Soybean
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Fabales Family: Fabaceae Subfamily: Faboideae Genus: Glycine Species: G. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group Magnoliopsida is the Botanical name for a class of Flowering plants By definition the class will include the family Magnoliaceae, but its Fabales is an order of Flowering plants It is included in the rosid group of the Eudicots in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II Fabaceae or Leguminosae is a large and economically important family of Flowering plants which is commonly known as the legume family, pea Faboideae is a Subfamily of the Flowering plant family Fabaceae or Leguminosae Glycine is a genus in the Bean family Fabaceae. The most well known species is the Soybean ( Glycine max) max
Binomial name
Glycine L. max (L.) Merr.

The soybean (U.S.) or soya bean (UK) (Glycine max) is a species of legume native to East Asia. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Elmer Drew Merrill ( October 15, 1876 &ndash February 25, 1956) was an American Botanist, specializing in the flora of Phonology North American English regional phonology In many ways compared to English English, North American English is conservative in its Phonology. British English or UK English ( BrE, BE, en-GB) is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants It is an annual plant that may vary in growth, habit, and height. Botanically an annual plant is a Plant that usually germinates, Flowers and dies in one Year. It may grow prostrate, not growing higher than 20 cm (7. 8 inches), or even up to 2 meters (6. 5 feet) in height. The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray hairs. The leaves are trifoliolate, having 3 to 4 leaflets per leaf, and the leaflets are 6–15 cm (2–6 inches) long and 2–7 cm (1–3 inches) broad. In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. The leaves fall before the seeds are mature. The big, inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or purple. The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of 3–5, with each pod 3–8 cm (1–3 inches) long and usually containing 2–4 (rarely more) seeds 5–11 mm in diameter. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants A seed (in some plants referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic Plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat usually with some stored

Contents 1 Overview 2 Physical characteristics 3 Chemical composition of the seed 4 Cultivation 5 Production history 6 Soybean diseases 7 Genetic modification 8 Uses 8.1 Oil 8.2 Meal 8.3 Flour 8.4 Infant formula 8.5 Nut butter 8.6 Substitute for existing products 8.7 Other products 9 Nutrition 9.1 Protein, Vitamins, and Minerals 10 Role of soyfoods in disease prevention 10.1 Omega-3 fatty acids 10.2 Isoflavones 10.3 Claims of cholesterol reduction 11 Health risks 11.1 Phytoestrogen 11.1.1 Women 11.1.2 Men 11.2 Infant formula 11.3 Allergens 11.4 Promotion as health food 11.5 Brain 11.6 Carcinogen 12 References 13 External links 13.1 Advocacy and nutritional information 13.2 Critical

Overview

Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural variety (a cultigen) with a very large number of cultivars. A cultigen is a plant that has been deliberately altered or selected by humans it is the result of Artificial selection. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar However, it is known that the progenitor of the modern soybean was a vine-like plant that grew prone on the ground.

The genus Glycine Willd. is divided into two subgenera (species), Glycine and Soja. Carl Ludwig Willdenow ( 22 August 1765 - 10 July 1812) was a German Botanist, Pharmacist, and plant taxonomist The subgenus Soja(Moench) includes the cultivated Soybean, G. max (L. ) Merrill, and the wild soybean, G. soja Sieb. & Zucc. Both species are annual. The soybean grows only under cultivation while G. soja grows wild in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Russia. Glycine soja is the wild ancestor of the soybean: the wild progenitor. At present, the subgenus Glycine consists of at least 16 wild perennial species: for example, Glycine canescens, and G. A perennial plant or perennial ( Latin per, "through" annus, "year" is a Plant that lives for more than tomentella Hayata found in Australia, Europe, and Papua New Guinea^[1]

Beans are classed as pulses whereas soybeans are classed as oilseeds. Pulses are annual leguminous crops yielding from one to twelve Grains or Seeds of variable size shape and color within a Pod, according It is a versatile bean, having a diverse range of uses.

The English word soy is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of 醤油 (しょうゆ, shōyu), the Japanese word for soy sauce; soya comes from the Dutch adaptation of the same word. is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname ^[2][3]

Physical characteristics

Soybeans occur in various sizes, and in four hull or seed coat colors, including black, brown, blue, yellow,green and mottled. Husk (or hull) in botany is the outer shell or coating of a seed The hull of the mature bean is hard, water resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. A cotyledon ("seed leaf" from Greek: κοτυληδών kotylēdōn, from κοτύλη ''kotýlē'', "cup bowl" Hypocotyl is a botanical term for a part of a germinating seedling of a Seed Plant. If the seed coat is cracked the seed will not germinate. Germination is the process whereby growth emerges from a period of dormancy The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of oil.

Remarkably, seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of protein can undergo desiccation yet survive and revive after water absorption. Soy protein is generally regarded as the storage Protein held in discrete particles called protein bodies which are estimated to contain at least 60–70% of the total soybean Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness or the process of extreme drying A. Carl Leopold, son of Aldo Leopold, began studying this capability at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Cornell University in the mid 1980s. Aldo Starker Leopold ( January 11, 1887 – April 21, 1948) was an American Ecologist, Forester and Environmentalist The Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research is a renowned research and education organization currently located on the campus of Cornell University in Ithaca New York He found soybeans and corn to have a range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed's cell viability. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most ^[4] Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting "biological membranes" and proteins in the dry state. Compare to tardigrades. Tardigrades (commonly known as water bears) form the Phylum Tardigrada, part of the superphylum Ecdysozoa.

Chemical composition of the seed

The oil and protein content together account for about 60% of dry soybeans by weight; protein at 40% and oil at 20%. The remainder consists of 35% carbohydrate and about 5% ash. In Analytical chemistry, ash is the name given to all non- Aqueous residue that remains after a sample is Burned, and consist mostly of metal Oxides Soybean cultivars comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% cotyledons and 2% hypocotyl axis or germ. A cotyledon ("seed leaf" from Greek: κοτυληδών kotylēdōn, from κοτύλη ''kotýlē'', "cup bowl" Hypocotyl is a botanical term for a part of a germinating seedling of a Seed Plant.

The majority of soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. Soy protein is generally regarded as the storage Protein held in discrete particles called protein bodies which are estimated to contain at least 60–70% of the total soybean This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as tofu, soymilk and textured vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made. Tofu, also (the Japanese Romaji spelling doufu (the Chinese Pinyin spelling often used in Chinese recipes or bean curd (the literal

The principal soluble carbohydrates, saccharides, of mature soybeans are the disaccharide sucrose (range 2. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Solubility of Pure SucroseTemperature(Cg 5–8. 2%), the trisaccharide raffinose (0. Raffinose is a Trisaccharide composed of Galactose, Fructose, and Glucose. 1–1. 0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide stachyose (1. Galactose (Gal (also called brain sugar) is a type of Sugar which is less sweet than Glucose. Stachyose is an Tetrasaccharide consisting of two Dα- Galactose units one Dα- Glucose unit and one Dβ- Fructose unit sequentially linked 4 to 4. 1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose. While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars and therefore contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals; compare to the disaccharide trehalose. Flatulence is the production of a mixture of gases in the digestive tract of Mammals that are byproducts of the digestion process Trehalose, also known as mycose, is a natural alpha-linked Disaccharide formed by an α α-1 1-glucoside bond between two α-glucose units Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, methane, etc.

Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found mainly in the whey and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. Solubility is the characteristic Physical property referring to the ability of a given substance the Solute, to dissolve in a Solvent. Whey or milk plasma is the liquid remaining after Milk has been Curdled and strained it is a By-product of the manufacture of Cheese Soy protein is generally regarded as the storage Protein held in discrete particles called protein bodies which are estimated to contain at least 60–70% of the total soybean Tofu, also (the Japanese Romaji spelling doufu (the Chinese Pinyin spelling often used in Chinese recipes or bean curd (the literal On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous bifidobacteria in the colon against putrefactive bacteria. Bifidobacterium is a Genus of Gram-positive, non-motile often branched anaerobic Bacteria.

The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 A hemicellulose can be any of several Heteropolymers (matrix polysaccharides present in almost all plant cell walls along with Cellulose. Pectin (from Greek πηκτικός - pektikos, "congealed curdled" a white to light brown powder is a Heteropolysaccharide The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to dietary fiber. Dietary fibers are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the Digestive system, absorbing water and easing Defecation.

Cultivation

Soybeans are an important global crop, providing oil and protein. The bulk of the crop is solvent-extracted for vegetable oil and then defatted soy meal is used for animal feed. A small proportion of the crop is consumed directly by humans. Soybean products do appear in a large variety of processed foods.

Soybeans were a crucial crop in eastern Asia long before written records, and they remain a major crop in China, Japan, and Korea . China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Prior to fermented products such as soy sauce, tempeh, natto, and miso, soy was considered sacred for its use in crop rotation as a method of fixing nitrogen. Soy sauce ( US) soya sauce ( Commonwealth) shoyu ( Japan) or sillao ( Peru) is a fermented Sauce Tempeh, or tempe in Javanese, is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds Soybeans into a cake form is a traditional Japanese food made from fermented Soybeans popular especially for Breakfast. is a traditional Japanese food produced by fermenting Rice, Barley and/or Soybeans, with salt and the fungus (the most typical miso is made The plants would be plowed under to clear the field for food crops. Soy was first introduced to Europe in the early 1700s and what is now the United States in 1765, where it was first grown for hay. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Benjamin Franklin wrote a letter in 1770 mentioning sending soybeans home from England. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Soybeans did not become an important crop outside of Asia until about 1910. In America, soy was considered an industrial product only and not utilized as a food prior to the 1920s. Soy was introduced in Africa from China in the late 19th Century and is now widespread across the continent.

Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 °C to 30 °C (68°F to 86°F); temperatures of below 20 °C and over 40 °C (68 °F, 104 °F) retard growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum (syn. Rhizobium japonicum; Jordan 1982). Nitrogen fixation is the process by which Nitrogen is taken from its natural relatively inert molecular form (N2 in the atmosphere and converted into This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Rhizobia (from the Greek words rhiza = root and bios = Life are Soil bacteria that fix Nitrogen ( Diazotrophy This article deals with the general meaning of the term "synonym" However, for best results an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around 1 m (3 ft), and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar

Top Soybean Producers in 2005
(million metric tons)
United States	83. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the 9
Brazil	52. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld 7
Australia	44. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. 7
Argentina	38. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. 3
China	17. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES 4
India	6. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country 6
Paraguay	3. Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only 5
Canada	3. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page 0
Bolivia	1. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. 6
World Total	214. 3
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)[1]

Soybeans are native to east Asia but only 45 percent of soybean production is located there. The other 55 percent of production is in the Americas. The U. S. produced 75 million tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. Other leading producers are Brazil, Australia, Argentina, China, and India. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

Environmental groups, such as Greenpeace and the WWF, have reported that both soybean cultivation and the probability of increased soybean cultivation in Brazil, has destroyed huge areas of Amazon rainforest and is encouraging further deforestation. Greenpeace, originally known as the Greenpeace Foundation, was founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada in 1972 The Amazon Rainforest (Brazilian Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica or Amazonía Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland ^[5] American soil scientist Dr. Andrew McClung, who first showed that the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the Cerrado region of Brazil could grow profitable soybeans, was awarded the 2006 World Food Prize on October 19, 2006. The Cerrado ( English: "closed" or "inaccessible" is a vast Tropical savanna Ecoregion of Brazil. The World Food Prize is an international award recognizing the achievements of individuals who have advanced human development by improving the quality quantity or availability of ^[6]

The first research on soybeans in the United States was conducted by George Washington Carver at Tuskegee, Alabama, but he decided it was too exotic a crop for the poor black farmers of the South so he turned his attention to peanuts. George Washington Carver (January 1864 – January 5 1943 was an African American Scientist, Botanist, Educator, and Inventor The peanut, or Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea) is a species in the Legume family Fabaceae native to South America, Mexico

Production history

According to the ancient Chinese, in 2853 BC the legendary Emperor Shennong of China named five sacred plants – soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and millet. Shennong ( also known as the Yan Emperor (炎帝 or the Emperor of the Five Grains ( is a Legendary ruler of China and Culture hero The millets are a group of small- Seeded Species of Cereal crops or grains widely grown around the world for Food and Fodder ^[7] The origins of the soybean plant are obscure, but many botanists believe it to have derived from glycine ussuriensis, a legume native to central China. Glycine is a genus in the Bean family Fabaceae. The most well known species is the Soybean ( Glycine max) China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ^[8] The soybean has been used in China for 5,000 years as a food and a component of drugs. Cultivation of the soybean, long confined chiefly to China, gradually spread to other countries. ^[9]

According to other sources, the earliest preserved soybeans were unearthed from archaeological sites in Korea. An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either Prehistoric or historic or contemporary and Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. ^[10][11] AMS radiocarbon dating on soybean recovered through flotation during excavations at the Early Mumun Period Okbang site in Korea indicates that soybean was cultivated as a food crop in ca. The Mumun pottery period is an Archaeological era in Korean prehistory that dates to approximately 1500-300 BC 1000–900 BC. ^[12] The best current evidence on the Japanese Archipelago suggests that soybean cultivation occurred in the early Yayoi period. The is an era in the history of Japan from about 500 BC to 300 AD.

From about the first century AD to the Age of Discovery (15-16th century), soybeans were introduced into several countries such as Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, Burma, Nepal and India. The spread of the soybean was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters) which was completed in 712 AD.

During World War II, soybeans became important in both North America and Europe chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including In the United States they are now a leading crop, and Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay also are significant soybean-exporting nations. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only

Many people have claimed that soybeans in Asia, prior to modern times, were only used after a fermentation process, which alters the high increase in phytoestrogens found in the raw plant. However, this appears to be incorrect: Terms similar to "soy milk" have been in use since 82 AD [2], and there is evidence of tofu consumption that dates to 220. [3]

The genus name Glycine was originally introduced by Linnaeus (1737) in his first edition of Genera Plantarum. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for The word glycine is derived from the Greek-glykys (sweet) and very likely refers to the sweetness of the pear-shaped (apios in Greek) edible tubers produced by the native North American twining or climbing herbaceous legume, Glycine apios, now known as Apios americana . Glycine (abbreviated as Gly or G) is the Organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants Some alternative names are: ground nut, American potato bean, wild bean, Indian potato, ground bean, hopniss, and sea vines. The seeds are also edible. It saved the Massachusetts Bay Pilgrims from starvation. Pilgrims, or Pilgrim Fathers (or Pilgrim Mothers) is a name commonly applied to the early settlers of the Plymouth Colony in present-day Plymouth ^[13] The cultivated soybean first appeared in the Species Plantarum, Linnaeus, under the name Phaseolus max L. Species Plantarum ("The Species of Plants" was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work by Carl Linnaeus. Phaseolus ( Bean, Wild Bean) is a Genus in the Family Fabaceae of about fifty Plant Species, The combination, Glycine max(L. ) Merr. , as proposed by Merrill in 1917, has become the valid name for this useful plant.

Soybean diseases

Main article: List of soybean diseases

Genetic modification

Soybeans are one of the "biotech food" crops that have been genetically modified, and GM soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. This article is a list of diseases and pests of Soybeans ( Glycine max) Biotechnology is Technology based on Biology, especially when used in Agriculture, Food science, and Medicine. Genetically modified (GM foods are food items that have had their DNA changed through Genetic engineering. In 1995 Monsanto introduced Roundup Ready (RR) soybeans that have had a copy of a gene from the bacterium, Agrobacterium sp. The Monsanto Company ( is a multinational Agricultural biotechnology Corporation. Roundup is the brand name of a systemic broad-spectrum Herbicide produced by the U History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance Agrobacterium is a Genus of Gram-negative Bacteria that uses Horizontal gene transfer to cause Tumors in plants strain CP4, inserted into its genome by means of a gene gun, that allows the transgenic plant to survive being sprayed by this non-selective herbicide, Roundup. The gene gun or the Biolistic Particle Delivery System originally designed for Plant transformation, is a device for injecting cells with genetic information This article is about organisms which have been genetically modified Roundup is the brand name of a systemic broad-spectrum Herbicide produced by the U Glyphosate, the active ingredient in Roundup, kills conventional soybeans. Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl glycine is a non-selective Systemic Herbicide, absorbed through the leaves injected into the bole or applied to the stump of The bacterial gene is EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-3-phosphate) synthase. Soybeans also have a version of this gene, but the soybean version is sensitive to glyphosate, while the CP4 version is not. ^[14]

RR soybeans allow a farmer to spray widely the herbicide Roundup and so to reduce tillage or even to sow the seed directly into an unplowed field, known as no-till farming or conservation tillage. Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the Soil by Ploughing ripping or turning it No-till farming is considered a kind of conservation Tillage system and is sometimes called zero tillage. No-till farming is considered a kind of conservation Tillage system and is sometimes called zero tillage. No-till agriculture has many advantages, greatly reducing soil erosion and creating better wildlife habitat;^[15] it also saves fossil fuels and sequesters CO₂, a greenhouse effect gas. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single ^[16] It should be noted that RR soybeans simplify the process, but are not a requirement for no-till agriculture. Roundup may be sprayed on the field (and weeds) before the non-RR soybeans have emerged from the soil.

In 1997, about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2006, the figure was 89%. As with other "Roundup Ready" crops, concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. ^[17] However, the RR gene has been bred into so many different soybean cultivars that the genetic modification itself has not resulted in any decline of genetic diversity, as demonstrated by a study on genetic diversity^[18]

The ubiquitous use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems with exports to some regions. GM crops require extensive certification before they can be legally imported into the European Union, where there is extensive supplier and consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer or animal use. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in Difficulties with coexistence and subsequent traces of cross-contamination of non-GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy. In the context of agriculture and food and feed production co-existence means using cropping systems with and without Genetically modified organisms (GMOs in parallel ^[19]

Uses

Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. Tofu and soymilk producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. Tofu, also (the Japanese Romaji spelling doufu (the Chinese Pinyin spelling often used in Chinese recipes or bean curd (the literal Soy milk (also called soya milk, soybean milk, or soy juice) and sometimes referred to as soy drink/beverage is a beverage made from The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because they have a tendency for the pods to shatter on reaching maturity.

Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is pre-eminent for its high (38–45%) protein content as well as its high (20%) oil content. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Soybeans are the leading agricultural export in the United States. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.

Immature soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pod and served with salt, under the Japanese name edamame (枝豆, edamame^?). Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants is a preparation of baby Soybeans in the pod commonly found in China, Korea and Japan. Soybeans prepared this way are a popular local snack in Hawaii, and are becoming increasingly popular in the continental United States. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Because of the proclaimed health benefits of soy, edamame has been featured as an ideal snack alternative in fitness and healthy living magazines such as Real Simple. is a preparation of baby Soybeans in the pod commonly found in China, Korea and Japan. Real Simple is a monthly women's interest magazine published by Time Inc Edamame is sold in the frozen vegetable section at some larger grocery stores, and as ready-to-eat snackfood in many Asian delis.

In China, Japan, and Korea the bean and products made from the bean are a popular part of the diet. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. The Chinese invented tofu (豆腐), and also made use of several varieties of soybean paste as seasonings. Tofu, also (the Japanese Romaji spelling doufu (the Chinese Pinyin spelling often used in Chinese recipes or bean curd (the literal Fermented bean paste is a category of fermented foods typically made from ground Soybeans which are indigenous to the cuisines of East and Southeast Japanese foods made from soya include: miso (味噌), natto (納豆), and edamame (枝豆). is a traditional Japanese food produced by fermenting Rice, Barley and/or Soybeans, with salt and the fungus (the most typical miso is made is a traditional Japanese food made from fermented Soybeans popular especially for Breakfast. is a preparation of baby Soybeans in the pod commonly found in China, Korea and Japan. In Korean cuisine, soybean sprouts, called kongnamul (hangul: 콩나물) are also used in a variety of dishes such as doenjang, cheonggukjang and ganjang. Korean cuisine as a national Cuisine known today has evolved through centuries of social and political change Doenjang (tønʨaŋ is a traditional Korean fermented Soybean paste Cheonggukjang (ʨʰʌŋkukʨaŋ is a fermented Soybean paste used in Korean cuisine. Soy sauce ( US) soya sauce ( Commonwealth) shoyu ( Japan) or sillao ( Peru) is a fermented Sauce

The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or soya) include soy meal, soy flour, soy milk, tofu, textured vegetable protein (TVP, which is made into a wide variety of vegetarian foods, some of them intended to imitate meat), tempeh, soy lecithin and soybean oil. Soy milk (also called soya milk, soybean milk, or soy juice) and sometimes referred to as soy drink/beverage is a beverage made from Tofu, also (the Japanese Romaji spelling doufu (the Chinese Pinyin spelling often used in Chinese recipes or bean curd (the literal Textured or texturized vegetable protein ( TVP) also known as textured soy protein ( TSP) is a Meat substitute made Vegetarian cuisine refers to Food that meets vegetarian standards by excluding Meat and animal tissue products In modern English usage meat most often refers to Animal tissue used as food mostly Skeletal muscle and associated Fat, but it may also refer Tempeh, or tempe in Javanese, is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds Soybeans into a cake form Lecithin is any of a group of yellow-brownish fatty substances occurring in animal and plant tissues and in egg yolk composed of Phosphoric acid, Choline, Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the production of soy sauce (or shoyu). Soy sauce ( US) soya sauce ( Commonwealth) shoyu ( Japan) or sillao ( Peru) is a fermented Sauce

Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) is among the largest processors of soybeans and soy products. The Archer Daniels Midland Company ( is a conglomerate based in Decatur Illinois. ADM along with Dow Chemical Company, DuPont and Monsanto support the industry trade associations United Soybean Board (USB) and Soyfoods Association of North America (SANA). The Dow Chemical Company () is an American Multinational corporation headquartered in Midland Michigan. E I du Pont de Nemours and Company (,) is an American chemical company that was founded in July 1802 as a Gunpowder mill by Eleuthère Irénée The Monsanto Company ( is a multinational Agricultural biotechnology Corporation. These trade associations have increased the consumption of soy products dramatically in recent years.

Oil

In processing soybeans for oil extraction and subsequent soy flour production, selection of high quality, sound, clean, dehulled yellow soybeans are very important. Soybeans having a dark colored seed coat, or even beans with a dark hilum will inadvertently leave dark specks in the flour, are undesirable for use in commercial food products. All commercial soybeans in the United States are yellow or yellow brown.

To produce soybean oil, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane. Hexane is an Alkane Hydrocarbon with the Chemical formula CH3(CH24CH3 or C6H14 The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Hydrogenation is the Chemical reaction that results in addition of Hydrogen (H2 Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil," or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. The remaining soybean husks are used mainly as animal feed.

The major unsaturated fatty acids in soybean oil triglycerides are 7% linolenic acid (C18:3); 51% linoleic acid (C-18:2); and 23% oleic acid(C-18:1). (more properly known as, TAG or triacylglyceride) is Glyceride in which the Glycerol is Esterified with three Fatty acids It is the α -Linolenic acid ( ALA) is an organic compound found in many common vegetable oils. Linoleic acid (LA is an unsaturated Omega-6 fatty acid. It is a colorless liquid Oleic acid is a Monounsaturated omega-9 Fatty acid found in various animal and vegetable sources It also contains the saturated fatty acids 4%stearic acid and 10% palmitic acid. Stearic acid (first syllable rhymes with either bear or gear) ( IUPAC Systematic name: octadecanoic acid) is a saturated Palmitic acid,CH3(CH214COOH or hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature, is one of the most common saturated Fatty acids found in animals

Soybean oil has a relatively high proportion, 7–10%, of oxidation prone linolenic acid, which is an undesirable property for continuous service, such as in a restaurant. In the early nineties, Iowa State University developed soybean oil with 1% linolenic acid in the oil. Three companies, Monsanto, DuPont/Bunge, and Asoyia in 2004 introduced low linolenic, (C18:3; cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 octadecatrienoic acid) Roundup Ready soybeans. The Monsanto Company ( is a multinational Agricultural biotechnology Corporation. E I du Pont de Nemours and Company (,) is an American chemical company that was founded in July 1802 as a Gunpowder mill by Eleuthère Irénée Bunge Limited (formerly Bunge International and prior to that Bunge Y Born) is a Bermudan food conglomerate with its headquarters in White Plains Roundup is the brand name of a systemic broad-spectrum Herbicide produced by the U In the past hydrogenation was used to reduce the unsaturation in linolenic acid, but this produced the unnatural trans-fatty acid trans fat configuration, whereas in nature the configuration is cis. Hydrogenation is the Chemical reaction that results in addition of Hydrogen (H2 Trans fat is the common name for a type of Unsaturated fat with trans - isomer Fatty acid (s This external picture from North Dakota State University compares soybean oil fatty acid content with other oils.

In the 2002–2003 growing season, 30. 6 million tons of soybean oil were produced worldwide, constituting about half of worldwide edible vegetable oil production, and thirty percent of all fats and oils produced, including animal fats and oils derived from tropical plants. Units of mass There are three similar units of Mass called the ton: Long ton (simply ton in countries such as the United ^[20]

Soybean oil has also been found effective as an insect repellent in some studies. ^[21][22] The commercial product Bite Blocker contains soybean oil as one active ingredient.

Meal

Main article: Soybean meal

Soybean meal, the material remaining after solvent extraction of soybean flakes, with a 50% soy protein content, toasted (a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a hammer mill, provided the energy for the American production method, beginning in the 1930s, of growing farm animals such as poultry and swine on an industrial scale; and more recently the aquaculture of catfish. Soybean meal is an ingredient found in some Dog food and Cattle feeding. Soy protein is generally regarded as the storage Protein held in discrete particles called protein bodies which are estimated to contain at least 60–70% of the total soybean For the record label see Hammermill Records A hammermill is a machine whose purpose is to shred material into fine particles Poultry is the category of Domesticated Birds which some humans keep for the purpose of collecting their eggs, or kill for their Meat and/or The domestic Pig (or in some areas hog) is normally given the scientific name Sus scrofa scrofa, though some taxonomists use the term Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including Molluscs Crustaceans and aquatic plants Catfish ( order Siluriformes) are a very diverse group of bony Fish.

Flour

Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) in order to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high Nitrogen Solubility Index (NSI), for uses such as extruder texturizing (TVP). Denaturation is a process in which Proteins or Nucleic acids lose their structure (tertiary structure by application of some external stress or compound for It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.

• Defatted soy flour is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less than 1% oil.
• Full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about 18% to 20% oil. Due to its high oil content a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill must be used for grinding rather than the more common hammer mill.
• Low-fat soy flour is made by adding back some oil to defatted soy flour. The lipid content varies according to specifications, usually between 4. 5% and 9%.
• High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour at the level of 15%.
• Lecithinated soy flour is made by adding soybean lecithin to defatted, low-fat or high-fat soy flours to increase their dispersibility and impart emulsifying properties. Lecithin is any of a group of yellow-brownish fatty substances occurring in animal and plant tissues and in egg yolk composed of Phosphoric acid, Choline, The lecithin content varies up to 15%.

Infant formula

Infant formulas based on soy (SBIF) are used by lactose-intolerant babies and for babies that are allergic to cow milk proteins. Infant formula is an artificial substitute for human Breast milk, designed for Infant consumption The formulas are sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, or concentrated liquid forms.

Some reviews express the opinion that more research is needed to answer the question of what effect the phytoestrogens contained in soy formula may have on infants,^[23][24] but did not find any adverse effects. Diverse studies conclude there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula. ^[25][26][27] One of these studies, published at the Journal of Nutrition,^[27] concludes that:

. . . there is no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition.

Nut butter

Soybeans have been made into a spread called soynut butter, similar to peanut butter but with soybeans instead. Soy nut butter is made from fresh roasted whole soybeans. It is remarkably similar to peanut butter in taste and texture but has significantly less total and saturated fat than peanut butter and is cholesterol free. It is also suitable for those allergic to nuts or to butter.

Substitute for existing products

Soybeans are the primary ingredient in many processed foods, including dairy product substitutes (e. Dairy products are generally defined as Foodstuffs produced from Milk. g. , margarine, soy ice cream, soy milk, soy yogurt, soy cheese and soy cream cheese), as well as Crisco, soybean oil, tofu, veggie burgers, soy crisps, among others. Margarine (ˈmɑrdʒərɨn /ˈmɑrdʒəriːn/ or /ˈmɑrgəriːn/ as a generic term can indicate any of a wide range of Butter substitutes Ice cream or ice-cream (originally iced cream) is a frozen dessert made from Dairy products such as Milk and Cream, combined Soy milk (also called soya milk, soybean milk, or soy juice) and sometimes referred to as soy drink/beverage is a beverage made from Soy yogurt, (Soya yoghurt in British English also referred to as Soygurt or Yofu (a Portmanteau of yoghurt and ''tofu'') is Soy Cheese is a dairy cheese analogue made from Soy, available in many of the same varieties as its dairy counterpart Soy Cheese is a dairy cheese analogue made from Soy, available in many of the same varieties as its dairy counterpart Crisco, a popular brand of Shortening, was first produced in 1911 by Procter & Gamble and was the first shortening to be made entirely of Vegetable oil Tofu, also (the Japanese Romaji spelling doufu (the Chinese Pinyin spelling often used in Chinese recipes or bean curd (the literal A veggie burger is a Vegetarian Hamburger. The patty of a veggie burger can be made from Vegetables Legumes nuts, Dairy Soybeans are processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to other foods (e. g. , butter, ice cream, milk, yogurt, cheese, lard, olive oil, ground beef, potato chips, etc. Butter is a Dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented Cream or Milk. Ice cream or ice-cream (originally iced cream) is a frozen dessert made from Dairy products such as Milk and Cream, combined Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the Mammary glands of female Mammals (including Monotremes. Yoghurt, yogurt, yoghourt, youghurt or yogourt (see spelling below is a Cheese is a Food made from Milk, usually the milk of cows, Buffalo, Goats or sheep, by coagulation. Lard is pig Fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms Lard was commonly used in many cuisines as a Cooking fat or Shortening Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees Ground beef, beef mince or hamburger meat (in North America) or mince or mince(d meat (in the rest of the English speaking A potato chip or crisp is a thin slice of Potato, deep fried or baked until Crisp. ) and are readily available in most supermarkets. Customer divider barjpg|thumb|In supermarkets sellers periodically change prices for classes of goods in response to market conditions rather than negotiating the price of each good Soy milk does not contain significant amounts of calcium, since the high calcium content of soybeans is bound to the insoluble constituents and remains in the pulp. Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 Okara or soy pulp is a white or yellowish pulp consisting of insoluble parts of the Soybean which remain in the filter sack when Pureed Many manufacturers of soy milk now sell calcium-enriched products as well.

Other products

Soybeans are the bean used in Chinese fermented black beans, douchi, not the sometimes confused black turtle beans. Douchi ( Cantonese dao si also called Chinese fermented black beans, is a Flavoring most popular in the Cuisine of China, and is used to make black

Soybeans are also used in industrial products including oils, soap, cosmetics, resins, plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, and clothing. SOAP (see below for name and origins is a protocol for exchanging XML -based messages over Computer networks normally using Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products An ink is a Liquid containing various Pigments and/or Dyes used for coloring a surface to produce an Image, text, or A crayon is a stick of colored Wax, Charcoal, Chalk, or other materials used for writing and Drawing. A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. Clothing (also called clothes, accoutrements, accouterments, or habiliments) protects the Human body from extreme Weather Soybean oil is the primary source of biodiesel in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic biodiesel production ^[28]. Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by Soybeans are also used as fermenting stock to make a brand of vodka. Vodka is one of the world's most popular Distilled beverages It is a clear liquid which consists of mostly Water and Ethanol purified by Distillation

Henry Ford promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics. Henry Ford ( July 30, 1863 &ndash April 7, 1947) was the American founder of the Ford Motor Company and father of Ford's interest led to two bushels of soybeans being used in each Ford car as well as products like the first commercial soy milk, ice cream and all-vegetable non-dairy whipped topping. Soy milk (also called soya milk, soybean milk, or soy juice) and sometimes referred to as soy drink/beverage is a beverage made from The Ford development of so-called soy-based plastics was based on the addition of soybean flour and wood flour to phenolformaldehyde plastics.

In 1931, Ford hired chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert to produce artificial silk. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a formaldehyde bath which was given the name Azlon by the Federal Trade Commission. Formaldehyde is a Chemical compound with the formula H2CO It is the simplest Aldehyde —an organic compound containing a terminal Carbonyl Azlon is a synthetic Textile fiber composed of protein material derived from natural sources Pilot production of Azlon reached 5000 pounds per day in 1940, but never reached the commercial market.

Today, very high quality textile fibers are made commercially from "okara" (soy pulp), a by-product of tofu production. Okara or soy pulp is a white or yellowish pulp consisting of insoluble parts of the Soybean which remain in the filter sack when Pureed Tofu, also (the Japanese Romaji spelling doufu (the Chinese Pinyin spelling often used in Chinese recipes or bean curd (the literal

Nutrition

Soybean, green raw Nutritional value per 100 g (3. 5 oz)
Energy 30 kcal   130 kJ
Carbohydrates     5. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most 94 g - Sugars  4. 13 g - Dietary fiber  1. Dietary fibers are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the Digestive system, absorbing water and easing Defecation. 8 g   Fat 0. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water 18 g - saturated  0. Saturated fat is Fat that consists of Triglycerides containing only saturated Fatty acids Explanation Fat that occurs 046 g - monounsaturated  0. For discussion how dietary fats affect cardiovascular health see Diet and heart disease. 022 g   - polyunsaturated  0. In nutrition polyunsaturated fat is an abbreviation of polyunsaturated Fatty acid. 058 g   Protein 3. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl 04 g Water 90. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. 4 g Vitamin A equiv. Vitamin A refers to a family of similarly shaped molecules the Retinoids.  1 μg  0% Vitamin B6  0. Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble Vitamin. Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP is the active form and is a cofactor in many reactions of Amino acid metabolism including 088 mg 7% Vitamin B12  0 μg   0% Vitamin C  13. Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian 2 mg 22% Vitamin K  33 μg 31% Calcium  13 mg 1% Iron  0. Vitamin K (K from "Koagulations-Vitamin" in German Danish Swedish and Norwegian denotes a group of Lipophilic, Hydrophobic Vitamins that Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 91 mg 7% Magnesium  21 mg 6%  Phosphorus  54 mg 8% Potassium  149 mg   3% Sodium  6 mg 0% Zinc  0. Magnesium is an essential element in biological systems. Magnesium occurs typically as the Mg2+ ion Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 For sodium chloride in the diet see Salt. Sodium chloride, also known as common salt, table salt, or Halite, is a Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 41 mg 4%
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Reference Daily Intake (or Recommended Daily Intake ( RDI) is the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient which was considered (at the time they were defined to be sufficient Source: USDA Nutrient database

Protein, Vitamins, and Minerals

Main article: soy protein

Soybeans are generally considered to be a source of complete protein, without any need for Protein combining,^[29] although this is contested by some sources. Soy protein is generally regarded as the storage Protein held in discrete particles called protein bodies which are estimated to contain at least 60–70% of the total soybean See also Protein in nutrition A complete protein (or whole protein) is a Protein that contains all of the Essential amino acids for Protein combining (also protein complementing) is a controversial theory that Vegetarians particlarly Vegans must eat certain complementary foods like ^[30][31] A complete protein is one that contains significant amounts of all the essential amino acids that must be provided to the human body because of the body's inability to synthesize them. An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an Amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to The human body is the entire physical and mental structure of a Human Organism. For this reason, soy is a good source of protein, amongst many others, for many vegetarians and vegans or for people who cannot afford meat. Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes Meat (including game and slaughter by-products Fish (including Shellfish and other sea

The gold standard for measuring protein quality, since 1990, is the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) and by this criterion soy protein is the nutritional equivalent of meat and eggs for human growth and health. Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS is a method of evaluating the protein quality based on the Amino acid requirements of humans Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Soybean protein isolate has a Biological Value of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and eggs 97. Biological value ( BV) is a measure of the proportion of absorbed Protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body ^[32]

Soy protein is similar to that of other legume seeds, but has the highest yield per square meter of growing area, and is the least expensive source of dietary protein. Soy protein is generally regarded as the storage Protein held in discrete particles called protein bodies which are estimated to contain at least 60–70% of the total soybean

Consumption of soy may also reduce the risk of colon cancer, possibly due to the presence of sphingolipids. Colorectal cancer, also called colon cancer or large bowel cancer, includes Cancerous growths in the colon, Rectum and Sphingolipids are a class of Lipids derived from the Aliphatic amino alcohol Sphingosine. ^[33]

Role of soyfoods in disease prevention

Omega-3 fatty acids

Omega-3 fatty acids, for example, alpha-linolenic acid C18-3, all cis, 9,12,15 octadecatrienoic acid (where the omega-3 refers to carbon number 3 counting from the hydrocarbon tail whereas C-15 refers to carbon number 15 counting from the carboxyl acid head) are special fat components that benefit many body functions. n −3 fatty acids (popularly referred to as ω−3 fatty acids or omega-3 fatty acids) are a family of unsaturated Fatty acids that α -Linolenic acid ( ALA) is an organic compound found in many common vegetable oils. However, the effects which are beneficial to health are associated mainly with the longer-chain, more unsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic (20:5n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA) found in fish oil and oily fish. For instance, EPA and DHA, inhibit blood clotting, while there is no evidence that alpha-linolenic acid (aLNA) can do this. Soybean oil is one of the few common vegetable oils that contains a significant amount of aLNA; others include canola, walnut, and flax. Canola is a type of Edible oil derived from plants initially bred in Canada by Keith Downey and Baldur Stefansson in the 1970s Flax (also known as common flax or linseed) (binomial name Linum usitatissimum) is a member of the genus Linum However, soybean oil does not contain EPA or DHA. Soybean oil does contain significantly greater amount of omega-6 fatty acids in the oil: 100g of soybean oil contains 7g of omega-3 fatty acids to 51g of omega-6: a ratio of 1:7. n −6 fatty acids (popularly referred to as ω−6 fatty acids or omega-6 fatty acids) are a family of unsaturated Fatty acids Flaxseed, in comparison, has an omega-3:omega-6 ratio of 3:1.

Isoflavones

Main article: Isoflavone

Soybeans also contain the isoflavones genistein and daidzein, types of phytoestrogen, that are considered by some nutritionists and physicians to be useful in the prevention of cancer and by others to be carcinogenic and endocrine disruptive. Genistein is one of several known Isoflavones Isoflavones such as genistein and Daidzein, are found in a number of Plants with Soybeans Daidzein is one of several known Isoflavones Isoflavones compounds such as daidzein and Genistein, are found in a number of Plants but Soybeans Phytoestrogens, sometimes called "dietary estrogens" are a diverse group of naturally occurring non steroidal plant compounds that because of their structural similarity with Soy's content of isoflavones are as much as 3 mg/g dry weight. Isoflavones are polyphenol compounds, produced primarily by beans and other legumes, including peanuts and chickpeas. Polyphenols are a group of chemical substances found in plants characterized by the presence of more than one Phenol unit or building block per molecule The peanut, or Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea) is a species in the Legume family Fabaceae native to South America, Mexico The chickpea ( Cicer arietinum) (also garbanzo bean, Indian pea, ceci bean, bengal gram, chana, kadale kaalu, Isoflavones are closely related to the antioxidant flavonoids found in other plants, vegetables and flowers. The term flavonoid (or bioflavonoid refers to a class of Plant Secondary metabolites According to the IUPAC nomenclature they can be classified into Isoflavones such as genistein and daidzein are found in only some plant families, because most plants do not have an enzyme, chalcone isomerase which converts a flavone precursor into an isoflavone.

Claims of cholesterol reduction

The dramatic increase in soyfood sales is largely credited to the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) approval of health claims for soy in which studies are conflicting as to their cholesterol lowering ability. ^[34]

From 1992 to 2003, sales have experienced a 15% compound annual growth rate, increasing from $300 million to $3. Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR is a business and investing specific term for the geometric mean growth rate on an annualized basis 9 billion over 11 years, as new soyfood categories have been introduced, soyfoods have been repositioned in the market place, thanks to a better emphasis on marketing nutrition.

In 1995, the New England Journal of Medicine (Vol. 333, No. 5) published a report from the University of Kentucky entitled, "Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Soy Protein Intake on Serum Lipids. The University of Kentucky, also known as UK, is a public, Co-educational, University, and is also the state's land-grant university located " It was financed by the PTI division of DuPont,"The Solae Co. "^[35] St. Louis, Missouri, a soy producer and marketer. This meta-analysis concluded that soy protein is correlated with significant decreases in serum cholesterol, Low Density Lipoprotein LDL (bad cholesterol) and triglyceride concentrations. Low-density lipoprotein ( LDL) is a type of Lipoprotein that transports Cholesterol and Triglycerides from the Liver to peripheral However, High Density Lipoprotein HDL(good cholesterol) did not increase by a significant amount. High-density lipoproteins ( HDL) is one of the 5 major groups of Lipoproteins ( Chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, HDL Soy phytoestrogens (isoflavones: genistein and daidzein) adsorbed onto the soy protein were suggested as the agent reducing serum cholesterol levels. Phytoestrogens, sometimes called "dietary estrogens" are a diverse group of naturally occurring non steroidal plant compounds that because of their structural similarity with Adsorption is a process that occurs when a gas or liquid Solute accumulates on the surface of a solid or a liquid (adsorbent forming a film of molecules or atoms (the On the basis of this research PTI, in 1998, filed a petition with FDA for a health claim that soy protein may reduce cholesterol and the risk of heart disease. It should be noted that only subjects with serum cholesterol of 250 mg/dl and higher showed any improvement in the study.

The FDA granted this health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. "^[36] One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein. Solae resubmitted their original petition, asking for a more vague health claim, after their original was challenged and highly criticized. Solae also submitted a petition for a health claim that soy can help prevent cancer. They quickly withdrew the petition for lack of evidence and after more than 1,000 letters of protest were received. In February 18, 2008 Weston A. Price Foundation submitted a petition for removal of this health claim. ^[37]

In January, 2006 an American Heart Association review (in the journal Circulation) of a decade long study of soy protein benefits casts doubt on the FDA allowed "Heart Healthy" claim for soy protein. The American Heart Association (AHA is a Non-profit organization in the United States that fosters appropriate This review of the literature compared soy protein and its component isoflavones with casein (isolated milk protein), wheat protein, and mixed animal proteins. ^[38] The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post menopause "hot flashes" in women and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. Thus, soy isoflavone supplements in food or pills is not recommended. Among the conclusions the authors state, "In contrast, soy products such as tofu, soy butter, soy nuts, or some soy burgers should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat. Using these and other soy foods to replace foods high in animal protein that contain saturated fat and cholesterol may confer benefits to cardiovascular health. "^[39] The original paper is in the journal Circulation: January 17, 2006. ^[40]

Health risks

Phytoestrogen

Main article: Phytoestrogens

Soybeans contain isoflavones called genistein and daidzein, which are one source of phytoestrogens in the human diet. Phytoestrogens, sometimes called "dietary estrogens" are a diverse group of naturally occurring non steroidal plant compounds that because of their structural similarity with Genistein is one of several known Isoflavones Isoflavones such as genistein and Daidzein, are found in a number of Plants with Soybeans Daidzein is one of several known Isoflavones Isoflavones compounds such as daidzein and Genistein, are found in a number of Plants but Soybeans Phytoestrogens, sometimes called "dietary estrogens" are a diverse group of naturally occurring non steroidal plant compounds that because of their structural similarity with Because most naturally occurring estrogenic substances show weak activity, normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans.

Plant lignans associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. The lignans are a group of Chemical compounds found in Plants particularly in flax seed Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol containing 13–273 µg/100 g dry weight. Secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG (C32H46O16 is an Anti-oxidant Phytochemical present in Flax, Sunflower ^[41] Another phytoestrogen in the human diet with estrogen activity is coumestans, which are found in beans, split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. Coumestan is an Organic compound that is a derivative of Coumarin. Coumestrol, an isoflavone coumarin derivative is the only coumestan in foods. Coumestrol is a natural Organic compound in the class of Phytochemicals known as Coumestans It has garnered research interest because of its estrogenic Coumarin is a Chemical compound ( Benzopyrone) a Toxin found in many Plants notably in high concentration in the Tonka bean, ^[42][43]

Soybeans and processed soy foods do not contain the highest "total phytoestrogen" content of foods. A study in which data were presented on an as-is (wet) basis per 100 g and per serving found that food groups from highest to lowest levels of total phytoestrogens per 100 g are nuts and oilseeds, soy products, cereals and breads, legumes, meat products, various processed foods that may contain soy, vegetables, and fruits. ^[44]

Women

A 2001 literature review suggested that women with current or past breast cancer should be aware of the risks of potential tumor growth when taking soy products, based on the effect of phytoestrogens on breast cancer cell growth in animals. ^[45]

A 2006 commentary reviewed the relationship with soy and breast cancer. They stated that soy may prevent breast cancer, but cautioned that the impact of isoflavones on breast tissue needs to be evaluated at the cellular level in women at high risk for breast cancer. ^[46]

Men

Because of the phytoestrogen content, some studies, but not all, have suggested that there is an inverse correlation between soybean ingestion and testosterone in men. Testosterone is a Steroid hormone from the Androgen group In mammals testosterone is primarily secreted in the testes of males and the Ovaries ^[47] For this reason, they may protect against the development of prostate cancer. ^[48] A theoretical decrease in the risk of prostate cancer should, however, be weighed against the possible side-effects of decreased testosterone, which are still unclear. The popular fear that soybeans might cause reduced libido and even feminine characteristics in men has not been indicated by any study; the popularity of the notion seems to be based on the simplistic misapprehension that estrogen and testosterone have a simple, inverse relationship in sexual hormone systems and gender-based behavior. Their interplay is very complicated and largely still unknown. ^[49]

Infant formula

There are some studies that state that phytoestrogen in soy can lead to alterations in the proliferation and migration of intestinal cells. In Anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the Stomach to the Anus and in humans and other mammals consists The effects of these alterations are unknown. ^[50] However, some studies conclude there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula. ^[51] Other reviews agree, but state that more research is needed to answer the question of what effect phytoestrogens have on infants. ^[52][53] Soy formula has also been linked to autoimmune disorders of the thyroid gland. Autoimmunity is the failure of an organism to recognize its own constituent parts as self, which results in an immune response against its own cells and tissues The thyroid is one of the largest Endocrine glands in the body ^[54]

Allergens

Main article: Soy allergy

About 9% of children in the USA are allergic to soybean proteins. Soy allergy is a type of Food allergy. "Soy allergy" ( U The major soy allergen has been identified by scientists at USDA. Both transgenic and conventional soybean varieties without the allergenic protein have been prepared. This article is about organisms which have been genetically modified Soy allergy, typically, will manifest itself approximately a day after consumption of the beans. Common symptoms are urticaria, rash, itching, and redness of the skin. ^[55][56]

Promotion as health food

Soy consumption has been promoted by natural food companies and the soy industry's aggressive marketing campaign in various magazines, television ads and in health food markets. Research has been conducted examining the validity of the beneficial health claims with regard to the increase in consumption of soybeans which mimic hormonal activity. A practice guideline published in the journal Circulation questions the efficacy and safety of soy isoflavones for preventing or treating cancer of the breast, endometrium, and prostate (although the same study also concludes that soy in some foods should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health) and does not recommend usage of isoflavone supplements in food or pills. ^[57] A review of the available studies by the United States' Health and Human Services' Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found little evidence of substantial health improvements and no adverse effects, but also noted that there was no long-term safety data on soy consumption. The United States Department of Health and Human Services ( HHS) is a Cabinet department of the United States government with the goal of protecting The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ (formerly known as the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research) is a part of the United States Department of Health ^[58]

Brain

Estrogen helps protect and repair the brain during and after injury. ^[59] The mimicry of estrogen by the phytoestrogens in soy has introduced a controversy over whether such a replacement is harmful or helpful to the brain. Several studies have found soy to be harmful for rats. ^[60]Nevertheless the cited study was based on rats fed with concentrated phytoestrogens and not common soy beans and it is already well known that concentrated estrogens cause negative effects in males. The common amounts of phytoestrogens in soy beans are not to be compared to concentrated estrogen. One study followed over 3000 Japanese men between 1965 and 1999, and that showed a positive correlation between brain atrophy and consumption of tofu. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. ^[61]

Carcinogen

Raw soy flour is known to cause pancreatic cancer in rats. Pancreatic cancer is a malignant tumor of the Pancreas. Each year about 37680 individuals in the United States are diagnosed with this condition and 34290 ^[62] Whether this is also true in humans is unknown because no studies comparing cases of pancreatic cancer and soy intake in humans have yet been conducted, and the doses used to induce pancreatic cancer in rats are said to be larger than humans would normally consume. Heated soy flour may not be carcinogenic in rats. The term carcinogen refers to any substance Radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of Cancer or in the fatation of its propagation ^[63][64]

References

External links

Advocacy and nutritional information

• American Soybean Association
• Cornell University Food and Brand Lab
• Evaluation of Anti-Soy Data and Anti-Soy Advocates
• Guardian - There's no risk to humans from soya
• IITA has CGIAR global mandate for Soybean research for development
• International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
• Soy information at Soyatech
• Soy Heart healthy claims in dispute
• Soyinfo Center - SoyaScan database and books
• United Soybean Board

Critical

• AlterNet: Health & Wellness: The Dark Side of Soy
• Concerns Regarding Soybeans
• Guardian - Should we worry about soya in our food?
• Health Canada: Soy - One of the nine most common food allergens
• Soy Allergy Information Page Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America
• Soy Online Service

The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA is a non-profit organization dedicated to finding a cure for and controlling Asthma, Food allergies, Nasal

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