Space colonization (also called space settlement, space humanization, space habitation, etc. A space habitat, also called space colony, orbital colony, space city, or space settlement is a Space station intended as a The Stanford torus is a proposed design for a Space habitat capable of housing approximately 10000 to 140000 permanent residents Don Davis (born October 21, 1952) is an Artist known for his portrayals of space related subjects A space habitat, also called space colony, orbital colony, space city, or space settlement is a Space station intended as a ) is the concept of autonomous (self-sufficient) human habitation of locations outside Earth. Autonomy ( Greek: Auto- Nomos - nomos meaning "law" one who gives oneself his/her own Law) is the right to Self-government Self-sufficiency refers to the state of not requiring any outside aid support or interaction for survival it is therefore a type of personal or collective autonomy. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus A space habitat, also called space colony, orbital colony, space city, or space settlement is a Space station intended as a EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 It is a major theme in science fiction, as well as a long-term goal of various national space programs. The following is a list of science fiction themes. Common themes and tropes See also Science fiction genre Cosmology This is a list of government agencies engaged in activities related to Outer space and Space exploration.

While many people think of space colonies on the Moon or Mars, others argue that the first colonies will be in orbit. In Physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star They have determined that there are ample quantities of all the necessary materials on the Moon and Near Earth Asteroids, that solar energy is readily available in very large quantities. In Space exploration, In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU describes the proposed use of resources found or manufactured on other planetary bodies (the Moon Mars etc Near-Earth asteroids (NEAs are Asteroids whose Orbits are close to Earth 's orbit Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life

In 2005 NASA Administrator Michael Griffin identified space colonization as the ultimate goal of current spaceflight programs, saying:

… the goal isn't just scientific exploration … it's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the solar system as we go forward in time … In the long run a single-planet species will not survive … If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program For other people with the same name see Michael Griffin (disambiguation. Now, today the technology is such that this is barely conceivable. We're in the infancy of it. … I'm talking about that one day, I don't know when that day is, but there will be more human beings who live off the Earth than on it. We may well have people living on the moon. We may have people living on the moons of Jupiter and other planets. We may have people making habitats on asteroids … I know that humans will colonize the solar system and one day go beyond. |20px|20px|Michael D. Griffin^[1]

As of 2008, the international space station provides a permanent, yet still non-autonomous, human presence in space. For other people with the same name see Michael Griffin (disambiguation. The NASA Lunar outpost, providing a permanent human presence on the moon, is at the planning stage. The Lunar outpost will be an inhabited facility on the surface of the Moon which NASA currently plans to construct over the five years between 2019 There is an ongoing development of technologies that may be used in future space colonization projects.

Space colonization

Mercury Venus Earth Moon Lagrange points Mars Ceres Asteroids Outer solar system Jupiter Europa Callisto Saturn Titan Pluto Trans-Neptunian Objects

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Contents 1 Method 1.1 Materials 1.2 Energy 1.3 Transportation 1.3.1 Space Access 1.3.2 Cislunar and Solar System travel 1.4 Communication 1.5 Life support 1.6 Radiation protection 1.7 Self-replication 1.8 Population size 2 Location 2.1 Planetary Locations 2.1.1 Mars 2.1.2 Mercury 2.1.3 Venus 2.1.4 Gas Giants 2.2 Satellite locations 2.2.1 The Moon 2.2.2 Europa, Callisto (or other Jovian moons) 2.2.3 Phobos and Deimos 2.2.4 Titan 2.3 Free space locations 2.3.1 Space habitats 2.3.2 Earth orbit 2.3.3 Lagrange points 2.3.4 Asteroids 2.3.4.1 Near Earth Asteroids 2.3.4.2 Main Belt Asteroids 2.3.5 Statites 3 Outside the Solar system 3.1 Starship 3.2 Example 4 Terrestrial analogues to space colonies 5 Literature 6 Justification 7 Objections 8 Counter arguments 9 Advocacy 10 In fiction 10.1 Written works 10.2 Games 10.3 Comics 10.4 Television 10.5 RPGs 11 See also 12 References 13 External links

Method

Building colonies in space will require access to food, space, people, construction materials, energy, transportation, communications, life support, simulated gravity, and radiation protection. Mercury has been suggested as one possible target for Space colonization of the inner Solar system, along with Mars, Venus, the Moon The colonization of Venus has been a subject of much speculation and many works of science fiction since before the dawn of Spaceflight, and is still much discussed The colonization of the Moon is the proposed establishment of permanent human communities on the Moon. Lagrange Point Colonization is the colonization of the five equilibrium points in the orbit of a planet or moon its primary called Lagrange points The most obvious points for Mars is the focus of much speculation and serious study about possible human colonization which might be possible Ceres has been proposed as one possible target for human colonization in the inner Solar system. The Asteroids or more properly the Minor planets, have long been suggested as possible sites for human colonization Some of the moons of the outer planets of the Solar system are large enough to be suitable places for colonization The colonization of Jupiter refers to having a permanent human presence on Jupiter Europa, the fourth-largest moon of the Gas giant Jupiter, is a subject in both Science fiction and scientific speculation for future human NASA performed a study called HOPE (Revolutionary Concepts for H uman O uter P lanet E xploration regarding the future exploration of Some of the moons of the outer planets of the Solar system are large enough to be suitable places for colonization Saturn’s orange moon Titan is one of several candidates for a possible future colonization of the outer planets in the solar system Advantages of Pluto Based on current theory Pluto is a potential dwarf planet to colonize because its surface is similar to the rock of Earth and Freeman Dyson has proposed that Trans-Neptunian Objects, rather than Planets are the major potential habitat of life in space Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way In Human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space Artificial gravity is a simulation of gravity in Outer space or Free-fall. Radiation, as in Physics, is Energy in the form of waves or moving Subatomic particles emitted by an atom or other body as it changes from a higher energy Colonies will presumably be situated to help fulfill those requirements.

Materials

Colonies on the Moon and Mars could use local materials, although the Moon is deficient in volatiles (principally hydrogen, and nitrogen) but possesses a great deal of oxygen, silicon, and metals such as iron, aluminum and titanium. In Space exploration, In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU describes the proposed use of resources found or manufactured on other planetary bodies (the Moon Mars etc Volatility in the context of Chemistry, Physics and Thermodynamics is a measure of the tendency of a substance to Vaporize. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 WikipediaNaming Titanium (taɪˈteɪniəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Ti and Atomic number 22 Launching materials from Earth is very expensive, so bulk materials could come from the Moon, a Near-Earth Object (NEO — an asteroid or comet with an orbit near Earth), Phobos or Deimos where gravitational forces are much smaller, there is no atmosphere, and there is no biosphere to damage. Near-Earth objects ( NEOs) are Asteroids Comets and large Meteoroids whose orbits bring them close ( Perihelion distance AU Asteroids, sometimes called Minor planets or planetoids', are bodies—primarily of the inner Solar System —that are smaller than planets but A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail — TemplateInfobox Planet.--> Deimos (ˈdaɪməs; also /ˈdiːməs/ An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " Many NEOs contain substantial amounts of metals, oxygen, hydrogen and carbon. Certain NEOs may also contain some nitrogen.

Farther out, Jupiter's Trojan asteroids are thought to be high in water ice and probably other volatiles [1]. Some of the moons of the outer planets of the Solar system are large enough to be suitable places for colonization

Energy

Solar energy in orbit is abundant, reliable, and is commonly used to power satellites today. There is no night in space, and no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight. The solar energy available, in watts per square meter, at any distance, d, from the Sun can be calculated by the formula E = 1366/d², where d is measured in astronomical units. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life The astronomical unit ( AU or au or au or sometimes ua) is a unit of Length based on the distance from the Earth to the

Particularly in the weightless conditions of space, sunlight can be used directly, using large solar ovens made of lightweight metallic foil so as to generate thousands of degrees of heat at no cost; or reflected onto crops to enable photosynthesis to proceed. A solar oven or solar cooker is a device which uses Sunlight as its energy source Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy.

Large structures would be needed to convert sunlight into significant amounts of electrical power for settlers' use. In highly electrified nations on Earth, per-capita electrical consumption can average 1 kilowatt-hour/person (or roughly 10 megawatt-hours per person per year. )^[2]

Energy has been suggested as an eventual export item for space settlements, perhaps using wireless power transmission e. Wireless energy transfer or wireless power transmission is the process that takes place in any system where Electrical energy is transmitted from a power g. via microwave beams to send power to Earth or the Moon. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with Wavelengths ranging from 1 mm to 1 m or frequencies between 0 A solar power satellite, or SPS or Powersat, as originally proposed would be a Satellite built in High Earth orbit that uses Microwave This method has zero emissions, so would have significant benefits such as elimination of greenhouse gases and nuclear waste. Ground area required per watt would be less than conventional solar panels.

The Moon has nights of two Earth weeks in duration and Mars has night, dust, and is farther from the Sun, reducing solar energy available by a factor of about ½-⅔, and possibly making nuclear power more attractive on these bodies. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions Alternatively, continuous energy could be beamed to the lunar surface from a solar power satellite at the Lagrange L1 location.

For both solar thermal and nuclear power generation in airless environments, such as the Moon and space, and to a lesser extent the very thin Martian atmosphere, one of the main difficulties is dispersing the inevitable heat generated. The Carnot cycle is a particular Thermodynamic cycle, modeled on the hypothetical Carnot heat engine, proposed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 and This requires fairly large radiator areas. Alternatively, the waste heat can be used to melt ice on the poles of a planet like Mars.

Transportation

Space Access

Further information: Non-rocket spacelaunch

Transportation to orbit is often the limiting factor in space endeavours. Non-rocket spacelaunch (NRS is the idea of reaching outer space specifically from the Earth's surface predominately without the use of conventional chemical rockets which today To settle space, much cheaper launch vehicles are required, as well as a way to avoid serious damage to the atmosphere from the thousands, perhaps millions, of launches required. One possibility is air-breathing hypersonic spaceplane under development by NASA and other organizations, both public and private. In Aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly Supersonic. A spaceplane is a Rocket plane designed to pass the Edge of space. There are also proposed projects such as building a space elevator or a mass driver; or launch loops. A space elevator is a proposed structure designed to transport Material from a celestial body 's Surface into space. A mass driver or electromagnetic Catapult is a method of Non-rocket spacelaunch that would use a Linear motor to Accelerate A launch loop or Lofstrom loop is a design for a belt based Maglev Orbital launch system that would be around 2000 km long and maintained at

Cislunar and Solar System travel

Transportation of large quantities of materials from the Moon, Phobos, Deimos, and Near Earth asteroids to orbital settlement construction sites is likely to be necessary.

Transportation using off-Earth resources for propellant in relatively conventional rockets would be expected to massively reduce in-space transportation costs compared to the present day; propellant launched from the Earth is likely to be prohibitively expensive for space colonization, even with improved space access costs. In Space exploration, In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU describes the proposed use of resources found or manufactured on other planetary bodies (the Moon Mars etc

Other technologies such as tether propulsion, VASIMR, ion drives, solar thermal rockets, solar sails, magnetic sails, and nuclear thermal propulsion can all potentially help solve the problems of high transport cost once in space. Tether propulsion systems are proposals to use long very strong cables (known as Tethers to change the velocity of Spacecraft. The Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket ( VASIMR) is an electro-thermal thruster for Spacecraft propulsion. An ion thruster is a form of Electric propulsion used for Spacecraft propulsion that creates thrust by accelerating Ions Ion thrusters are characterized Solar thermal propulsion is a form of Spacecraft propulsion that makes use of solar power to directly heat Reaction mass, and therefore does not require an electrical Solar sails (also called light sails or photon sails, especially when they use Light sources other than the Sun) are a proposed form of A magnetic sail or magsail is a proposed method of Spacecraft propulsion which would use a static magnetic field to deflect charged particles radiated by the In a nuclear thermal rocket a working fluid usually Hydrogen, is heated to a high temperature in a Nuclear reactor, and then expands through a rocket nozzle

For lunar materials, one well-studied possibility is to build electronic catapults to launch bulk materials to waiting settlements. A mass driver or electromagnetic Catapult is a method of Non-rocket spacelaunch that would use a Linear motor to Accelerate Alternatively, lunar space elevators might be employed. A lunar space elevator (also called a moonstalk) is a proposed cable running from the surface of the Moon into space

Communication

Compared to the other requirements, communication is relatively easy for orbit and the Moon. A great proportion of current terrestrial communications already passes through satellites. This article is about artificial satellites For natural satellites also known as moons see Natural satellite. Yet, as colonies further from the earth are considered, communication becomes more of a burden. Transmissions to and from Mars suffer from significant delays due to the speed of light and the greatly varying distance between conjunction and opposition — the lag will range between 7 and 44 minutes — making real-time communication impractical. Other means of communication that do not require live interaction such as e-mail and voice mail systems should pose no problem. Electronic mail, often abbreviated to e-mail, email, or originally eMail, is a Store-and-forward method of writing sending receiving Voicemail (or voice mail voice-mail vmail or VMS, sometimes called messagebank) is a centralized system of managing Telephone messages for a large group

Life support

People need air, water, food, gravity and reasonable temperatures to survive for long periods. On Earth, a large complex biosphere provides these. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. In space settlements, a relatively small, closed ecological system must recycle or import all the nutrients without "crashing. Closed ecological systems (CES are Ecosystems that do not rely on matter exchange with any part outside the system "

The closest terrestrial analogue to space life support is possibly that of the nuclear submarine. A nuclear submarine is a Submarine powered by Atomic energy. Previously conventional submarines used diesel engines that required air for moving on the Nuclear submarines use mechanical life support systems to support humans for months without surfacing, and this same basic technology could presumably be employed for space use. However, nuclear submarines run "open loop" and typically dump carbon dioxide overboard, although they recycle oxygen. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Recycling of the carbon dioxide has been approached in the literature using the Sabatier process or the Bosch reaction. The Sabatier reaction or Sabatier process involves the reaction of Hydrogen with Carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures and pressures in the presence of The Bosch reaction is a Chemical reaction between Carbon dioxide and Hydrogen that produces elemental Carbon ( Graphite) Water

Alternatively, and more attractive to many, the Biosphere 2 project in Arizona has shown that a complex, small, enclosed, man-made biosphere can support eight people for at least a year, although there were many problems. Biosphere 2 is a 314-acre (127 ha) structure originally built to be an artificial closed ecological system in Oracle, Arizona ( USA The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. A year or so into the two-year mission oxygen had to be replenished, which strongly suggests that they achieved atmospheric closure.

The relationship between organisms, their habitat and the non-Earth environment can be:

• Organisms and their habitat fully isolated from the environment (examples include artificial biosphere, Biosphere 2, life support system)
• Changing the environment to become a life-friendly habitat, a process called terraforming. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Biosphere 2 is a 314-acre (127 ha) structure originally built to be an artificial closed ecological system in Oracle, Arizona ( USA In Human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space The terraforming (literally "Earth-shaping" of a Planet, moon, or other body is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying its
• Changing organisms to become more compatible with the environment, (See genetic engineering, transhumanism, cyborg)

97–99% of the light energy provided to the plant ends up as heat and needs to be dissipated somehow to avoid overheating the habitat. Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct Transhumanism (sometimes symbolized by >H or H+) a term often used as a synonym for " Human enhancement " is an international intellectual A cyborg is a Cybernetic Organism ( ie, an organism that has both artificial and natural systems

A combination of the above technologies is also possible.

Radiation protection

Cosmic rays and solar flares create a lethal radiation environment in space. For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on A solar flare is a violent explosion in a star's (like the Sun 's atmosphere releasing as much Energy as 6 × 1025 Joules Solar flares Radiation, as in Physics, is Energy in the form of waves or moving Subatomic particles emitted by an atom or other body as it changes from a higher energy In Earth orbit, the Van Allen belts make living above the Earth's atmosphere difficult. The Van Allen radiation belt is a Torus of energetic Charged particles ( plasma) around Earth, held in place by Earth's Magnetic To protect life, settlements must be surrounded by sufficient mass to absorb most incoming radiation. Somewhere around 5–10 tons of material per square meter of surface area is required. This can be achieved cheaply with leftover material (slag) from processing lunar soil and asteroids into oxygen, metals, and other useful materials, however it represents a significant obstacle to maneuvering vessels with such massive bulk. Inertia would necessitate powerful thrusters to start or stop rotation.

Self-replication

Self-replication is an optional attribute, but many think it the ultimate goal because it allows a much more rapid increase in colonies, while eliminating costs to and dependence on Earth. It could be argued that the establishment of such a colony would be Earth's first act of self-replication (see Gaia spore). EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 See also Biological reproduction Self-replication is any process by which a thing might make a copy of itself Gaia spore is a subset of the Gaia hypothesis, the concept that Earth's Ecosystems can be treated as a single unified Organism. Intermediate goals include colonies that expect only information from Earth (science, engineering, entertainment, etc. ) and colonies that just require periodic supply of light weight objects, such as integrated circuits, medicines, genetic material and perhaps some tools. Microchipsjpg|right|thumb|200px|Microchips ( EPROM memory with a transparent window showing the integrated circuit inside Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known

See also: von Neumann probe, clanking replicator, Molecular nanotechnology

Population size

In 2002, the anthropologist John H. Moore estimated that a population of 150–180 would allow normal reproduction for 60 to 80 generations — equivalent to 2000 years. The idea of self-replicating spacecraft has been applied—in theory—to several distinct "tasks" A self-replicating machine is an artificial construct that is theoretically capable of autonomously manufacturing a copy of itself using raw materials taken from its environment Molecular nanotechnology (MNT is the concept of engineering functional mechanical systems at the molecular scale See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Dr John H Moore is a professor of Anthropology at the University of Florida in Gainesville Florida.

A much smaller initial population of as little as two female humans should be viable as long as human embryos are available from Earth. An embryo (from Greek:, plural, lit "that which grows" from en- "in" + bryein "to swell be full" is a multicellular Use of a sperm bank from Earth also allows a smaller starting base with negligible inbreeding. A sperm bank or cryobank is a facility that collects and stores human sperm mainly from sperm donors primarily for the purpose of achieving pregnancies Inbreeding is breeding between close Relatives whether plant or animal

Researchers in conservation biology have tended to adopt the "50/500" rule of thumb initially advanced by Franklin and Soule. This rule says a short-term effective population size (N_e) of 50 is needed to prevent an unacceptable rate of inbreeding, while a long‐term N_e of 500 is required to maintain overall genetic variability. The N_e = 50 prescription corresponds to an inbreeding rate of 1% per generation, approximately half the maximum rate tolerated by domestic animal breeders. The N_e = 500 value attempts to balance the rate of gain in genetic variation due to mutation with the rate of loss due to genetic drift. In Population genetics, genetic drift is the accumulation of random events that change the makeup of a gene pool slightly but often compound over time

Effective population size N_e depends on the number of males N_m and females N_f in the population according to the formula:

Location

Location is a frequent point of contention between space colonization advocates. Space advocacy can be described as the general position supporting pleading or arguing forthe idea or cause of space exploration and settlements

The location of colonization can be:

• On a planet, natural satellite, or asteroid
• In orbit around the Earth, Sun, Lagrangian point or other object

Planetary Locations

Some planetary colonization advocates cite the following potential locations:

Mars

Main article: Colonization of Mars

Mars is a frequent topic of discussion. A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is A natural satellite or moon is a Celestial body that Orbits a Planet or smaller body which is called the primary. Asteroids, sometimes called Minor planets or planetoids', are bodies—primarily of the inner Solar System —that are smaller than planets but EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Mars is the focus of much speculation and serious study about possible human colonization which might be possible Its overall surface area is similar to the dry land surface of Earth, it may have large water reserves, and has carbon (locked as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere). Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere "

Mars may have gone through similar geological and hydrological processes as Earth and contain valuable mineral ores, but this is debated. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific An ore is a volume of rock containing components or Minerals in a mode of occurrence that renders it valuable for mining Equipment is available to extract in situ resources (water, air, etc. In situ (ɪn siːˈtuː is a Latin phrase meaning in the place. ) from the Martian ground and atmosphere. There is a strong scientific interest in colonizing Mars due to the possibility that life could have existed on Mars at some point in its history, and may even still exist in some parts of the planet.

However, its atmosphere is very thin (averaging 800 Pa or about 0. An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " 8% of Earth sea-level atmospheric pressure); so the pressure vessels necessary to support life are very similar to deep space structures. The climate of Mars is colder than Earth's. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of Its gravity is only around a third that of Earth's; it is unknown whether this is sufficient to support human beings for extended periods of time (all long-term human experience to date has been at around Earth gravity or one g). Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Standard gravity, usually denoted by g 0 or g n is the nominal acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface at sea level

The atmosphere is thin enough, when coupled with Mars' lack of magnetic field, that radiation is more intense on the surface, and protection from solar storms would require radiation shielding.

Mars is often the topic of discussion regarding terraforming to make the entire planet or at least large portions of it habitable. The terraforming (literally "Earth-shaping" of a Planet, moon, or other body is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying its

See also: Exploration of Mars, Martian terraforming

Mercury

Main article: Colonization of Mercury

There is a suggestion that Mercury could be colonized using the same technology, approach and equipment that is used in colonization of the Moon. The exploration of Mars has been an important part of the Space exploration programs of the Soviet Union (later Russia) the United The terraforming of Mars is the hypothetical process by which the climate, surface and known properties of Mars would be deliberately changed with the goal of making Mercury has been suggested as one possible target for Space colonization of the inner Solar system, along with Mars, Venus, the Moon Such colonies would almost certainly be restricted to the polar regions due to the extreme daytime temperatures elsewhere on the planet.

Venus

Main article: Colonization of Venus

While the surface of Venus is far too hot and features atmospheric pressure at least 90 times that at sea level on Earth, its massive atmosphere offers a possible alternate location for colonization. The colonization of Venus has been a subject of much speculation and many works of science fiction since before the dawn of Spaceflight, and is still much discussed The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University Mean sea level (MSL is the average (mean height of the Sea, with reference to a suitable reference surface At a height of approximately 50 km, the pressure is reduced to a few atmospheres, and the temperature would be between 40–100 °C, depending on the height. The Standard atmosphere is an international reference pressure defined as 101325 Pa and formerly used as unit of Pressure (symbol atm This part of the atmosphere is probably within dense clouds which contain some sulfuric acid. Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Even these may have a certain benefit to colonization, as they present a possible source for the extraction of water.

See also: Venerian terraforming

Gas Giants

Main article: Colonization of Jupiter

It may also be possible to colonize the three farthest gas giants with floating cities in their atmospheres. Terraforming of Venus is the (theoretical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation The colonization of Jupiter refers to having a permanent human presence on Jupiter A gas giant (sometimes also known as a Jovian planet after the planet Jupiter, or giant planet) is a large Planet that is not primarily In Science fiction, floating cities are settlements that strictly use Buoyancy to remain in the atmosphere of a planet By heating hydrogen balloons, large masses can be suspended underneath at roughly Earth gravity. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Jupiter would be less suitable for habitation due to its high gravity, escape velocity and radiation. Such colonies could export Helium-3 for use in fusion reactors if they ever become practical. This article is about the elemental isotope For the record label Helium 3 see Muse or A&E Records. Fusion power is power generated by Nuclear fusion reactions In this kind of reaction two light atomic nuclei fuse

Satellite locations

The Moon

Main article: Colonization of the Moon

Due to its proximity and relative familiarity, Earth's Moon is also frequently discussed as a target for colonization. The colonization of the Moon is the proposed establishment of permanent human communities on the Moon. It has the benefits of proximity to Earth and lower escape velocity, allowing for easier exchange of goods and services. In Physics, escape velocity is the speed where the Kinetic energy of an object is equal to the magnitude of its Gravitational potential energy A major drawback of the Moon is its low abundance of volatiles necessary for life such as hydrogen and carbon. In Planetary science, volatiles, are that group of elements and compounds with low boiling points (see volatile) that are associated with a planet's or moon's Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Water ice deposits that may exist in some polar craters could serve as a source for these elements. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In the broadest sense the term impact crater can be applied to any depression natural or manmade resulting from the high velocity impact of a projectile with larger body An alternative solution is to bring hydrogen from NE asteroids and combine it with oxygen extracted from lunar rock.

The moon's low surface gravity is also a concern (it is unknown whether 1/6g is sufficient to support human habitation for long periods — see microgravity). g-force (also G-force, g-load) is a measurement of an object's Acceleration expressed in g s

Europa, Callisto (or other Jovian moons)

The Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa, one of Jupiter's moons. The Artemis Project was a private venture to establish a permanent self-supporting base on the Moon by 2002 TemplateInfobox Planet.--> Europa (jʊˈroʊpə; or as Scientists were to inhabit igloos and drill down into the Europan ice crust, exploring any sub-surface ocean. An igloo ( Inuit language: iglu, Inuktitut syllabics: ᐃᒡᓗ "house" plural iglooit or igluit, but in English An ocean (from Greek, ''Okeanos'' (Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the Hydrosphere. This plan also discusses possible use of "air pockets" for human inhabitation.

See also: Colonization of Europa

See also: Colonization of Callisto

See also: Colonization of the outer solar system

Phobos and Deimos

The moons of Mars may be an appealing target for space colonization. Europa, the fourth-largest moon of the Gas giant Jupiter, is a subject in both Science fiction and scientific speculation for future human NASA performed a study called HOPE (Revolutionary Concepts for H uman O uter P lanet E xploration regarding the future exploration of Some of the moons of the outer planets of the Solar system are large enough to be suitable places for colonization Low delta-v is needed to reach the Earth from Phobos and Deimos, allowing delivery of material to cislunar space, as well as transport around the Martian system. In Astrodynamics, the term delta-v, literally "change in velocity" (see symbol delta) has a specific meaning it is a Scalar which takes TemplateInfobox Planet.--> Deimos (ˈdaɪməs; also /ˈdiːməs/ Outer space, often simply called space, comprises the relatively empty regions of the Universe outside the escape velocities of Celestial bodies. The moons themselves may be inhabited, with methods similar to those for asteroids. The original DOOM game featured a colony on Deimos and one on Phobos. Doom (officially cased DOOM) is a 1993 Computer game by Id Software that is a landmark title in the First-person shooter

Titan

Main article: Colonization of Titan

Titan has been suggested as an appealing target for colonization,^[3] because it is the only moon in our solar system to have a dense atmosphere and is rich in carbon-bearing compounds. Saturn’s orange moon Titan is one of several candidates for a possible future colonization of the outer planets in the solar system An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " ^[4]

Free space locations

Space habitats

Main article: Space habitat

Free space locations in space would necessitate a space habitat, also called space colony and orbital colony, or a space station which would be intended as a permanent settlement rather than as a simple waystation or other specialized facility. A space habitat, also called space colony, orbital colony, space city, or space settlement is a Space station intended as a A space habitat, also called space colony, orbital colony, space city, or space settlement is a Space station intended as a A space station is an artificial structure designed for Humans to live in Outer space. They would be literal "cities" in space, where people would live and work and raise families. Many design proposals have been made with varying degrees of realism by both science fiction authors and engineers. An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering.

A space habitat would also serve as a proving ground for how well a generation ship could function as a long-term home for hundreds or thousands of people. A generation ship is a hypothetical Starship that travels across great distances between stars at a speed much slower than that of light (see Interstellar travel Such a space habitat could be isolated from the rest of humanity for a century, but near enough to Earth for help. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 This would test if thousands of humans can survive a century on their own before sending them beyond the reach of any help.

Earth orbit

Compared to other locations, Earth orbit has substantial advantages and one major, but solvable, problem. Orbits close to Earth can be reached in hours, whereas the Moon is days away and trips to Mars take months. There is ample continuous solar power in high Earth orbits, whereas all planets lose sunlight at least half the time. Weightlessness makes construction of large colonies considerably easier than in a gravity environment. Astronauts have demonstrated moving multi-ton satellites by hand. An astronaut or cosmonaut (космона́вт) is a person trained 0g recreation is available on orbital colonies, but not on the Moon or Mars. g-force (also G-force, g-load) is a measurement of an object's Acceleration expressed in g s Finally, the level of (pseudo-) gravity is controlled at any desired level by rotating an orbital colony. Thus, the main living areas can be kept at 1 g, whereas the Moon has 1/6 g and Mars 1/3 g. It's not known what the minimum g-force is for ongoing health but 1 g is known to ensure that children grow up with strong bones and muscles.

The main disadvantage of orbital colonies is lack of materials. These may be expensively imported from the Earth, or more cheaply from extraterrestrial sources, such as the Moon (which has ample metals, silicon, and oxygen), Near Earth Asteroids, comets, or elsewhere. Near-Earth asteroids (NEAs are Asteroids whose Orbits are close to Earth 's orbit A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail —

Lagrange points

Another near-Earth possibility are the five Earth-Moon Lagrange points. Although they would generally also take a few days to reach with current technology, many of these points would have near-continuous solar power capability since their distance from Earth would result in only brief and infrequent eclipses of light from the Sun.

The five Earth-Sun Lagrange points would totally eliminate eclipses, but only L1 and L2 would be reachable in a few days' time. The other three Earth-Sun points would require months to reach.

However, the fact that Lagrange points L4 and L5 tend to collect dust and debris, while L1-L3 require active station-keeping measures to maintain a stable position, make them somewhat less suitable places for habitation than was originally believed. In Astrodynamics orbital station-keeping is a term used to describe a particular set of Orbital maneuvers used to keep a spacecraft in assigned Orbit

Asteroids

Main article: Colonization of the asteroids

Near Earth Asteroids

Many small asteroids in orbit around the Sun have the advantage that they pass closer than Earth's moon several times per decade. The Asteroids or more properly the Minor planets, have long been suggested as possible sites for human colonization In between these close approaches to home, the asteroid may travel out to a furthest distance of some 350,000,000 kilometers from the Sun (its aphelion) and 500,000,000 kilometers from Earth. In Celestial mechanics, an apsis, plural apsides (ˈæpsɨdɪːz is the point of greatest or least distance of the Elliptical orbit of an object from

Main Belt Asteroids

Colonization of asteroids would require space habitats. The asteroid belt has significant overall material available, although it is thinly distributed as it covers a vast region of space. The asteroid belt is the region of the Solar System located roughly between the orbits of the Planets Mars and Jupiter. Unmanned supply craft should be practical with little technological advance, even crossing 1/2 billion kilometers of cold vacuum. The colonists would have a strong interest in assuring that their asteroid did not hit Earth or any other body of significant mass, but would have extreme difficulty in moving an asteroid of any size. The orbits of the Earth and most asteroids are very distant from each other in terms of delta-v and the asteroidal bodies have enormous momentum. In Astrodynamics, the term delta-v, literally "change in velocity" (see symbol delta) has a specific meaning it is a Scalar which takes In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product Rockets or mass drivers can perhaps be installed on asteroids to direct their path into a safe course. A mass driver or electromagnetic Catapult is a method of Non-rocket spacelaunch that would use a Linear motor to Accelerate

Statites

Main article: Statite

Statites or "static satellites" employ solar sails to position themselves in orbits that gravity alone could not accomplish. A statite (a Portmanteau of static and satellite) is a hypothetical type of artificial Satellite that employs a Solar sail to Solar sails (also called light sails or photon sails, especially when they use Light sources other than the Sun) are a proposed form of Such a solar sail colony would be free to ride solar radiation pressure and travel off the ecliptic plane. The ecliptic is the apparent path that the Sun traces out in the sky during the year Navigational computers with an advanced understanding of flocking behavior could organize several statite colonies into the beginnings of the true "swarm" concept of a Dyson sphere. Flocking - the collective motion of a large number of self-propelled entities - is a behaviour exhibited by many living beings such as birds Fish, Bacteria A Dyson sphere (or shell as it appeared in the original paper is a hypothetical Megastructure originally described by Freeman Dyson.

Outside the Solar system

Looking beyond our solar system, there are billions of potential suns with possible colonization targets.

Physicist Stephen Hawking has said:^[5][6]

The long-term survival of the human race is at risk as long as it is confined to a single planet. Stephen William Hawking CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (born 8 January 1942 is a British theoretical physicist. Sooner or later, disasters such as an asteroid collision or nuclear war could wipe us all out. But once we spread out into space and establish independent colonies, our future should be safe. There isn't anywhere like the Earth in the solar system, so we would have to go to another star.

Starship

Space colonization technology could in principle allow human expansion at high, but sub-relativistic speeds, substantially less than the speed of light, c. A starship is a theoretical Spacecraft designed for traveling between the stars, as opposed to a vehicle designed for Orbital spaceflight or Interplanetary   An interstellar colony ship would be similar to a space habitat, with the addition of major propulsion capabilities and independent energy generation. Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to change the velocity of Spacecraft and artificial Satellites There are many different methods Hypothetical starship concepts proposed both by scientists and in hard science fiction include:

• A generation ship would travel much slower than light, with consequent interstellar trip times of many decades or centuries. A starship is a theoretical Spacecraft designed for traveling between the stars, as opposed to a vehicle designed for Orbital spaceflight or Interplanetary Hard science fiction is a category of Science fiction characterized by an emphasis on scientific or technical detail or on scientific accuracy or on both A generation ship is a hypothetical Starship that travels across great distances between stars at a speed much slower than that of light (see Interstellar travel The crew would go through generations before the journey is complete, so that none of the initial crew would be expected to survive to arrive at the destination, assuming current human lifespans.
• A sleeper ship, in which most or all of the crew spend the journey in some form of hibernation or suspended animation, allowing some or all who undertake the journey to survive to the end. A sleeper ship is a hypothetical type of manned spaceship in which most or all of the crew spends the journey in some form of Hibernation or Suspended animation For the ability of certain operating systems see Hibernate (OS feature Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression Suspended animation is the slowing of life processes by external means without termination
• An Embryo-carrying Interstellar Starship (EIS), much smaller than a generation ship or sleeper ship, transporting human embryos or DNA in a frozen or dormant state to the destination. Embryo space colonization is a Theoretical interstellar Space colonization concept that involves sending a robotic mission to a habitable Terrestrial An embryo (from Greek:, plural, lit "that which grows" from en- "in" + bryein "to swell be full" is a multicellular (Obvious biological and psychological problems in birthing, raising, and educating such voyagers, neglected here, may not be fundamental. )
• A nuclear fusion or fission powered ship (eg, ion drive) of some kind, achieving velocities of up to perhaps 10% c  permitting one-way trips to nearby stars with durations comparable to a human lifetime. In Physics and Nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple- like charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may An ion thruster is a form of Electric propulsion used for Spacecraft propulsion that creates thrust by accelerating Ions Ion thrusters are characterized
• A Project Orion-ship, a nuclear-powered concept proposed by Freeman Dyson which would use nuclear explosions to propel a starship. Project Orion was the first engineering design study of a Spacecraft powered by Nuclear pulse propulsion, an idea first proposed by Stanisław Ulam Freeman John Dyson FRS (born December 15, 1923) is an English-born American theoretical Physicist and Mathematician, famous for his A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. A special case of the preceding nuclear rocket concepts, with similar potential velocity capability, but possibly easier technology.
• Laser propulsion concepts, using some form of beaming of power from the Solar System might allow a light-sail or other ship to reach high speeds, comparable to those theoretically attainable by the fusion-powered electric rocket, above. Solar sails (also called light sails or photon sails, especially when they use Light sources other than the Sun) are a proposed form of Solar sails (also called light sails or photon sails, especially when they use Light sources other than the Sun) are a proposed form of These methods would need some means, such as supplementary nuclear propulsion, to stop at the destination, but a hybrid (light-sail for acceleration, fusion-electric for deceleration) system might be possible.

The above concepts all appear limited to high, but still sub-relativistic speeds, due to fundamental energy and reaction mass considerations, and all would entail trip times which might be enabled by space colonization technology, permitting self-contained habitats with lifetimes of decades to centuries. Yet human interstellar expansion at average speeds of even 0. 1% of c  would permit settlement of the entire Galaxy (assuming it is not inhabited already) in less than one half of a galactic rotation period of ~250,000,000 years, which is comparable to the timescale of other galactic processes. Thus, even if interstellar travel at near relativistic speeds is never feasible (which cannot be clearly determined at this time), the development of space colonization could allow human expansion beyond the Solar System without requiring technological advances that cannot yet be reasonably foreseen. This could greatly improve the chances for the survival of intelligent life over cosmic timescales, given the many natural and human-related hazards that have been widely noted.

Example

The star Tau Ceti, about eleven light years away, has an abundance of cometary and asteroidal material in orbit around it. Tau Ceti (τ Cet / τ Ceti ˌtaʊ ˈsiːtaɪ is a Star in the Constellation Cetus that is similar to the Sun in Mass and These materials could be used for the construction of space habitats for human settlement.

Terrestrial analogues to space colonies

The most famous attempt to build an analogue to a self-sufficient colony is Biosphere 2, which attempted to duplicate Earth's biosphere. Biosphere 2 is a 314-acre (127 ha) structure originally built to be an artificial closed ecological system in Oracle, Arizona ( USA EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems.

Many space agencies build testbeds for advanced life support systems, but these are designed for long duration human spaceflight, not permanent colonization. This is a list of government agencies engaged in activities related to Outer space and Space exploration. In Human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space A human spaceflight is a Spaceflight with a human crew, and possibly passengers

Remote research stations in inhospitable climates, such as the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station or Devon Island Mars Arctic Research Station, can also provide some practice for off-world outpost construction and operation. Description and history The Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station is the southernmost continually inhabited place on the planet One of the larger members of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Devon Island is the second-largest of the Queen Elizabeth Islands, Nunavut, Canada The Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS is a project operated by the Mars Society to conduct geological and microbiological exploration under conditions similar to The Mars Desert Research Station has a habitat for similar reasons, but the surrounding climate is not strictly inhospitable. The Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS is one of four planned simulated Mars habitats (or Mars Analogue Research Station Programme) maintained by the Mars Society Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of

Literature

In animation Mobile Suit Gundam (1979–1980), space colonization has undergone for long, but a war has broken out as a result in unfair policy on people in space colonies. The bouncing ball animation (below consists of these 6 frames is a televised Anime series created by Sunrise. Written and directed by Yoshiyuki Tomino, it premiered in Japan on Nagoya Broadcasting Network

The literature for space colonization began in 1869 when Edward Everett Hale wrote about an inhabited artificial satellite. Edward Everett Hale ( April 3, 1822 – June 10, 1909) was an American author and Unitarian clergyman ^[7]

The Russian schoolmaster and physicist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky foresaw elements of the space community in his book Beyond Planet Earth written about 1900. Tsiolkovsky had his space travelers building greenhouses and raising crops in space. ^[8]

Others have also written about space colonies as Lasswitz in 1897 and Bernal, Oberth, Von Pirquet and Noordung in the 1920s. Wernher von Braun contributed his ideas in a 1952 Colliers article. In the 1950s and 1960s, Dandridge M. Cole^[9] published his ideas. Dandridge MacFarlan Cole (born February 19 1921 in Sandusky Ohio) was an aerospace engineer futurist lecturer and author

Another seminal book on the subject was the book The High Frontier: Human Colonies in Space by Gerard K. O'Neill^[10] in 1977 which was followed the same year by Colonies in Space by T. A. Heppenheimer. ^[11]

M. Dyson wrote Home on the Moon; Living on a Space Frontier in 2003;^[12] Peter Eckart wrote Lunar Base Handbook in 2006^[13] and then Harrison Schmitt's Return to the Moon written in 2007. ^[14]

Justification

Main article: Space and survival

In 2001, the space news website Space.com asked Freeman Dyson, J. Richard Gott and Sid Goldstein for reasons why some humans should live in space. Space and survival is the relationship between Outer space and the long-term Survival of the Human species and Civilization. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Spacecom is a Space and Astronomy news website Its stories are often syndicated to other media outlets including CNN, MSNBC Freeman John Dyson FRS (born December 15, 1923) is an English-born American theoretical Physicist and Mathematician, famous for his John Richard Gott III (b Louisville, Kentucky, 1947 is a professor of astrophysical sciences at Princeton University. Their respective answers were:^[15]

• Spread life and beauty throughout the Universe
• Ensure the survival of our species
• Make money from solar power satellites, asteroid mining, and space manufacturing
• Save the environment of Earth by moving people and industry into space
• Provide entertainment value in order to distract from immediate surroundings
• Ensure sufficient supply of rare materials, including from the Outer Solar System – natural gas (in connection with expected world-wide hydrocarbons peak) and drinking water (in connection with expected world-wide water shortage)

Louis J. The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy Space and survival is the relationship between Outer space and the long-term Survival of the Human species and Civilization. Money is anything that is generally accepted as Payment for Goods and services and repayment of Debts. A solar power satellite, or SPS or Powersat, as originally proposed would be a Satellite built in High Earth orbit that uses Microwave Raw resources and minerals could be mined from an Asteroid in space using a variety of methods Space manufacturing is the production of Manufactured goods in an environment outside a Planetary atmosphere. See also Natural environment The '''biophysical''' environment is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the Biological See also Entertainment (disambiguation and The Entertainer (disambiguation Entertainment is an activity designed to give people The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Water of sufficient quality to serve as drinking water is termed potable water whether it is used for drinking or not Water Crisis is a term that refers to the status of the world’s Water resources relative to human demand Halle, formerly of the United States Department of State, wrote in Foreign Affairs (Summer 1980) that the colonization of space will protect humanity in the event of global nuclear warfare. Foreign Affairs is an influential American Journal on International relations published by the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR ^[16]

The scientist Paul Davies also supports the view that if a planetary catastrophe threatens the survival of the human species on Earth, a self-sufficient colony could "reverse-colonize" the Earth and restore human civilization. Paul Charles William Davies (born April 22, 1946) is a British-born Physicist, Writer and broadcaster, presently a professor A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements

The author and journalist William E. Burrows and the biochemist Robert Shapiro proposed a private project, the Alliance to Rescue Civilization, with the goal of establishing an off-Earth backup of human civilization. The Alliance to Rescue Civilization is an organization devoted to the establishment of an off-Earth "backup" of human civilization In Information technology, backup refers to making copies of Data so that these additional copies may be used to restore the original after a ^[17]

Another important reason used to justify space is the effort to increase the knowledge and technological abilities of humanity.

Objections

Colonizing space can be viewed as too expensive and a waste of time.

The argument to live together on the earth we have suggests that if even half the money of space exploration were spent for terrestrial betterment, there would be greater good for a greater number of people, at least in the short term. This assumes that money not spent on space would go toward socially beneficial projects. It also assumes that space colonization is not itself a sufficiently valuable goal (see Space and survival). Space and survival is the relationship between Outer space and the long-term Survival of the Human species and Civilization.

Other objections include concern about creating a culture in which humans are no longer seen as human, but rather as material assets. The issues of human dignity, morality, philosophy, culture, bioethics, and the threat of megalomaniac leaders in these new "societies" would all have to be addressed in order to space colonization to meet the psychological and social needs of people living in isolated colonies or generation ships. Although they are not being utilized yet, cultural anthropologists may have something to offer to the space programs.

As an alternative or addendum for the future of the human race, many science fiction writers have focused on the realm of the 'inner-space', that is the computer aided exploration of the human mind and human consciousness.

Counter arguments

The argument of need: The population of Earth continues to increase, while its carrying capacity and available resources do not. The supportable Population of an Organism, given the food habitat, water and other necessities available within an environment is known as the environment's If the resources of space are opened to use and viable life-supporting habitats can be built, the Earth will no longer define the limitations of growth (see extraterrestrial population growth). Overpopulation refers to a condition where an Organism 's numbers exceed the Carrying capacity of its Habitat.

The argument of cost: Very many people greatly overestimate how much money is spent on space, and underestimate how much money is spent on defense or health care. For example, as of 2008, over $845 billion has been spent on the current war in Iraq. In comparison, it only cost $2 billion to create the Hubble Space Telescope, and NASA's annual budget averages only about $16 billion. Each year the United States Congress passes a Federal Budget detailing where federal tax money will be spent in the coming fiscal year In other words, the money that has been spent on the Iraq war could have theoretically funded NASA for approximately 52 years. ^[18]

The argument of Nationalism: Space proponents counter this argument by pointing out that humanity as a whole has been exploring and expanding into new territory since long before Europe's colonial age, going back into prehistory (the nationalist argument also ignores multinational cooperative space efforts); that seeing the Earth as a single, discrete object instills a powerful sense of the unity and connectedness of the human environment and of the immateriality of political borders; and that in practice, international collaboration in space has shown its value as a unifying and cooperative endeavor.

The argument of 'Inner Space': This form of exploration need not be exclusive to space colonization, as exemplified for example by Transhumanist philosophies. Transhumanism (sometimes symbolized by >H or H+) a term often used as a synonym for " Human enhancement " is an international intellectual

Advocacy

Space advocacy organizations:

• The Alliance to Rescue Civilization plans to establish backups of human civilization on the Moon and other locations away from Earth. Space advocacy can be described as the general position supporting pleading or arguing forthe idea or cause of space exploration and settlements The Alliance to Rescue Civilization is an organization devoted to the establishment of an off-Earth "backup" of human civilization In Information technology, backup refers to making copies of Data so that these additional copies may be used to restore the original after a
• The Colonize the Cosmos site advocates orbital colonies. ^[19]
• The Artemis Project plans to set up a private lunar surface station. The Artemis Project was a private venture to establish a permanent self-supporting base on the Moon by 2002
• The British Interplanetary Society, founded in 1933, is the world's longest established space society. The British Interplanetary Society (BIS founded in 1933 by Mr Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• The Living Universe Foundation has a detailed plan in which the entire galaxy is colonized. The Living Universe Foundation is an Organization that supports ocean and Space colonization more or less based upon the book The Millennial Project The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply
• The Mars Society promotes Robert Zubrin's Mars Direct plan and the settlement of Mars. The Mars Society is an international Space advocacy Non-profit organization dedicated to encouraging the exploration and settlement of Mars. Robert Zubrin (born 19 April 1952) is an American Aerospace engineer and Author, best known for his Advocacy of manned Mars Mars Direct is a proposal for a relatively low-cost manned mission to Mars with current rocket technology
• The National Space Society is an organization with the vision of "people living and working in thriving communities beyond the Earth. The National Space Society (NSS is an international nonprofit 501(c(3, educational and scientific organization specializing in Space advocacy. "
• The Planetary Society is the largest space interest group, but has an emphasis on robotic exploration and the search for extraterrestrial life. The Planetary Society is a large publicly supported non-government and not-for-profit organization that has many research projects related to Astronomy. A robotic spacecraft is a Spacecraft with no humans on board that is usually under Telerobotic control Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence ( SETI) is the collective name for a number of activities to detect intelligent Extraterrestrial life.
• The Space Frontier Foundation promotes strong free market, capitalist views about space development. The Space Frontier Foundation is a small but influential Space advocacy organization that promotes increased involvement of the private sector rather than governments A free market is a Market in which property rights are voluntarily exchanged at a price arranged completely by the mutual consent of sellers and buyers Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where
• The Space Settlement Institute is searching for ways to make space colonization happen in our lifetimes. ^[20]
• The Space Studies Institute was founded by Gerard K. O'Neill to fund the study of space habitats. Space Studies Institute is a non-profit organization that was founded in 1977 by the late Princeton University Professor Dr
• Students for the Exploration and Development of Space (SEDS) is a student organization founded in 1980 at MIT and Princeton. Students for the Exploration and Development of Space ( SEDS) is an international student organization whose purpose is to promote space exploration and development through educational Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. ^[21]
• Foresight Nanotechnology Institute – The space challenge. The Foresight Nanotech Institute (formerly Foresight Institute) is a Palo Alto California -based Nonprofit organization for increasing awareness about the ^[22]

In fiction

Although established space colonies are a stock element in science fiction stories, fictional works that explore the themes, social or practical, of the settlement and occupation of a habitable world are much rarer. The following list is restricted to works dealing primarily with the initial stages of colonization.

Written works

• Coyote: A Novel of Interstellar Revolution (2002) by Allen Steele. Coyote (2002 is Science fiction author Allen Steele ’s novel of interstellar exploration and settlement Allen Mulherin Steele Jr (born January 19, 1958) is an American Science fiction author. Adventure story involving the colonization of a planet of 47 Ursae Majoris.
• Farmer in the Sky (1950) by Robert A. Heinlein. Farmer In The Sky is a 1950 Science fiction novel by Robert A Robert Anson Heinlein (July 7 1907 – May 8 1988 was an American Novelist and Science fiction Writer. A family joins a not-yet-successful colony on Ganymede.
• The Martian Chronicles (1950) by Ray Bradbury. The Martian Chronicles is a 1950 Science fiction story collection by Ray Bradbury that chronicles the colonization of Mars by humans Ray Douglas Bradbury (born August 22 1920 is an American mainstream, Fantasy, horror, Science fiction and mystery Describes the exploration, settlement, and abandonment of colonies on Mars, in a poetic but unrealistic way.
• Red Mars (1992) by Kim Stanley Robinson. Kim Stanley Robinson (born March 23 1952) is an American Science fiction Writer, probably best known for his award-winning Explores the initial stages of development of a Martian colony

Games

• Alien Legacy (1994), computer game. Alien Legacy is a Sci-fi Strategy game published by Sierra On-Line in 1994. Player has to manage new colonies on the planets of Beta Caeli.
• Ascendancy (1995), computer game. Background Ascendancy is a 4X Science fiction Turn-based strategy computer game for DOS, released in Player tries to grow a colony into a spacefaring civilization.
• Halo (2001), computer game. Halo is a Science fiction Video game franchise created by Bungie and owned and published by Microsoft Game Studios. Player fights for Earth's colonies against the alien Covenant.
• Outpost (1994), computer game. Player plans and manages a colony on another planet.
• Outpost 2 (1997), computer game. Outpost 2, fully titled Outpost 2 Divided Destiny, is a Real-time strategy computer game developed by Dynamix, released in 1997 Player manages a colony on the fictional planet of New Terra.
• Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri (1999), computer game. Player tries to expand a human colony on Alpha Centauri.
• Starfarers of Catan (1999), tabletop game. Starfarers of Catan is a multiplayer Board game loosely based on the Settlers of Catan series of games Player manages trade and colonization in the fictional planetary system of Catan.
• Freelancer Players can explore several planets and systems colonized centuries prior to the start of the game. A freelancer, freelance worker, or freelance is a person who pursues a profession without a long-term commitment to any one employer
• Starlancer Several colonies located on planets in the Sol systems are mentioned throughout the game. Starlancer is a space-based Science fiction Flight simulator Computer game, created by Erin Roberts under the auspices of Digital
• Marathon A early game by Bungie that show a human generation ship, fighting off alien slavers on their way to Tau Ceti.
• Gradius Gaiden The player uses the Vic Viper and 3 other craft to defend planet Gradius and it's colonies against unknown forces from the Dark Nebula. is horizontal Scrolling shooter Video game produced by Konami and released in Japan on August 28 1997
• Mass Effect

Comics

• 2001 Nights (1996) by Yukinobu Hoshino. Mass Effect is an Action role-playing game developed by BioWare for Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows. 2001 Nights is a Manga series by Yukinobu Hoshino published from the June 1984 through June 1996 issues of Monthly Super Action from is a Japanese manga artist. He was born in Kushiro, Hokkaidō and dropped out of Aichi Perfectural College of Arts mid-semester from the Includes stories relating to problems of colonization.

Television

• Battlestar Galactica (1978–1979) and (2003-present), a television franchise. Battlestar Galactica is a franchise of Science fiction Films and television series, the first of which was produced in 1978 In both series, mankind lives on the Twelve Colonies as well as the thirteenth colony of Earth, having evolved on the planet Kobol. The Twelve Colonies of Man or Twelve Colonies of Kobol constitute the main human civilization in the original Battlestar Galactica Television series EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Kobol is the name of a Planet in the fictional Battlestar Galactica universe
• Gundam (1979-present), anime television franchise beginning with Mobile Suit Gundam (1979–1980). is a Metaseries of English Anime, featuring tiny robots or " Kounans " created by Sunrise studios (anime in Japanese, is a televised Anime series created by Sunrise. Written and directed by Yoshiyuki Tomino, it premiered in Japan on Nagoya Broadcasting Network The series as well as its sequels and spin-offs mostly revolve around the conflicts between the Earth and the space colonies. Side 3 redirects here For the album by The Raspberries, see Side 3 (album In the fictional Gundam Anime Metaseries
• Macross (1982-present) or Robotech (1985), anime television franchise. is a long-running series of Science fiction Anime, created by Shoji Kawamori of Studio Nue in 1982 Robotech is a Science fiction franchise that was launched by an 85-episode adaptation of three different Anime Television series. (anime in Japanese, The series and its sequels mostly revolve around space colony fleets known as "Macross".
• Earth 2 (1994–1995), television series. Earth 2 is a short-lived science fiction Television series which aired on NBC from November 6, 1994 to June 4, 1995 A refugee group travels to and tries to colonize a distant Earth-like planet.
• Firefly (2002–2003), a television series. Firefly is an American Science fiction Television series created by writer/director Joss Whedon, creator of Buffy the Vampire Slayer The series, and the followup film Serenity, dealt with a mass exodus from an overcrowded Earth to a new solar system, involving the terraforming and colonisation of these new worlds. Serenity is a 2005 space western Film written and directed by Joss Whedon. The terraforming (literally "Earth-shaping" of a Planet, moon, or other body is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying its
• Planetes (2003–2004), anime series. is a Japanese Hard science fiction Manga by Makoto Yukimura. It was adapted as a 26-episode television Anime by Sunrise, which (anime in Japanese, Humanity has colonized parts of Earth's Moon and Mars. LUNA was a computer product line of OMRON Tateishi Electric from the late 1980s and the beginning of 1990s

RPGs

• 2300 AD (1987) by Game Designers Workshop, a role playing game. 2300 AD is a Hard science fiction Role-playing game created by Game Designers Workshop, originally offered as an alternative to the looser Game Designers' Workshop (GDW was a Wargame and Role-playing game publisher from 1973 to 1996. Mankind has colonized about 30 planets and found 8 different alien civilizations.

See also

References

External links

• Will humans be living in space in the next 50 years? at HowStuffWorks
• American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) Space Colonization Technical Committee (SCTC) [2]
• "Is the surface of a planet really the right place for expanding technological civilization?" Interviewing Gerard O'Neill
• Biological Effects of Weightlessness
• space colony – The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight
• Visualizing the Steps of Solar System Colonization
• HobbySpace: Life in Space: Section C: Colonies, Habitats, Space Industry, etc Extensive collection of links
• Orbital Space Settlements NASA's orbital space habitats site, which includes a contest for K-12 students
• The Political Economy of Very Large Space Projects John Hickman argues that only government can afford the high initial investment for very large space development projects. The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ( AIAA) is the professional society for the field of Aerospace engineering. K–12 (pronounced "kay through twelve" "kay to twelve" or just "kay twelve" a designation for the sum of primary and Secondary education John Hickman may refer to John Hickman (musician, American banjo player with Byron Berline John Hickman (congressman (1810&ndash1875 For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. Investment or investing is a term with several closely-related meanings in Business management, Finance and Economics, related to saving
• Spaceflight or Extinction Academics and other leaders explain that we should colonize space to improve our chance of survival. Authors include Stephen Hawking and Carl Sagan. Stephen William Hawking CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (born 8 January 1942 is a British theoretical physicist. Carl Edward Sagan ( November 9 1934 &ndash December 20 1996) was an American Astronomer, astrochemist, author
• Using space colonization to prevent the end of civilization Academic Paper
• PERMANENT Projects to Employ Resources of the Moon and Asteroids Near Earth in the Near Term; a guide to websites about asteroid mining and space settlement.
• Mars colonization:
  • http://mars.esa.int
  • http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mer
• Testimony of Michael D. Griffin Hearing on "The Future of Human Space Flight". Mars is the focus of much speculation and serious study about possible human colonization which might be possible Michael D. Griffin believes that the "human space flight program is in the long run possibly the most significant activity in which our nation is engaged". For other people with the same name see Michael Griffin (disambiguation.
• Island One Society – ideas about libertarian space colonization. Libertarianism is a term used by a broad spectrum of political philosophies which prioritize individual Liberty and seek to minimize or even abolish the
• National Space Society – non-profit organization that promotes a spacefaring civilization. Spacefaring societies or nations are those capable of building and launching vehicles into space A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements
• 4Frontiers Corporation – for profit company pursing a number of technology, education and entertainment ventures related to Mars settlement.
• Mars Foundation – Non-Profit Organization pursing public outreach and technology development for Mars settlement.

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