly, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1959
• The Spanish Armadas, Winston Graham, Dorset Press, New York, 1972.

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