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The Song Dynasty (Chinese: 宋朝; pinyin: Sòng Cháo; Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao) was a ruling dynasty in China between 960–1279 CE; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money,b[›] and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy. A banknote (often known as a bill, paper money or simply a note) is a kind of Negotiable instrument, a Promissory note made by a The naval history of China dates back thousands of years with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn Period ( 722 BC - 481 BC) about the c[›]
The population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. This growth came through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, the use of early-ripening rice from southeast and southern Asia, and the production of abundant food surpluses. [1][2] Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. d[›][1] This dramatic increase of population fomented and fueled an economic revolution in premodern China. The Song Dynasty (960&ndash1279 of China was a period of Chinese history marked by commercial expansion economic prosperity and revolutionary new economic concepts The expansion of the population was partially the cause for the gradual withdrawal of the central government from heavily regulating the market economy. A much larger populace also increased the importance of the lower gentry's role in grassroots administration and maintaining local affairs, while the appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon these scholarly gentry for their services, sponsorship, and local supervision.
The Song Dynasty is divided into two distinct periods: the Northern Song and Southern Song. During the Northern Song (Chinese: 北宋, 960–1127), the Song capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of inner China. Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern The Southern Song (Chinese: 南宋, 1127–1279) refers to the period after the Song lost control of northern China to the Jin Dynasty. Alternative meaning In Geology, North China (continent and South China (continent were two ancient landmasses that correspond to modern northern This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze River and established their capital at Lin'an (now Hangzhou). ( Postal map spelling: Hangchow) is a Sub-provincial city located in the Yangtze River Delta in the People's Republic of China, Although the Song had lost control of the traditional birthplace of Chinese civilization along the Yellow River, the Song economy was not in ruins, as the Southern Song contained 60 percent of China's population and a majority of the most productive agricultural land. The Yellow River or Huang He / Hwang Ho ( Hatan Gol Queen river) is the second-longest river in China (after the Yangtze River) and the [3] The Southern Song Dynasty considerably bolstered naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. Maritime history is a broad thematic element of History that often uses a global approach although national and regional histories remain predominant To repel the Jin (and then the Mongols), the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder. Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes e[›] In 1234, the Jin Dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who subsequently took control of northern China and maintained uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, died in 1259 while besieging a city in Chongqing. Möngke Khan (Мөнх хаан also transliterated as Mongke Mongka Möngka Mangu or Mangku ( c For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title Chongqing ( Postal map spelling: Chungking; Wade-Giles: Ch'ung-ch'ing) is the largest and most populous of the People's Republic of China His successor Kublai Khan was perceived both as the new Great Khan of the Mongols and by 1271 as the Emperor of China. Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of [4] After two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khan's armies conquered the Song Dynasty in 1279. China was once again unified, under the Yuan Dynasty, which was a division of the vast Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire
Social life during the Song was vibrant; social elites gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the earlier innovation of woodblock printing and the 11th century innovation of movable type printing. For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation There were numerous intellectual pursuits, while pre-modern technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished in the Song. Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Zhu Xi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused with Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought out the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism. Cheng Yi ( 1033–1107 Courtesy name Zhengshu (正叔 also known as Mr Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi (朱熹 born October 18, 1130, Yuxi, Fujian province China &ndash died April 23, 1200 Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Neo-Confucianism (/( is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui Dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period, and was a leading factor in the shift of an aristocratic elite to a bureaucratic elite. The Imperial examinations ( in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's Bureaucracy. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations A bureaucrat is a member of a Bureaucracy, usually within an institution of the Government. Although exam-drafted scholar-officials scorned any emphasis or favor shown to the growing merchant class and those of petty commercial vocations, commercialism was nonetheless heavily embedded into Song culture and society. Scholar-bureaucrats or scholar-officials were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform day-to-day governance from the Sui Dynasty to
Key industries were controlled by the government under strict monopolies, while private industry and businesses produced goods and services not officially monopolized by the state. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient The Song court received tributary missions from foreign countries while scholar-officials, tenant landlords, merchants, and other wealthy individuals invested money in the booming overseas trade and shipbuilding industry. See also Shipbuilding (song. Shipbuilding is the construction of Ships It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a Independent, state-sponsored, and state-employed architects, engineers, carpenters, and craftsmen erected thousands of bridges, pagoda towers, temple halls, palace halls, ancestral shrines, shops and storefronts, and other buildings throughout the empire. An architect is a licensed individual who leads a design team in the Planning and Design of buildings and participates in oversight of Building Construction The Chinese Pagoda is a Landmark in Birmingham, England. It is a stone carving of a Chinese pagoda, carved in Fujian, China
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History
- Further information: List of Song Emperors
Northern Song
Emperor Taizu of Song (r. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors ( were mythological rulers of China during the period from c The Xia Dynasty ( of China is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Records of the Grand Historian and The Shang Dynasty ( Chinese: 商[[wiktionary 朝|朝]] or Yin Dynasty ( 殷[[wiktionary 代|代]] was according to traditional sources the The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Spring and Autumn Period ( was a period in Chinese history which roughly corresponds to the first half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (from the second half of the 8th century BC The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Xin Dynasty ( was a Chinese Dynasty (although strictly speaking it had only one Emperor) which lasted from 9 - 23 AD The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of Cao Wei ( was one of the empires that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period Shu Han ( Traditional Chinese: 蜀漢 Pinyin: Shǔ Hàn sometimes known as the Kingdom of Shu (蜀 shǔ was one of the Three Kingdoms competing Eastern Wu ( Chinese: 東吳 Pinyin: Dōng Wú also known as Sun Wu ( Traditional Chinese: 孫吳 pinyin Sūn Wú refers to a The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Sixteen Kingdoms ( or less commonly the Sixteen States, were a collection of numerous short-lived sovereign states in China proper and its neighboring areas This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Wu Zetian ( (625 – December 16, 705 In 705 she was overthrown in a coup and Emperor Zhongzong was returned to the throne Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Xi Xia redirects here For a Chinese general whose name may be transliterated as Xi Xia see Xi Qia The Western Xia Dynasty ( or The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China This article discusses history of the state which currently governs Taiwan Area. The history of the People's Republic of China details the history of Mainland China since October 1, 1949, when after a near complete victory See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China Early 1950s Social revolution The People's Republic of China was founded on See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China Power struggles after Mao's death See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China Recovery in the 1990s Post-Tiananmen The Tiananmen Square protests See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China "Fourth Generation" The Hu-Wen Administration Power transition The Republic of China on Taiwan era ( also known as the postwar era ( refers to the period in Taiwan's history, between the end of World War II This article discusses the history of Taiwan (including the Pescadores) The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. China was the largest economy on earth for most of the recorded history of the past two millennia Chinese Historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history. Chinese art is Art that whether ancient or modern originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists or performers The history of education in China began with the birth of Chinese civilization. The history of Science and Technology in China is both long and rich with many contributions to science and technology See also Chinese law The origin of the current Law of the People's Republic of China can be traced back to the period of the early 1930s during the establishment of the The recorded military history of China extends from about 1500 BC to the present day The naval history of China dates back thousands of years with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn Period ( 722 BC - 481 BC) about the The following is a Timeline of the History of China. Between the changing of the dynasties, most dates overlap as ruling periods do not transfer immediately The Song Dynasty ( Chinese: 宋朝; Pinyin: Sòng cháo 960 - 1279) of China was a ruling Dynasty that controlled China proper This is a list of emperors during the Song Dynasty ( 960 - 1279) of China. Ancestry and early life His family was of fairly modest origins and cannot be traced back with certainty further than the late Tang dynasty. 960–976) unified China through military conquest during his reign, ending the upheaval of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. In Kaifeng, he established a strong central government over the empire. Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern He ensured administrative stability by promoting the civil service examination system of drafting state bureaucrats by skill and merit (instead of aristocratic or martial status) and promoted projects that ensured efficiency in communication throughout the empire. The Imperial examinations ( in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's Bureaucracy. A bureaucrat is a member of a Bureaucracy, usually within an institution of the Government. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial) (March 1 40 AD - ca One such project was the creation by cartographers of detailed maps of each province and city which were then collected in a large atlas. Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write has been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8000 years An atlas is a collection of Maps typically of Earth or a region of Earth but there are atlases of the other planets (and their satellites in the solar system [5] He also promoted groundbreaking science and technological innovations by supporting such works as the astronomical clock tower designed and built by the engineer Zhang Sixun. An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of A clock tower is a Tower built with one or more (often four Clock faces. Zhang Sixun ( fl 10th century was a Chinese Astronomer and Military engineer from Bazhong Sichuan during the early [6]
The Song court upheld foreign relations with Chola India, Fatimid Egypt, Srivijayan Malaysia, and other countries that were also maritime trade partners. Srivijaya or Sriwijaya was an ancient Malay kingdom on the island of Sumatra, Southeast Asia which influenced much of the Malay Archipelago. [7][8][9] However, it was China's closest neighboring states who would have the biggest impact upon its domestic and foreign policy. From its inception with the first emperor Taizu, the Song Dynasty alternated between warfare and diplomacy with the ethnic Khitans of the Liao Dynasty in the northeast and with the Tanguts of the Western Xia Dynasty in the northwest. The Khitan (or Khitai,) were a Nomadic people, located in Mongolia and modern Manchuria (Northeast China from the 4th century dominating much of it The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria The Tangut ( identified with the state of Western Xia, were a Qiangic - Tibetan people who moved to northwestern China sometime before Xi Xia redirects here For a Chinese general whose name may be transliterated as Xi Xia see Xi Qia The Western Xia Dynasty ( or The Song Dynasty used military force in an attempt to quell the Liao Dynasty and recapture the Sixteen Prefectures, a territory under Khitan control that was traditionally considered to be part of the Chinese domain. The Sixteen Prefectures are a region in northern China stretching from present-day Beijing westward to Datong. [10] However, Song forces were repulsed by the Liao forces who engaged in aggressive yearly campaigns into northern Song territory until 1005 when the signing of the Shanyuan Treaty ended these northern frontier border clashes. The Shanyuan Treaty in 1004/05 was the pivotal point in the relations between the Northern Song ( 960 - 1127) and the Liao ( 916 The Chinese were forced to pay heavy tribute to the Khitans, although the paying of this tribute did little damage to the overall Song economy since the Khitans were heavily dependent upon importing massive amounts of goods from the Song Dynasty. [11] More significantly, the Song state recognized the Liao state as its diplomatic equal. [12] The Song Dynasty managed to win several military victories over the Tanguts in the early 11th century, culminating in a campaign led by the polymath scientist, general, and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese [13] However, this campaign was ultimately a failure due to a rival military officer of Shen disobeying direct orders, and the territory gained from the Western Xia was eventually lost. Xi Xia redirects here For a Chinese general whose name may be transliterated as Xi Xia see Xi Qia The Western Xia Dynasty ( or [14]
During the 11th century, political rivalries thoroughly divided members of the court due to the ministers' differing approaches, opinions, and policies regarding the handling of the Song's complex society and thriving economy. The idealist Chancellor Fan Zhongyan (989–1052) was the first to receive a heated political backlash when he attempted to make such reforms as improving the recruitment system of officials, increasing the salaries for minor officials, and establishing sponsorship programs to allow a wider range of people to be well educated and eligible for state service. The Chancellor ( variously translated as Prime Minister, Premier or Chief Councillor, was a generic name given to the highest-ranking official in the Early Official Career In the 1030s Fan served as the prefect of Kaifeng. [15] After Fan was forced to step down from his office, Wang Anshi (1021–1086) became chancellor of the imperial court. Background Under the Song Dynasty the unprecedented development of large estates whose owners managed to evade paying their share of Taxes resulted in an increasingly With the backing of Emperor Shenzong of Song (1067–1085), Wang Anshi severely criticized the educational system and state bureaucracy. Emperor Shenzong ( May 25, 1048 &ndash April 1, 1085) was the sixth emperor of Song Dynasty China. Seeking to resolve what he saw as state corruption and negligence, Wang implemented a series of reforms called the New Policies. These involved land tax reform, the establishment of several government monopolies, the support of local militias, and the creation of higher standards for the Imperial examination to make it more practical for men skilled in statecraft to pass. Land value taxation (LVT (or site value taxation) is an Ad valorem tax where only the value of land itself is taxed In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service [16] The reforms created political factions in the court with Wang Anshi's New Policies Group (Xin Fa), or the 'Reformers' in one camp, opposed by the ministers in the 'Conservative' faction led by the historian and Chancellor Sima Guang (1019–1086) in the other. Life profession and works He was born in 1019 in present-day Yuncheng Shanxi to a wealthy family and obtained early success as a scholar and officer [17] As one faction supplanted another in the majority position of the court ministers, it would demote rival officials and exile them to govern remote frontier regions of the empire. [16] One of the prominent victims of the political rivalry, the famous poet and statesman Su Shi (1037–1101), was jailed and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms. Su Shi ( 1037–1101 was a writer, poet, Artist, calligrapher, Pharmacologist, and Statesman of the Song Dynasty [16]
While the central Song court remained politically divided and focused upon its internal affairs, alarming new events to the north in the Liao state finally came to its attention. The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria For the character from the Oz series see Polychrome (fictional character. Guanyin (觀音 pinyin guānyīn, Wade-Giles kuan-yin) is the Bodhisattva of compassion as venerated by East Asian Buddhists ( Postal map spelling: Shansi) is a province in the northern part of the People's Republic of China. The Jurchen, a subject tribe within the Liao empire, rebelled against the Liao and formed their own state, the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234). The Jurchens ( were a Tungus people who inhabited the region of Manchuria ( Northeast China) until the 17th century when they adopted the name Manchu This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty [18] The Song official Tong Guan (1054–1126) advised the reigning Emperor Huizong of Song (1100–1125) to form an alliance with the Jurchens and their joint military campaign toppled and completely conquered the Liao Dynasty by 1125. Tong Guan (童貫 1054&ndash1126 style name Daofu (道夫 was a Chinese court Eunuch, military general political adviser and Council of State to Emperor Huizong ( November 2, 1082 – June 4, 1135) was the eighth and one of the most famous emperors of the Song Dynasty of However, the poor performance and military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchens, who immediately broke the alliance with the Song and launched an invasion into Song territory in 1125 and another in 1127 when the Jurchens managed to capture not only the Song capital at Kaifeng, but the retired emperor Huizong and the succeeding Emperor Qinzong of Song as well as most of his court. Emperor Qinzong ( May 23, 1100 &ndash June 14, 1161) was the ninth emperor of the Song Dynasty of China, and the last [18] This took place in the year of Jingkang (Chinese 靖康) and it is known as the Humiliation of Jingkang (Chinese 靖康之恥). The Jingkang Incident (靖康事變 the Humiliation of Jingkang (靖康之恥 or the The Disorders of the Jingkang Period (靖康之乱 took place in 1127 The remaining Song forces rallied under the self appointed Emperor Gaozong of Song (1127–1162), fleeing south of the Yangtze River to establish the Song Dynasty's new capital at Lin'an (in modern Hangzhou). Biography Gaozong was the 5th son of Emperor Huizong and the younger half-brother of Emperor Qinzong. ( Postal map spelling: Hangchow) is a Sub-provincial city located in the Yangtze River Delta in the People's Republic of China, This Jurchen conquest of northern China and shift of capitals from Kaifeng to Lin'an was the dividing line between the Northern Song Dynasty and Southern Song Dynasty.
Southern Song
Although weakened and pushed south along the Huai River, the Southern Song found new ways to bolster their already strong economy and defend their state against the Jin Dynasty. The Huai River ( is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers They had able military officers such as Yue Fei and Han Shizhong. Yue Fei’s biographies Yue Fei Biography A biography of Yue Fei was written 60 years after his death by his grandson the poet and historian Yue Ke (岳柯 Early life Han Shizhong was born to a poor farming family in a village of the Shanxi province in the year 1089 The government sponsored massive shipbuilding and harbor improvement projects, and the construction of beacons and seaport warehouses in order to support maritime trade abroad and the major international seaports, including Quanzhou, Guangzhou, and Xiamen that were sustaining China's commerce. See also Shipbuilding (song. Shipbuilding is the construction of Ships It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a A harbor or harbour (see spelling differences) or haven, is a place where ships may shelter from the Weather or are stored Beacons are aids to Navigation devices Intentionally conspicuous beacons help guide navigators to their destinations A warehouse is a commercial Building for Storage of Goods. Warehouses are used by Manufacturers Importers Exporters ||-||-|-||-||-||-||-||-||-|} A port is a facility for receiving Ships and transferring cargo "Zaytun" redirects here For the South Korean military division in Iraq see Zaytun Division. Guangzhou ( Jyutping: Gwong²zau¹; Yale: Gwóngjàu) is the Capital and a Sub-provincial city [19][20][21] To protect and support the multitudes of ships sailing for maritime interests into the waters of the East China Sea and Yellow Sea (to Korea and Japan), Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea, it was a necessity to establish an official standing navy. The East China Sea is a Marginal sea east of China. It is a part of the Pacific Ocean and covers an area of 1249000 km² The Yellow Sea is the name given to the northern part of the East China Sea, which is a Marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. [22] The Song Dynasty therefore established China's first permanent navy in 1132,[21] with the admiral's main headquarter stationed at Dinghai. [23] With a permanent navy, the Song were prepared to face the naval forces of the Jin on the Yangtze River in 1161, in the Battle of Tangdao and the Battle of Caishi. The naval Battle of Tangdao (唐岛之战 took place in 1161 between the Jurchen Jin and the Southern Song Dynasty of China The naval Battle of Caishi (采石之战 took place in 1161 and was the result of an attempt by forces of the Jurchen Jin to cross the Yangtze During these battles the Song navy employed swift paddle wheel driven naval crafts armed with trebuchet catapults aboard the decks that launched gunpowder bombs. A paddle steamer is a ship or boat driven by a Steam engine that uses one or more Paddle wheels to develop thrust for propulsion. A trebuchet or trebucket is a Siege engine that was employed in the Middle Ages either to smash Masonry Walls or to throw A bomb is any of a range of devices that typically rely on the Exothermic Chemical reaction of an Explosive material to produce an extremely [23] Although the Jin forces boasted 70,000 men on 600 warships, and the Song forces only 3,000 men on 120 warships,[24] the Song Dynasty forces were victorious in both battles due to the destructive power of the bombs and the rapid assaults by paddle wheel ships. [25] The strength of the navy was heavily emphasized after that. A century after the navy was founded it had grown in size to 52,000 fighting marines. [23] The Song government confiscated portions of land owned by the landed gentry in order to raise revenue for these projects, an act which caused dissension and loss of loyalty amongst leading members of Song society but did not stop the Song's defensive preparations. [26][27] Financial matters were made worse by the fact that many wealthy, land-owning families—some which had officials working for the government—used their social connections with those in office in order to obtain tax-exempt status. [28]
Although the Song Dynasty was able to hold back the Jin, a new considerable foe came to power over the steppe, deserts, and plains north of the Jin Dynasty. In the Buddhist context a bodhisattva (बोधिसत्त्व bodhisattva;; Vietnamese Bồ Tát; बोधिसत्त bodhisatta This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan (r. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder 1206–1227), initially invaded the Jin Dynasty in 1205 and 1209, engaging in large raids across its borders, and in 1211 an enormous Mongol army was assembled to invade the Jin. [29] The Jin Dynasty was forced to submit and pay tribute to the Mongols as vassals; when the Jin suddenly moved their capital city from Beijing to Kaifeng, the Mongols saw this as a revolt. A vassal (also called feodary or fedary) in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of Medieval Europe, [30] Under the leadership of Ögedei Khan (r. Ögedei Khan, (Өгэдэй Ögedei; also Ogotai or Oktay, 窩闊臺 c 1229–1241), both the Jin Dynasty and Western Xia Dynasty were conquered by Mongol forces. [31][30] The Mongols also invaded and conquered Korea, the Abbasid Caliphate of the Middle East, and Kievan Rus' of Russia. The Mongol invasions of Korea (1231 - 1273 consisted of a series of campaigns by the Mongol Empire against Korea, then known as Goryeo, from 1231 to 1259 The Battle of Baghdad in 1258 was a victory for the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan. The Mongol invasion of Rus' was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 between Subutai 's reconnaissance unit and the combined force Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Mongols were at one time allied with the Song, but this alliance was broken when the Song recaptured the former imperial capitals of Kaifeng, Luoyang, and Chang'an at the collapse of the Jin Dynasty. Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. The Mongol leader Möngke Khan led a campaign against the Song in 1259, but died on August 11 during the Battle of Fishing Town in Chongqing. Möngke Khan (Мөнх хаан also transliterated as Mongke Mongka Möngka Mangu or Mangku ( c Fishing Town or Fishing City (Traditional Chinese 釣魚城遺址 Simplified Chinese 钓鱼城遗址 Pingyin diàoyúchéng yízhĭ is one of the three great ancient battlefields Chongqing ( Postal map spelling: Chungking; Wade-Giles: Ch'ung-ch'ing) is the largest and most populous of the People's Republic of China [32] Mongke's death and succession crisis prompted Hulagu Khan to pull the bulk of Mongol forces out of the Middle East where they were poised to fight the Egyptian Mamluks (who defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut). This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as The Bahri dynasty or Bahriyya Mamluks (al-Mamalik al-Bahariyya المماليك البحرية) was a Mamluk Dynasty of mostly Kipchak The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between Although Hulagu was allied with Kublai Khan, his forces were unable to help in the assault against the Song, due to Hulagu's war with the Golden Horde. Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it This article refers to the medieval Turkic state For the Irish rock band see The Golden Horde (band. [33]
Although Mongke died, Kublai continued the assault against the Song, gaining a temporary foothold on the southern banks of the Yangzi. [34] Kublai made preparations to take Ezhou, but a pending civil war with his brother Ariq Böke — a rival claimant to the Mongol Khaganate — forced Kublai to move with the bulk of his forces back north. Ezhou ( Simplified Chinese: 鄂州 Pinyin: Èzhōu is a Prefecture-level city in China 's Hubei province Ariq Böke, or Arigh Bukha, or a combination of both (Аригбөх; died 1266 the youngest son of Tolui, was a grandson of Genghis Khan and a claimant [35] In Kublai's absence, the Song forces were ordered by Chancellor Jia Sidao to make an opportune assault, and succeeded in pushing the Mongol forces back to the northern banks of the Yangzi. [36] There were minor border skirmishes until 1265, when Kublai won a significant battle in Sichuan. [37] From 1268 to 1273, Kublai blockaded the Yangzi River with his navy and besieged Xiangyang, the last obstacle in his way to invading the rich Yangzi River basin. The Battle of Xiangyang ( Chinese: 襄陽之戰 was a six-year battle between invading Yuan Dynasty armies founded by Mongols and Southern Song forces between [37] Kublai officially declared the creation of the Yuan Dynasty in 1271. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai In 1275, a Song force of 130,000 troops under Chancellor Jia Sidao was defeated by Kublai's newly-appointed commander-in-chief, the Turkic general Bayan. Bayan was the name of two Mongol military leaders and high officials in the Yuan Dynasty Bayan of the Baarin Bayan of the Merkid [38] By 1276, most of the Song Chinese territory had been captured by Yuan forces. [31] In the Battle of Yamen on the Pearl River Delta in 1279 the Yuan army led by the Chinese general Zhang Hongfan finally crushed the Song resistance, and the last remaining ruler, the child emperor Bing, committed suicide along with the official Lu Xiufu. The naval Battle of Yamen ( (also known as the Naval Battle of Mount Ya;) took place on 19 March 1279 and is considered to be the last The Pearl River Delta Region (PRD ( in southern China occupies the low-lying areas alongside the Pearl River Estuary Zhang Hongfan ( 1238 &ndash 1280 was a Han Chinese general of the Yuan Dynasty in China. Emperor Bing ( (1271 &ndash March 19, 1279) was the last emperor of the Southern Song Dynasty of China. [39] On Kublai's orders carried out by his commander Bayan, the rest of the former imperial family of Song were unharmed; the deposed Emperor Gong was given the title 'Duke of Ying' but was eventually exiled to Tibet where he took up a monastic life. Emperor Gongdi ( chinese: 宋恭帝 1271-1323 also known as Zhào Xiǎn (趙顯 was the 16th Emperor of Song Dynasty. Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European [40]
Society and culture
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The Song Dynasty was an era of administrative sophistication and complex social organization. Some of the largest cities in the world were found in China during this period (Kaifeng and Hangzhou had boasted populations of over a million). [3][41] People enjoyed various social clubs and entertainments in the cities, and there were numerous schools and temples to provide the public with education and religious services. [3] The Song government supported multiple forms of social welfare programs, including the establishment of retirement homes, public clinics, and pauper's graveyards. "Social welfare" redirects here For other uses see Welfare A social welfare provision refers to any program which seeks to provide A retirement home is a multi-residence housing facility intended for the Elderly. A clinic (or an outpatient clinic) is a small private or public health facility that is devoted to the care of Outpatients, often in a community in contrast Poverty (also called penury) is deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life including food clothing shelter and safe Drinking water, and A graveyard is any place set aside for long-term burial of the dead with or without monuments such as Headstones It is usually located near and administered by a [3] The Song Dynasty supported a widespread postal service that was modeled on the earlier Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE) postal system to provide swift communication throughout the empire. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. [42] The central government employed thousands of postal workers of various ranks and responsibilities to provide service for post offices and larger postal stations. [43] In rural areas, farming peasants either owned their own plots of land, paid rents as tenant farmers, or were serfs on large estates. Landholder or landowner is a holder of the Estate in land with considerable rights of ownership or simply put an owner of land A tenant farmer is one who resides on and farms land owned by a Landlord. [44]
Although women were on a lower social tier than men (according to Confucian ethics), they enjoyed many social and legal privileges and wielded considerable power at home and in their own small businesses. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B As Song society became more and more prosperous and parents on the bride's side of the family provided larger dowries for her marriage, women naturally gained many new legal rights in ownership of property. A dowry (also known as trousseau or tocher) is the money goods or estate that a woman brings to her soon to be husband in marriage [45] They were also equal in status to men in inheriting family property. "Heir" and "Heiress" redirect here For the men and women fragrances endorsed by Paris Hilton see Heiress (fragrance. [46][47] There were many notable and well-educated women and it was a common practice for women to educate their sons during their earliest youth. [47][48] The mother of the scientist, general, diplomat, and statesman Shen Kuo taught him essentials of military strategy. [48] There were also exceptional women writers and poets such as Li Qingzhao (1084–1151), who became famous even in her lifetime. Li Qingzhao ( Traditional Chinese: 李清照 Simplified Chinese: 李清照 Pinyin: Lǐ Qīngzhào Wade-Giles: Li Ch'ing-chao (1084&ndashc [45]
Religion in China during this period had a great effect on people's lives, beliefs and daily activities, and Chinese literature on spirituality was popular. The art of Calligraphy is widely practiced and revered in the East Asian Civilizations that use or used Chinese characters. Huang Tingjian ( 1045—1105 is predominantly known as a calligrapher but was also admired for his painting and poetry Su Shi ( 1037–1101 was a writer, poet, Artist, calligrapher, Pharmacologist, and Statesman of the Song Dynasty Religion in China has been characterized by Pluralism since the beginning of Chinese history. Chinese literature extends back thousands of years from the earliest recorded dynastic court Archives to the mature fictional Novel that arose during the Ming Dynasty [49] The major deities of Daoism and Buddhism, ancestral spirits and the many deities of Chinese folk religion were worshiped with sacrificial offerings. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Chinese folk religion is a collective label given to various folkloric beliefs that draws heavily from Chinese mythology. Tansen Sen asserts that more Buddhist monks from India traveled to China during the Song than in the previous Tang Dynasty (618–907). A Bhikkhu ( Pāli) or Bhiksu ( Sanskrit) is a fully ordained male Buddhist Monastic. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by [50] With many ethnic foreigners traveling to China to conduct trade or live permanently, there came many foreign religions; religious minorities in China included Middle Eastern Muslims, the Kaifeng Jews, and Persian Manichaeans. The change in dynasty in China from the Tang to the dynasties that included the Song Dynasty did not greatly interrupt the trends of Muslims established during the The Kaifeng Jews are members of a small Jewish community that has existed in Kaifeng, in the Henan province of China, for hundreds of years Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating [51][52]
The populace engaged in a vibrant social and domestic life, enjoying such public festivals as the Lantern Festival or the Qingming Festival. The Lantern Festival a Chinese festival celebrated on the fifteenth day of the first month in the Lunar year in the Chinese calendar. The Qingming Festival ( Vietnamese language: Tết Thanh Minh meaning Clear and Bright Festival, is a traditional Chinese festival on the 104th day after The were entertainment quarters in the cities provided a constant array of amusements. There were puppeteers, acrobats, theater actors, sword swallowers, snake charmers, storytellers, singers and musicians, prostitutes, and places to relax including tea houses, restaurants, and organized banquets. Chinese folklore has a long history going back several thousand years [3][53][54] People attended social clubs in large numbers; there were tea clubs, exotic food clubs, antiquarian and art collectors' clubs, horse-loving clubs, poetry clubs and music clubs. An antiquarian or antiquary is one concerned with Antiquities or things of the past [3] Like regional cooking and cuisines in the Song, the era was known for its regional varieties of performing arts styles as well. [55] Theatrical drama was very popular amongst the elite and general populace, although Classical Chinese—not the vernacular language—was spoken by actors on stage. Chinese Opera ( Chinese: 戏曲/戲曲 Pinyin: xìqǔ is a popular form of Drama and Musical theatre in China with roots going back Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of Written Chinese based on the Grammar and Vocabulary of ancient Chinese Vernacular Chinese is a style or register of the Written Chinese Language essentially modeled after the spoken language and associated with [56][57] The four largest drama theatres in Kaifeng could hold audiences of several thousand each. [58] There were also notable domestic pastimes, as people at home enjoyed activities such as the go board game and the xiangqi board game.
Civil service examinations and the gentry
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During this period greater emphasis was laid upon the civil service system of recruiting officials; this was based upon degrees acquired through competitive examinations, in an effort to select the most capable individuals for governance. Chinese society during the Song Dynasty (AD 960–1279 was marked by political and legal reforms a philosophical revival of Confucianism, and the development of Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis The Imperial examinations ( in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's Bureaucracy. Selecting men for office through proven merit was an ancient idea in China. Xiaolian (Simplified Chinese 孝廉 literally Filially Pious and Incorrupt was a standard of nominating civil officers started by Emperor Wu of Han in 134 BC The civil service system became institutionalized on a small scale during the Sui and Tang dynasties, but by the Song period it became virtually the only means for drafting officials into the government. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by [59] The advent of widespread printing helped to widely circulate Confucian teachings and to educate more and more eligible candidates for the exams. Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press [60] This can be seen in the number of exam takers for the low-level prefectural exams rising from 30,000 annual candidates in the early 11th century to 400,000 candidates by the late 13th century. [60] The civil service and examination system allowed for greater meritocracy, social mobility, and equality in competition for those wishing to attain an official seat in government. Meritocracy is a system of a government or another organization wherein Appointments are made and responsibilities are given based on demonstrated talent and Ability See also Economic mobility Social mobility is the degree to which in a given society an individual's family's or group's social status [61] By using Song state-gathered statistics, Edward A. Kracke, Sudō Yoshiyuki, and Ho Ping-ti supported the hypothesis that simply because one had a father, grandfather, or great-grandfather who had served as an official of state, it did not guarantee that one would obtain the same level of authority. [61][62][63] Robert Hartwell and Robert P. Hymes criticized this model, stating that it places too much emphasis on the role of the nuclear family and demonstrates only three paternal ascendants of exam candidates while ignoring the demographic reality of Song China, the significant proportion of males in each generation that had no surviving sons, and the role of the extended family. The term nuclear family developed in the Western world to distinguish the Family group consisting of parents most commonly a Father and Mother Extended family (or Joint family) is a term with several distinct meanings [62][63] Many felt disenfranchised by what they saw as a bureaucratic system that favored the land-holding class able to afford the best education. [61] One of the greatest literary critics of this was the official and famous poet Su Shi. Yet Su was a product of his times, as the identity, habits, and attitudes of the scholar-official had become less aristocratic and more bureaucratic with the transition of the periods from Tang to Song. Scholar-bureaucrats or scholar-officials were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform day-to-day governance from the Sui Dynasty to Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations A bureaucrat is a member of a Bureaucracy, usually within an institution of the Government. [64] At the beginning of the dynasty, government posts were disproportionately held by two elite social groups: a founding elite who had ties with the founding emperor and a semi-hereditary professional elite who used long-held clan status, family connections and marriage alliances to secure appointments. The Chinese kinship system ( is classified as a Sudanese kinship system (also referred to as the "Descriptive system" used to define Family [65] By the late 11th century, the founding elite became obsolete while political partisanship and factionalism at court undermined the marriage strategies of the professional elite, which dissolved as a distinguishable social group and was replaced by a multitude of gentry families. [66]
Due to China's enormous population growth and the body of its appointed scholar-officials being accepted in limited size (about 20,000 active officials during the Song period), the larger scholarly gentry class would now take over grassroots affairs on the vast local level. Longquan celadon (龍泉青磁 refers to Chinese Celadon to have produced in Longguan (龍泉 kilns which were largely located in the Zhejiang prefecture Zhejiang ( is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. In imperial China, Gentry were the class of landowners who were retired mandarins or their descendants [67] Excluding the scholar-officials in office, this elite social class consisted of exam candidates, examination degree-holders not yet assigned to an official post, local tutors, and retired officials. [68] These learned men, degree-holders, and local elites supervised local affairs and sponsored necessary facilities of local communities; any local magistrate appointed to his office by the government relied upon the cooperation of the few or many local gentry elites in the area. [67] For example, the Song government—excluding the educational-reformist government under Emperor Huizong—spared little amount of state revenue to maintain prefectural and county schools; instead, the bulk of the funds for schools was drawn from private financing. The zhōu (州 was a historical political division of China. First established during the Han Dynasty, zhou continued to exist until the establishment In the context of Political divisions of China, county is the standard English translation of 县 ( xiàn) [69] This limited role of government officials was a departure from the earlier Tang Dynasty (618–907), when the government strictly regulated commercial markets and local affairs; now the government withdrew heavily from regulating commerce and relied upon a mass of local gentry to perform necessary duties in local communities. [67]
The gentry distinguished themselves in society through their intellectual and antiquarian pursuits,[70][71][72] while the homes of prominent landholders attracted a variety of courtiers including artisans, artists, educational tutors, and entertainers. A courtier is a person who attends the court of a Monarch or other powerful person. [73] Despite the disdain for trade, commerce, and the merchant class exhibited by the highly cultured and elite exam-drafted scholar-officials, commercialism played a prominent role in Song culture and society. Commercialism, in its original meaning is the practices methods aims and spirit of Commerce or Business. [53] A scholar-official would be frowned upon by his peers if he pursued means of profiteering outside of his official salary; however, this did not stop many scholar-officials from managing business relations through the use of intermediary agents. [74]
Law, justice, and forensic science
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The Song judicial system retained most of the legal code of the earlier Tang Dynasty, the basis of traditional Chinese law up until the modern era. Chinese society during the Song Dynasty (AD 960–1279 was marked by political and legal reforms a philosophical revival of Confucianism, and the development of In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State A Code is a type of legislation that purports to exhaustively cover a complete system of laws or a particular area of law as it existed at the time the code was enacted by a Traditional Chinese law refers to the laws regulations and rules used in China up to 1911 when the last imperial dynasty fell [75] Roving sheriffs maintained law and order in the municipal juridsictions and occasionally ventured into the countryside. [76] Official magistrates overseeing court cases were not only expected to be well-versed in written law but also to promote morality in society. [75] Magistrates such as the famed Bao Qingtian (999–1062) embodied the upright, moral judge who upheld justice and never failed to live up to his principles. Bao Zheng ( courtesy name Xiren 希仁，posthumous title Xiaosu 孝肅 (999&ndash1062 was a much-praised official who served during the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song Song judges specified the guilty person or party in a criminal act and meted out punishments accordingly, often in the form of caning. Caning is a Physical punishment (see that article for generalities and alternatives consisting of a number of hits (known as "strokes" or "cuts" with [75][77] A guilty individual or parties brought to court for a criminal or civil offense were not viewed as wholly innocent until proven otherwise, while even accusers were viewed with a high level of suspicion by the judge. [77] Due to costly court expenses and immediate jailing of those accused of criminal offenses, people in the Song preferred to settle disputes and quarrels privately, without the court's interference. [77]
Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays argued against traditional Chinese beliefs in anatomy (such as his argument for two throat valves instead of three); this perhaps spurred the interest in the performance of post-mortem autopsies in China during the 12th century. The Dream Pool Essays ( Pinyin: Meng Xi Bi Tan; Wade-Giles: Meng Ch'i Pi T'an Chinese: 夢溪筆談／梦溪笔谈 Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy, or obduction, is a Medical procedure that consists of a thorough Examination [78][79] The physician and judge known as Song Ci (1186–1249) wrote a pioneering work of forensic science on the examination of corpses in order to determine cause of death (strangulation, poisoning, drowning, blows, etc. Song Ci ( Chinese: 宋慈 Pinyin: Sòng Cí 1186 &ndash 1249 was a forensic medical expert in the Song Dynasty who wrote a groundbreaking A cadaver or corpse is a dead Body. "Cadaver" is normally used as a more formal term for a body being used in medical training or research ) and to prove whether death resulted from murder, suicide, or accidental death. [80] Song Ci stressed the importance of proper coroner's conduct during autopsies and the accurate recording of the inquest of each autopsy by official clerks. A coroner is an official responsible for investigating deaths particularly some of those happening under unusual circumstances and determining the cause of death An inquest is a judicial investigation usually by a group of court-appointed people ( Jury) in Common law Jurisdictions The most common kind of inquest [81][82]
Military and methods of warfare
Although the scholar-officials viewed military soldiers as lower members in the hierarchic social order,[83] a person could gain status and prestige in society by becoming a high ranking military officer with a record of victorious battles. The recorded military history of China extends from about 1500 BC to the present day [84] At its height, the Song military had one million soldiers[16] divided into platoons of 50 troops, companies made of two platoons, and one battalion composed of 500 soldiers. A platoon is a military unit typically composed of two to four sections or Squads and containing about 30 to 50 soldiers [85][86] Crossbowmen were separated from the regular infantry and placed in their own units as they were prized combatants, providing effective missile fire against cavalry charges. A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts [86] The government was eager to sponsor new crossbow designs that could shoot at longer ranges, while crossbowmen were also valuable when employed as long-range snipers. READ DISCUSSION PAGE BEFORE MAKING ANY EDITS TO CAPTION BELOW http//en [87] Song cavalry employed a slew of different weapons, including halberds, swords, bows, spears, and 'fire lances' that discharged a gunpowder blast of flame and shrapnel. The fire lance ( or fire spear is one of the first gunpowder weapons in the world Shrapnel is the term originally applied to an anti-personnel artillery shell which carried a large number of individual bullets to the target and then ejected them forwards relying [88]
Military strategy and military training were treated as science that could be studied and perfected; soldiers were tested in their skills of using weaponry and in their athletic ability. [89] The troops were trained to follow signal standards to advance at the waving of banners and to halt at the sound of bells and drums. [86]
The Song navy was of great importance during the consolidation of the empire in the 10th century; during the war against the Southern Tang state the Song navy employed tactics such as defending large floating pontoon bridges across the Yangzi River in order to secure movements of troops and supplies. Southern Tang (also referred to as Nantang) ( Chinese: 南唐 Pinyin Nán Táng was one of the Ten Kingdoms in south-central China A pontoon bridge or floating bridge is a Bridge that floats on water supported by barge-or-boat-like pontoons to support the bridge deck and its dynamic [90] There were large naval ships in the Song that could carry 1,000 soldiers aboard their decks,[91] while the swift-moving paddle-wheel crafts were viewed as essential fighting ships in any successful naval battle. A paddle steamer is a ship or boat driven by a Steam engine that uses one or more Paddle wheels to develop thrust for propulsion. [91]
In a battle on January 23, 971, a mass of arrow fire from Song Dynasty crossbowmen decimated the war elephant corps of the Southern Han army. Events 393 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I proclaims his nine year old son Honorius co-emperor 971 was a year in the 10th century. Events By Place Europe Kenneth II of Scotland succeeds Culen A war elephant is an Elephant trained and guided by humans for combat Southern Han ( Vietnamese: Nam Hán was a kingdom that existed during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period ( 907 - 960) [92] This defeat not only marked the eventual submission of the Southern Han to the Song Dynasty, but also the last instance where a war elephant corps was employed as a regular division within a Chinese army. [92]
There was a total of 347 military treatises written during the Song period, as listed by the history text of the Song Shi (compiled in 1345). [93] However, only a handful of these military treatises have survived, which includes the Wujing Zongyao written in 1044. The Wujing Zongyao ( was a Chinese military compendium written in 1044 AD during the Northern Song Dynasty. It was the first known book to have listed formulas for gunpowder;[94] it gave appropriate formulas for use in several different kinds of gunpowder bombs. [95] It also provided detailed description and illustrations of double-piston pump flamethrowers, as well as instructions for the maintenance and repair of the components and equipment used in the device. A flamethrower is a mechanical device designed to project a long controllable stream of Fire. [96]
Arts, literature, and philosophy
The visual arts during the Song Dynasty were heightened by new developments such as advances in landscape and portrait painting. The Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD was a culturally-rich and sophisticated age for China. In the Buddhist context a bodhisattva (बोधिसत्त्व bodhisattva;; Vietnamese Bồ Tát; बोधिसत्त bodhisatta The gentry elite engaged in the arts as accepted pastimes of the cultured scholar-official, including painting, composing poetry, and writing calligraphy. Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world Chinese Poetry is the most highly regarded literary genre in China. The art of Calligraphy is widely practiced and revered in the East Asian Civilizations that use or used Chinese characters. [97] The poet and statesman Su Shi and his associate Mi Fu (1051–1107) enjoyed antiquarian affairs, often borrowing or buying art pieces to study and copy. Biography According to tradition he was a very smart boy with a great interest in arts and letters and an astonishing ability of memorising [15] Poetry and literature profited from the rising popularity and development of the ci poetry form. Chinese literature extends back thousands of years from the earliest recorded dynastic court Archives to the mature fictional Novel that arose during the Ming Dynasty Ci ( interchangeable with 辭 is a kind of lyric Chinese poetry. Enormous encyclopedic volumes were compiled, such as works of historiography and dozens of treatises on technical subjects. Chinese Historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history. This included the universal history text of the Zizhi Tongjian, compiled into 1000 volumes of 9. The Zizhi Tongjian ( was a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography. 4 million written Chinese characters. A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( The genre of Chinese travel literature also became popular with the writings of the geographer Fan Chengda (1126–1193) and Su Shi, the latter of whom wrote the 'daytrip essay' known as Record of Stone Bell Mountain that used persuasive writing to argue for a philosophical point. Travel literature is Travel writing considered to have value as Literature. Fan Chengda ( 1126–1193 Courtesy name Zhineng (致能 was one of the best-known Chinese poets of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD a government official Su Shi ( 1037–1101 was a writer, poet, Artist, calligrapher, Pharmacologist, and Statesman of the Song Dynasty Persuasive writing is used to convince the reader of the writer’s argument [98] Although an early form of the local geographic gazetteer existed in China since the 1st century, the matured form known as "treatise on a place", or fangzhi, replaced the old "map guide", or tujing, during the Song Dynasty. A gazetteer is a geographical Dictionary or directory, an important reference for information about places and place names (see Toponomy) used in conjunction [99]
The imperial courts of the emperor's palace were filled with his entourage of court painters, calligraphers, poets, and storytellers. Emperor Huizong was a renowned artist as well as a patron of the arts. Emperor Huizong ( November 2, 1082 – June 4, 1135) was the eighth and one of the most famous emperors of the Song Dynasty of A prime example of a highly venerated court painter was Zhang Zeduan (1085–1145) who painted an enormous panoramic painting, Along the River During the Qingming Festival. Zhang Zeduan ( (1085-1145 AD alias Zheng Dao was a famous Chinese painter during the twelfth century during the transitional period from the Northern Song to the Southern Panoramic paintings are massive artworks that reveal a wide all-encompassing View of a particular subject often a Landscape, military battle or historical Along the River During the Qingming Festival ( is the title of several Panoramic paintings the original version generally attributed to the Song Dynasty Emperor Gaozong of Song initiated a massive art project during his reign, known as the Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute from the life story of Cai Wenji (b. Biography Gaozong was the 5th son of Emperor Huizong and the younger half-brother of Emperor Qinzong. Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute ( are a series of Chinese songs and poems about the life of Han Dynasty (202 BCE&ndash220 CE poet Cai Wenji, accompanied Cai Wenji ( born 177 also known as Cai Yan, was a Han Dynasty poet and composer 177). This art project was a diplomatic gesture to the Jin Dynasty while he negotiated for the release of his mother from Jurchen captivity in the north. [100]
In philosophy, Chinese Buddhism had waned in influence but it retained its hold on the arts and on the charities of monasteries. Chinese philosophy is Philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought Chinese Buddhism ( Pinyin fójiào refers collectively to the various schools of Buddhism that have flourished in China proper since ancient times Buddhism had a profound influence upon the budding movement of Neo-Confucianism, led by Cheng Yi (1033–1107) and Zhu Xi (1130–1200). Neo-Confucianism (/( is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Cheng Yi ( 1033–1107 Courtesy name Zhengshu (正叔 also known as Mr Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi (朱熹 born October 18, 1130, Yuxi, Fujian province China &ndash died April 23, 1200 [101] Mahayana Buddhism influenced Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi through its concept of ethical universalism,[102] while Buddhist metaphysics had a deep impact upon the pre–Neo-Confucian doctrine of Cheng Yi. Mahayana ( Sanskrit: mahāyāna, Devanagari: महायान 'Great Vehicle' is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Universalism can be classified as a Religion, Theology and Philosophy that generally holds all persons and creatures are related to God or the Divine and Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science [101] The philosophical work of Cheng Yi in turn influenced Zhu Xi. Although his writings were not accepted by his contemporary peers, Zhu's commentary and emphasis upon the Confucian classics of the Four Books as an introductory corpus to Confucian learning formed the basis of the Neo-Confucian doctrine. Distinguish from The Four Books, which are Shi`a Muslim collections of hadiths By the year 1241, under the sponsorship of Emperor Lizong, Zhu Xi's Four Books and his commentary on them became standard requirements of study for students attempting to pass the civil service examinations. Emperor Lizong 理宗 (1205 - 1264 was the 14th emperor of the Song Dynasty of China, and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song [103] The East Asian countries of Japan and Korea also adopted Zhu Xi's teaching, known as the Shushigaku (朱子学, School of Zhu Xi) of Japan, and in Korea the Jujahak (주자학). For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Buddhism's continuing influence can be seen in painted artwork such as Lin Tinggui's Luohan Laundering. Lin Tinggui ( Traditional Chinese:林庭珪 Hanyu Pinyin:Lín Tíngguì (? Wade-Giles: Lin T'ing-kuei (active circa 1174 - 1189 In the sramanic traditions of ancient India (most notably those of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha) arhat ( Sanskrit) or arahant However, the ideology was highly criticized and even scorned by some. The statesman and historian Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) called the religion a "curse" that could only be remedied by uprooting it from Chinese culture and replacing it with Confucian discourse. Early life He was born in Mingyang, Sichuan where his father was a judge though his family comes from present day Jishui (then known as Luling The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history [104] Buddhism would not see a true revival in Chinese society until the Mongol rule of the Yuan Dynasty, with Kublai Khan's sponsorship of Tibetan Buddhism and Drogön Chögyal Phagpa as the leading lama. Tibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet and certain regions of the Himalayas, including Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ( also written Dongon Choegyal Phakpa, Dromtön Chögyal Pagpa, etc Lama ( is a title for a Tibetan teacher The Christian sect of Nestorianism — which had entered China in the Tang era — would also be revived in China under Mongol rule. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Nestorius Nestorius (c 386 &ndashc 451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern [105]
Cuisine and apparel
The food that one consumed and the clothes that one wore in Song China were largely dictated by one's status and social class. The main food staples in the diet of the lower classes remained rice, pork, and salted fish;[106] their clothing materials were made of hempen or cotton cloths, restricted to a color standard of black and white. This article is about the cultivation and uses of industrial hemp not its psychoactive cousin Cannabis (drug. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp [107][108] Pant trousers were the acceptable form of attire for farming peasants, soldiers, artisans, and merchants, although wealthy merchants chose to flaunt more ornate clothing and male blouses that came down below the waist. Trousers are an item of Clothing worn on the lower part of the body from the waist to the ankles covering both legs separately (rather than with cloth stretching across The word blouse most commonly refers to a woman's Shirt, although the term is also used for some men's military uniform jackets [108] Acceptable apparel for scholar-officials was rigidly confined to a social hierarchic ranking system. However, as time went on this rule of rank-graded apparel for officials was not as strictly enforced as it was in the beginning of the dynasty. [107] Each official was able to flaunt his awarded status by wearing different-colored traditional silken robes that hung to the ground around his feet, specific types of headgear, and even specific styles of girdles that displayed his graded-rank of officialdom. Han Chinese clothing or Hanfu ( also known as Hanzhuang ( 漢裝) Huafu ( 華服) or guzhuang ( 古裝, meaning This article is about the item of clothing In the Scots language, girdle refers to a cooking griddle. [109]
Women in the Song period wore long dresses, blouses that came down to the knee, skirts and jackets with long or short sleeves, while women from wealthy families could wear purple scarves around their shoulders. Uses and types In cold climates a thick Knitted scarf often of Wool, is tied around the Neck to keep warm [110] The main difference in women's apparel from that of men was that it was fastened on the left, not on the right. [110]
There is a multitude of existing restaurant and tavern menus and listed entrées for feasts, banquets, festivals, and carnivals during the Song period,[111] all of which reveal a very diverse and lavish diet for those of the upper class. A restaurant is a retail establishment that serves prepared Food to Customers. A tavern or pot-house is loosely a place of Business where people gather to drink Alcoholic beverages and more than likely also be served Food In a Restaurant, a menu is a printed brochure or public display that shows the list of options for a diner to select An entrée ( French, literally meaning entry or entrance) is one of several savory courses in a Western-style formal meal service Carnival is a festival season which occurs immediately before Lent; the main events are usually during February and March In their meals they could choose from a wide variety of meats, including shrimp, geese, duck, mussel, shellfish, fallow deer, hare, partridge, pheasant, francolin, quail, fox, badger, clam, crab, and many others. True shrimp are swimming decapod Crustaceans classified in the Infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh Goose (plural geese) is the English name for a considerable number of Birds belonging to the family Anatidae. For duck as a food see Duck (food; for other meanings see Duck (disambiguation. The common name mussel is used for members of several different families of Clams or Bivalve Molluscs, from both saltwater and freshwater habitats Shellfish is a Culinary and Fisheries term for those aquatic Invertebrate animals that are used as Food: various species of molluscs The Fallow Deer ( Dama dama) is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Hares and jackrabbits are Leporids belonging to the Genus Lepus. Partridges are Birds in the Pheasant family Phasianidae. They are a non-migratory Old World group Pheasants are a group of large Birds in the order Galliformes. The francolins are Birds of the genus Francolinus. They are members of the pheasant family Phasianidae. Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized Birds in the Pheasant family Phasianidae, or in the family Odontophoridae. A fox is an Animal belonging to any one of about 27 Species (of which only 12 actually belong to the Vulpes genus or 'true foxes' of small Badger is the Common name for any animal of three subfamilies which belong to the family Mustelidae: the same Mammal family as the Clam is a word which can be used for all some or only a few Species of Bivalve Mollusks the word is a Common name which has Crabs are decapod Crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (βραχύ / brachy [112][113][114][115] Dairy products were absent from Chinese cuisine and culture altogether, beef was rarely consumed since the bull was a valuable draft animal, and dog meat was absent from the diet of the wealthy, although the poor could choose to eat dog meat if necessary (yet it was not part of their regular diet). A dairy is a facility for the extraction and processing of animal Milk &mdashmostly from goats or cows, but also from buffalo, Sheep Beef is the Culinary name for Meat from Bovines especially domestic Cattle (cows Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order [116] People also consumed dates, raisins, jujubes, pears, plums, apricots, pear juice, lychee-fruit juice, honey and ginger drinks, pawpaw juice, spices and seasonings of Sichuan pepper, ginger, pimento, soy sauce, oil, sesame oil, salt, and vinegar. The Date Palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) is a palm in the genus Phoenix, extensively cultivated for its edible Fruit. Raisins are dried Grapes They are produced in many regions of the world such as the United States, Australia, Chile, Ziziphus zizyphus (from Greek ζίζυφον - zizuphon, syn Z A pear is a pomaceous Fruit produced by a tree of Genus Pyrus. A plum or gage is a stone fruit Tree in the genus Prunus, subgenus Prunus. The Apricot ( Prunus armeniaca, "Armenian plum" in Latin syn The Lychee ( Litchi chinensis) also spelled Litchi (the US FDA spelling or Laichi and Lichu, Chinese: 荔枝 Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the This page refers to the US pawpaw in the genus Asimina. In some other parts of the world the name pawpaw is applied to the unrelated tropical fruit Papaya Sichuan pepper (or Szechuan pepper) is the outer pod of the tiny Fruit of a number of species in the genus Zanthoxylum (most commonly Ginger is commonly used as a cooking spice throughout the world Pimento is sometimes a synonym for Allspice. The Pimento, Pimiento, or Cherry Pepper is a variety of large red heart-shaped Soy sauce ( US) soya sauce ( Commonwealth) shoyu ( Japan) or sillao ( Peru) is a fermented Sauce Sesame oil (also known as "gingelly oil" or "til oil" is an edible Vegetable oil derived from Sesame seeds Besides being used as a Cooking Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid [111][117][118][114][119] The common diet of the poor was pork, salted fish, and rice. [106]
Economy, industry, and trade
The economy of the Song Dynasty was one of the most prosperous and advanced economies in the medieval world. Song Chinese invested their funds in joint stock companies and in multiple sailing vessels at a time when monetary gain was assured from the vigorous overseas trade and indigenous trade along the Grand Canal and Yangzi River. A joint stock company (JSC is a type of business entity it is a type of Corporation or Partnership. The Grand Canal of China ( also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal ( is the longest ancient Canal or artificial River in the world [120] Prominent merchant families and private businesses were allowed to occupy industries that were not already government-operated monopolies. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient [16][121] Both private and government-controlled industries met the needs of a growing Chinese population in the Song. [16][121] Both artisans and merchants formed guilds which the state had to deal with when assessing taxes, requisitioning goods, and setting standard worker's wages and prices on goods. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers [120]
The iron industry was pursued by both private entrepreneurs who owned their own smelters as well as government-supervised smelting facilities. The history of ferrous metallurgy began far back in Prehistory, most likely with the use of Iron from Meteorites The Smelting of iron in An entrepreneur is a person who has possession over a company enterprise, or Venture, and assumes significant accountability for the inherent risks and the outcome [122][123] The Song economy was stable enough to produce over a hundred million kg (over two hundred million lb) of iron product a year. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 [124] Large scale deforestation in China would have continued if not for the 11th century innovation of the use of coal instead of charcoal in blast furnaces for smelting cast iron. Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland Charcoal' is the blackish residue consisting of impure Carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from Animal and Vegetation A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical Furnace used for Smelting to produce metals generally Iron. Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. [124] Much of this iron was reserved for military use in crafting weapons and armoring troops, but some was used to fashion the many iron products needed to fill the demands of the growing indigenous market. The iron trade within China was furthered by the building of new canals which aided the flow of iron products from production centers to the large market found in the capital city. Canals are artificial channels for water There are two types of canals water conveyance canals which are used for the conveyance and delivery of water and Waterways [125]
The annual output of minted copper currency in 1085 alone reached roughly six billion coins. [1] The most notable advancement in the Song economy was the establishment of the world's first government issued paper-printed money, known as Jiaozi (see also Huizi). Jiaozi ( is a form of Banknote which appeared in 10th century Sichuan. For other uses see Hui Shi. The Huizi ( issued in the year 1160 was the official Banknote of the Chinese Southern Song Dynasty [1] For the printing of paper money alone, the Song court established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi. A banknote (often known as a bill, paper money or simply a note) is a kind of Negotiable instrument, a Promissory note made by a A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods Administration The Prefecture-level city of Huizhou administers 5 county-level divisions, including 2 districts and 3 counties. ( located in southwest People's Republic of China, is the capital of Sichuan province and a Sub-provincial city. ( Postal map spelling: Hangchow) is a Sub-provincial city located in the Yangtze River Delta in the People's Republic of China, [126] The size of the workforce employed in paper money factories was large; it was recorded in 1175 that the factory at Hangzhou employed more than a thousand workers a day. [126]
The economic power of Song China heavily influenced foreign economies abroad. The Moroccan geographer al-Idrisi wrote in 1154 of the prowess of Chinese merchant ships in the Indian Ocean and of their annual voyages that brought iron, swords, silk, velvet, porcelain, and various textiles to places such as Aden (Yemen), the Indus River, and the Euphrates in modern-day Iraq. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa A geographer is a Scientist whose area of study is Geography, the study of Earth 's physical environment and Human habitat Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani al-Sabti or simply El Idrisi ( Arabic أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي Latin: Aden (ˈeɪdən Arabic: عدن) is a city in Yemen, 170 kilometers east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת [127] Foreigners, in turn, had an impact on the Chinese economy. For example, many West Asian and Central Asian Muslims went to China to trade, becoming a preeminent force in the import and export industry, while some were even appointed as officers supervising economic affairs. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National [128][129] Sea trade with the Southeast Pacific, the Hindu world, the Islamic world, and the East African world brought merchants great fortune and spurred an enormous growth in the shipbuilding industry of Song-era Fujian province. See also Shipbuilding (song. Shipbuilding is the construction of Ships It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a This article is about the People's Republic of China province [130] However, there was risk involved in such long overseas ventures. To reduce the risk of losing money on maritime trade missions abroad, the historians Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais write:
[Song era] investors usually divided their investment among many ships, and each ship had many investors behind it. One observer thought eagerness to invest in overseas trade was leading to an outflow of copper cash. He wrote, 'People along the coast are on intimate terms with the merchants who engage in overseas trade, either because they are fellow-countrymen or personal acquaintances. . . [They give the merchants] money to take with them on their ships for purchase and return conveyance of foreign goods. They invest from ten to a hundred strings of cash, and regularly make profits of several hundred percent'. [64]
Technology, science, and engineering
Gunpowder warfare
- Further information: History of gunpowder
Advancements in weapons technology enhanced by Greek fire and gunpowder, including the evolution of the early flamethrower, explosive grenade, firearm, cannon, and land mine, enabled the Song Chinese to ward off their militant enemies until the Song's ultimate collapse in the late 13th century. Gunpowder was the first chemical explosive and the only one known until the invention of Nitrocellulose, Nitroglycerin, Smokeless powder and Greek fire was a burning-liquid weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. A flamethrower is a mechanical device designed to project a long controllable stream of Fire. A firearm is a Tool that projects either single or multiple Projectiles at high velocity through a controlled explosion | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural A land mine is an Explosive device designed to be placed on or in the ground to explode when triggered by an operator or the Proximity of a vehicle person [132][133][134][135][136] The Wujing Zongyao manuscript of 1044 was the first book in history to provide formulas for gunpowder and their specified use in different types of bombs. The Wujing Zongyao ( was a Chinese military compendium written in 1044 AD during the Northern Song Dynasty. [137] While engaged in a war with the Mongols, in the year 1259 the official Li Zengbo wrote in his Kozhai Zagao, Xugaohou that the city of Qingzhou was manufacturing one to two thousand strong iron-cased bomb shells a month, dispatching to Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time. Qingzhou ( Chinese: 青州 Pinyin: Qīngzhōu is a County-level city, which is located in the west of Weifang City Shandong Xiangyang ( Traditional Chinese: 襄陽 Simplified Chinese: 襄阳 Pinyin: Xiāngyáng was a Chinese city famous for the Siege of Xiangyang [138] In turn, the invading Mongols employed northern Chinese soldiers and used these same type of gunpowder weapons against the Song Chinese. [139] By the 14th century the firearm and cannon could also be found in Europe, India, and the Islamic Middle East, during the early age of gunpowder warfare. Early Modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of Gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive
Measuring distance and mechanical navigation
As early as the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220), when the state needed to effectively measure distances traveled throughout the empire, the Chinese relied on the mechanical odometer device. The Song Dynasty (宋朝 960–1279 CE provided some of the most significant technological advances in Chinese history, many of which came from talented statesmen The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. An odometer (often known colloquially as a mileometer or milometer) is a device used for indicating Distance traveled by an Automobile or other [140] The Chinese odometer came in the form of a wheeled-carriage, its inner gears functioning off the rotated motion of the wheels, and specific units of distance — the Chinese li — marked by the mechanical striking of a drum or bell for auditory alarm. This article is about two traditional Chinese units of length [141] The specifications for the 11th century odometer was written by Chief Chamberlain Lu Daolong, who is quoted extensively in the historical text of the Song Shi (compiled by 1345). [142] In the Song period, the odometer vehicle was also combined with another old complex mechanical device known as the South Pointing Chariot. The South Pointing Chariot is widely regarded as one of the most complex Geared mechanism of the ancient Chinese civilization, and was continually used throughout the [143] This device, originally crafted by Ma Jun in the 3rd century, incorporated a differential gear that allowed a figure mounted on the vehicle to always point in the southern direction, no matter how the vehicle's wheels' turned about. Ma Jun (fl 220&ndash265 styled Deheng (徳衡 was a Chinese Mechanical Engineer and government official during the Three Kingdoms This article deals with the concept of a differential in mechanical engineering. [144] The device concept of the differential gear for this navigational vehicle is now found in all modern automobiles in order to apply the equal amount of torque to wheels rotating at different speeds. A torque (τ in Physics, also called a moment (of force is a pseudo- vector that measures the tendency of a force to rotate an object about
Polymaths, inventions, and astronomy
- Further information: Chinese astronomy and List of Chinese inventions
Polymath figures such as the statesmen Shen Kuo and Su Song (1020–1101) embodied advancements in all fields of study, including biology, botany, zoology, geology, minerology, mechanics, horology, astronomy, pharmaceutical medicine, archeology, mathematics, cartography, optics, art criticism, and more. A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area Su Song ( style name: Zirong 子容 (1020&ndash1101 AD was a renowned Chinese statesman, astronomer, cartographer, Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Horology (from Greek ώρα, "hour time" and λόγος Logos, "study speech" lit Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Art criticism is the discussion or evaluation of visual Art. Art critics usually criticize art in the context of Aesthetics or the theory of [145][146][71]
Shen Kuo was the first to discern magnetic declination of true north while experimenting with a compass. The magnetic declination (also known as grid magnetic angle in military circles at any point on the Earth is the angle between the local magnetic field -- the direction noted by the Chinese Polymath Shen Kuo in the 11th century and possibly the egyptians over 6 millenia ago [147][148] Shen theorized that geographical climates gradually shifted over time. Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences [149][150] He created a theory of land formation involving concepts accepted in modern geomorphology. Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" [151] He performed optical experiments with camera obscura just decades after Ibn al-Haytham was the first to do so. The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized [152] He also improved the designs of astronomical instruments such as the widened astronomical sighting tube, which allowed Shen Kuo to fix the position of the pole star (which had shifted over centuries of time). The Dream Pool Essays ( Pinyin: Meng Xi Bi Tan; Wade-Giles: Meng Ch'i Pi T'an Chinese: 夢溪筆談／梦溪笔谈 A pole star is a visible star especially a prominent one that is approximately aligned with the Earth 's Axis of rotation; that is a star whose apparent position [153] Shen Kuo was also known for hydraulic clockworks, as he invented a new overflow-tank clepsydra which had more efficient higher-order interpolation instead of linear interpolation in calibrating the measure of time. For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow In the mathematical subfield of Numerical analysis, interpolation is a method of constructing new data points within the range of a Discrete set of [153]
Su Song was best known for his horology treatise written in 1092, which described and illustrated in great detail his hydraulic-powered, 12 m (40 ft) tall astronomical clock tower built in Kaifeng. For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of A clock tower is a Tower built with one or more (often four Clock faces. The clock tower featured large astronomical instruments of the armillary sphere and celestial globe, both driven by an escapement mechanism (roughly two centuries before the verge escapement could be found in clockworks of Europe). In Mechanical watches and Clocks an escapement is a device which converts continuous rotational motion into an oscillating or back and forth motion The verge (or crown wheel) escapement is the earliest known type of mechanical Escapement, the mechanism in a mechanical Clock that controls Circadian Locomotor Output Cycles Kaput, or Clock is a gene which encodes proteins regulating Circadian rhythm. [154][155] In addition, Su Song's clock tower featured the world's first endless power-transmitting chain drive,[156] an essential mechanical device found in many practical uses throughout the ages, such as the bicycle. Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another The bicycle, cycle, or bike is a pedal-driven, human-powered vehicle with two wheels attached to a frame, one behind Su's tower featured a rotating gear wheel with 133 clock jack manikins who were timed to rotate past shuttered windows while ringing gongs and bells, banging drums, and presenting announcement plaques. Mannequin (alternately manikin, mannikin, manakin, dummy or lay figure) A striking clock is a Clock that sounds the Hours audibly on a bell or Gong. [157] In his printed book, Su published a celestial atlas of five star charts. A star chart is a map of the Night sky. Astronomers divide these into grids to easily use them These star charts feature a cylindrical projection similar to Mercator projection, the latter being a cartographic innovation of Gerardus Mercator in 1569. The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by the Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator, in 1569 A separate article is about the mathematician Nicholas Mercator. [158][159]
Although the endeavors of the polymaths Shen and Su represent perhaps the highest achievements in technology and science during the Song period, there were many other significant technical writers and inventions. For example, Qin Guan's book published in 1090, the Can Shu (Book of Sericulture), described a silk-reeling machine that employed the first known use of a mechanical belt drive. Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of Silkworms for the production of raw Silk. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons A Belt is a looped strip of flexible material used to mechanically link two or more rotating shafts [160]
Mathematics and cartography
- Further information: Chinese mathematics and Chinese geography
There were many notable improvements to Chinese mathematics during the Song era. Mathematics in China emerged independently by the 11th century BC The book published in 1261 by the mathematician Yang Hui (c. Yang Hui ( ca 1238–1298 Courtesy name Qianguang (谦光 was a Chinese Mathematician from Qiantang (modern Hangzhou 1238–1298) provided the earliest Chinese illustration of Pascal's triangle, although it was described earlier around 1100 by Jia Xian. \begin{matrix}&&&&&1\\&&&&1&&1\\&&&1&&2&&1\\&&1&&3&&3&&1\\&1&&4&&6&&4&&1\end{matrix [161] Yang Hui also provided rules for constructing combinatorial arrangements in magic squares, provided theoretical proof for Euclid's forty-third proposition about parallelograms, and was the first to use negative coefficients of 'x' in quadratic equations. In Recreational mathematics, a magic square of order n is an arrangement of n ² numbers usually distinct Integers in a square, such Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry In Geometry, a parallelogram is a Quadrilateral with two sets of Parallel sides In Mathematics, a quadratic equation is a Polynomial Equation of the second degree. [162][163][164] Yang's contemporary Qin Jiushao (c. Qin Jiushao ( ca 1202–1261 Courtesy name Daogu (道古 was a Chinese Mathematician born in Ziyang Sichuan, his 1202–1261) was the first to introduce the zero symbol into Chinese mathematics;[165] before this blank spaces were used instead of zeros in the system of counting rods. Counting rods ( Japanese: 算木 sangi are small bars typically 3-14 cm long used by mathematicians for calculation in China, Japan [166] He is also known for working with Chinese remainder theorem, Heron's formula, and astronomical data used in determining the winter solstice. The Chinese remainder theorem is a result about congruences in Number theory and its generalizations in Abstract algebra. In Geometry, Heron's (or Hero's formula states that the Area (A of a Triangle whose sides have lengths a, b, and The winter solstice occurs at the instant when the Sun 's position in the sky is at its greatest angular distance on the other side of the equatorial plane from the
Geometry and surveying were essential mathematics in the realm cartography and precision map-making. Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between The earliest extant Chinese maps date to the 4th century BCE,[167] yet it was not until the time of Pei Xiu (224–271) that topographical elevation, a formal rectangular grid system, and use of a standard graduated scale of distances was applied to terrain maps. Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write has been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8000 years Pei Xiu (224&ndash271 was a minister geographer, and cartographer of the Kingdom of Wei during the Three Kingdoms Period of China The elevation of a Geographic location is its height above a fixed reference point often the mean sea level. Grid references define locations on Maps using Cartesian coordinates. [168][169] In the Song period, Shen Kuo was the first to create a raised-relief map, while his other maps featured a uniform graduated scale of 1:900,000. A raised-relief map or terrain model is a three-dimensional representation usually of terrain [170] A 3 ft (0. 91 m) squared map of 1137 — carved into a stone block — followed a uniform grid scale of 100 li for each gridded square, and accurately mapped the outline of the coasts and river systems of China, extending all the way to India. [171] Furthermore, the world's oldest known terrain map in printed form comes from the edited encyclopedia of Yang Jia in 1155, which displayed western China without the formal grid system that was characteristic of more professionally-made Chinese maps. [172] Although gazetteers had existed since 52 CE during the Han Dynasty and gazetteers accompanied by illustrative maps (Chinese: tujing) since the Sui Dynasty, the illustrated gazetteer became much more common in the Song Dynasty, when the foremost concern was for illustrative gazetteers to serve political, administrative, and military purposes. A gazetteer is a geographical Dictionary or directory, an important reference for information about places and place names (see Toponomy) used in conjunction [173]
Movable type printing
- Further information: History of typography in East Asia
The innovation of movable type printing was made by the artisan Bi Sheng (990–1051), first described by the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Bì Shēng ( 990-1051 AD was the inventor of the first known Movable type Printing system The Dream Pool Essays ( Pinyin: Meng Xi Bi Tan; Wade-Giles: Meng Ch'i Pi T'an Chinese: 夢溪筆談／梦溪笔谈 [176][177] The collection of Bi Sheng's original clay-fired typeface was passed on to one of Shen Kuo's nephews, and was carefully preserved. In Typography, a typeface is a set of one or more Fonts designed with stylistic unity each comprising a coordinated set of Glyphs A typeface usually comprises [178][177] Movable type enhanced the already widespread use of woodblock methods of printing thousands of documents and volumes of written literature, consumed eagerly by an increasingly literate public. For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. The advancement of printing had a deep impact on education and the scholar-official class, since more books could be made faster while mass-produced, printed books were cheaper in comparison to laborious handwritten copies. [64][60] The enhancement of widespread printing and print culture in the Song period was thus a direct catalyst in the rise of social mobility and expansion of the educated class of scholar elites, the latter which expanded dramatically in size from the 11th to 13th centuries. Print culture embodies all forms of printed text and other printed forms of Visual communication. Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst See also Economic mobility Social mobility is the degree to which in a given society an individual's family's or group's social status [64][179][60]
The movable type invented by Bi Sheng was ultimately trumped by the use of woodblock printing due to the limitations of the enormous Chinese character writing system, yet movable type printing continued to be used and was improved in later periods. A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( The Yuan Dynasty scholar-official Wang Zhen (fl. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai This article is about Wang Zhen agronomist and inventor For other historical figures with this name see Wang Zhen (disambiguation. 1290–1333) implemented a faster typesetting process, improved Bi's baked-clay movable type character set with a wooden one, and experimented with tin-metal movable type. [180][181][182] The wealthy printing patron Hua Sui (1439–1513) of the Ming Dynasty established China's first metal movable type (using bronze) in 1490. Hua Sui ( Traditional Chinese: 華燧 Simplified Chinese:华燧 Hanyu Pinyin: Huá Suì (1439-1513 AD was a Chinese Scholar and The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led [183] In 1638 the Beijing Gazette switched their printing process from woodblock to movable type printing. The term gazette normally refers to a Newspaper. In the governments of Commonwealth countries a gazette is an official Journal that publishes the [184] Yet it was during the Qing Dynasty that massive printing projects began to employ movable type printing. Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China This includes the printing of sixty six copies of a 5,020 volume long encyclopedia in 1725, the Gujin Tushu Jicheng (Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times), which necessitated the crafting of 250,000 movable type characters cast in bronze. The Gujin Tushu Jicheng ( is a vast encyclopaedic work written in China during the reigns of Qing emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng [185] By the 19th century the European style printing press replaced the old Chinese methods of movable type, while traditional woodblock printing in modern East Asia is used sparsely and for aesthetic reasons. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image
Hydraulic engineering and nautics
There were considerable advancements in hydraulic engineering and nautical technology during the Song Dynasty. Hydraulic engineering is a sub-discipline of Civil engineering concerned with the flow and conveyance of Fluids principally Water. The 10th century invention of the pound lock for canal systems allowed different water levels to be raised and lowered for separated segments of a canal, which significantly aided the safety of canal traffic and allowed for larger barges to pass through. A pound lock is type of lock that is used almost exclusively nowadays on Canals and Rivers A pound lock has a chamber (the pound) with [187] There was the Song era innovation of watertight bulkhead compartments for ships that allowed possible damage to the hull without sinking. A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a Ship. Other kinds of partition elements within a ship are decks and Deckheads Etymology A hull is the body of a Ship or Boat. It is a central concept in floating vessels as it provides the Buoyancy that keeps the vessel from sinking [188][64] If ships were damaged, the Chinese of the 11th century discovered how to employ a drydock to repair boats while suspended out of water. A drydock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform [189] There Song Chinese used crossbeams to brace the ribs of ships in order to strengthen them in a skeletal like structure. [190] Stern-mounted rudders had been mounted on Chinese ships since the 1st century, as evidenced with a preserved Han tomb model of a ship. The stern is the rear or aft part of a Ship or Boat, technically defined as the area built up over the Sternpost, extending upwards from the Counter A rudder is a device used to steer a Ship, Boat, Submarine, Hovercraft, or other conveyance that move through a fluid (generally air or In the Song period the Chinese devised a way to mechanically raise and lower rudders in order for ships to travel in a wider range of water depths. [190] The Song Chinese arranged the protruding teeth of anchors in a circular pattern instead of in one direction. [190] David Graff and Robin Higham state that this arrangement "[made] them more reliable" for anchoring ships. [190] Arguably the most important nautical innovation of the Song period was the introduction of the magnetic mariner's compass for navigation at sea. In Physics, magnetism is one of the Phenomena by which Materials exert attractive or repulsive Forces on other Materials. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another [170] The magnetic compass was first written of by Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088, as well as Zhu Yu in his Pingzhou Table Talks published in 1119. Zhu Yu ( was an author of the Chinese Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD
Structural engineering and architecture
Architecture during the Song period reached new heights of sophistication. Authors such as Yu Hao and Shen Kuo wrote books outlining the field of architectural layouts, craftsmanship, and structural engineering in the 10th and 11th centuries, respectively. Yu Hao ( fl 970 AD was an eminent Chinese Structural engineer and Architect during the Song Dynasty period ( 960 - 1279 Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese Structural engineering is a field of Engineering dealing with the analysis and design of Structures that support or resist loads Structural engineering is Shen Kuo preserved the written dialogues of Yu Hao when describing technical issues such as slanting struts built into pagoda towers for diagonal wind bracing. See also Strut (disambiguation StRUT ( St udents R ecycling U sed T echnology are three separate organizations [191] Shen Kuo also preserved Yu's specified dimensions and units of measurement for various building types. [192] The architect Li Jie (1065–1110), who published the Yingzao Fashi ('Treatise on Architectural Methods') in 1103, greatly expanded upon the works of Yu Hao and compiled the standard building codes used by the central government agencies and by craftsmen throughout the empire. The architecture of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 was based upon the accomplishments of its predecessors much like every subsequent dynastic period of China. The Yingzao Fashi (營造法式 'Treatise on Architectural Methods' or 'State Building Standards' is a technical treatise on architecture and craftsmanship written by the [193][194] He addressed the standard methods of construction, design, and applications of moats and fortifications, stonework, greater woodwork, lesser woodwork, wood-carving, turning and drilling, sawing, bamboo work, tiling, wall building, painting and decoration, brickwork, glazed tile making, and provided proportions for mortar formulas in masonry. Mortar is a workable paste formed by mixture of Cement, Water and fine aggregate Masonry to bind construction blocks together and fill the gaps between Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar, and the term "masonry" can also refer to the units themselves [195][196] In his book, Li provided detailed and vivid illustrations of architectural components and cross-sections of buildings. These illustrations displayed various applications of corbel brackets, cantilever arms, mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross beams, and diagrams showing the various building types of halls in graded sizes. In Architecture a corbel (or console) is a piece of stone jutting out of a wall to carry any superincumbent weight A cantilever is a beam supported on only one end The beam carries the load to the support where it is resisted by moment and Shear stress. Simple and strong the mortise and tenon joint has been used for millennia by Woodworkers around the world to join pieces of Wood, usually when the pieces [197][198][199][200][201] He also outlined the standard units of measurement and standard dimensional measurements of all building components described and illustrated in his book. [194][202]
Grandiose building projects were supported by the government, including the erection of towering Buddhist Chinese pagodas and the construction of enormous bridges (wood or stone, trestle or segmental arch bridge). The Chinese Pagoda is a Landmark in Birmingham, England. It is a stone carving of a Chinese pagoda, carved in Fujian, China Many of the pagoda towers built during the Song period were erected at heights that exceeded ten stories. Some of the most famous are the Iron Pagoda built in 1049 during the Northern Song and the Liuhe Pagoda built in 1165 during the Southern Song, although there were many others. The Iron Pagoda (鐵塔 of Youguo Temple (佑國寺 Kaifeng City Henan province is a Buddhist Chinese pagoda built in 1049 AD Liuhe Pagoda ( literally Six Harmonies Pagoda or Six Harmonies Tower, is multi-storied Chinese Pagoda in southern Hangzhou, Zhejiang The tallest is the Liaodi Pagoda of Hebei built in the year 1055, towering 84 m (275 ft) in total height. The Liaodi Pagoda ( of Kaiyuan Monastery Dingzhou, Hebei Province China is the tallest existing pre-modern Chinese pagoda, built in the ( Postal map spelling: Hopeh) is a northern province of the People's Republic of China. Some of the bridges reached lengths of 1220 m (4000 ft), with many being wide enough to allow two lanes of cart traffic simultaneously over a waterway or ravine. [203] The government also oversaw construction of their own administrative offices, palace apartments, city fortifications, ancestral temples, and Buddhist temples. [204]
The professions of the architect, craftsman, carpenter, and structural engineer were not seen as professionally equal to that of a Confucian scholar-official. Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years in China, in many cases from a father craftsman to his son. Structural engineering and architecture schools were known to have existed during the Song period; one prestigious engineering school was headed by the renowned bridge-builder Cai Xiang (1012–1067) in medieval Fujian province. Cai Xiang (simplified Chinese 蔡襄 (born in Xianyou, Fujian in 1012 died in Xianyou 1067 was a Chinese This article is about the People's Republic of China province [205]
Besides existing buildings and technical literature of building manuals, Song Dynasty artwork portraying cityscapes and other buildings aid modern-day scholars in their attempts to reconstruct and realize the nuances of Song archicture. The architecture of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 was based upon the accomplishments of its predecessors much like every subsequent dynastic period of China. A cityscape is the urban equivalent of a Landscape. Townscape is roughly synonymous with cityscape though it of course implies the same difference in urban Song Dynasty artists such as Li Cheng, Fan Kuan, Guo Xi, Zhang Zeduan, Emperor Huizong of Song, Ma Lin, and Zhang Zerui painted close-up depictions of buildings as well as large expanses of cityscapes featuring arched bridges, halls and pavilions, pagoda towers, and distinct Chinese city walls. Li Cheng ( (919&ndash967 style name 咸熙 ( Pinyin: Xián Xī was a Chinese painter from Qingzhou (now part of Weifang County Fan Kuan (范寬 Pinyin: Fàn Kuān fl 990-1020 Fan Kuan modeled his work after that of the artist Li Cheng (919&ndash967 but later concluded Guo Xi ( (c 1020&ndashc 1090 Chinese landscape painter who lived during the Northern Song dynasty Zhang Zeduan ( (1085-1145 AD alias Zheng Dao was a famous Chinese painter during the twelfth century during the transitional period from the Northern Song to the Southern Emperor Huizong ( November 2, 1082 – June 4, 1135) was the eighth and one of the most famous emperors of the Song Dynasty of Chinese Pavilions ( Chinese 亭 Pinyin tíng) are covered structures without surrounding walls and are a traditional part of Chinese architecture A pagoda is the general term in the English language for a tiered Tower with multiple Eaves common in China, Japan, Korea Chinese city walls ( refer to civic defensive systems used to protect towns and Cities in China in pre-modern times The scientist and statesman Shen Kuo was known for his criticism of artwork relating to architecture, saying that it was more important for an artist to capture a wholistic view of a landscape than it was to focus on the angles and corners of buildings. Art criticism is the discussion or evaluation of visual Art. Art critics usually criticize art in the context of Aesthetics or the theory of [206] For example, Shen criticized the work of the painter Li Cheng for failing to observe the principle of "seeing the small from the viewpoint of the large" in portraying buildings. [206]
There were also pyramidal tomb structures in the Song era, such as the Song imperial tombs located in Gongxian, Henan province. Henan ( is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country [207] About 100 km from Gongxian is another Song Dynasty tomb at Baisha, which features "elaborate facsimiles in brick of Chinese timber frame construction, from door lintels to pillars and pedestals to bracket sets, that adorn interior walls. "[207] The two large chambers of the Baisha tomb also feature conical-shaped roofs. [208] Flanking the avenues leading to these tombs are lines of Song Dynasty stone statues of officials, tomb guardians, animals, and mythological creatures.
Archaeology
In addition to the Song gentry's antiquarian pursuits of art collecting, scholar-officials during the Song became highly interested in retrieving ancient relics from archaeological sites, in order to revive the use of ancient vessels in ceremonies of state ritual. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos [209] Scholar-officials of the Song period claimed to have discovered ancient bronze vessels that were created as far back as the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE) which bore the writing characters of the Shang era. The Shang Dynasty ( Chinese: 商[[wiktionary 朝|朝]] or Yin Dynasty ( 殷[[wiktionary 代|代]] was according to traditional sources the Oracle bone script ( refers to incised (or rarely brush-written ancient Chinese characters found on Oracle bones which are animal bones or turtle shells used in [210] Some attempted to recreate these bronze vessels by using imagination alone, not by observing tangible evidence of relics; this practice was criticized by Shen Kuo in his work of 1088. [209] Yet Shen Kuo had much more to criticize than this practice alone. Shen objected to the idea of his peers that ancient relics were products created by famous "sages" in lore or the ancient aristocratic class; Shen rightfully attributed the discovered handicrafts and vessels from ancient times as the work of artisans and commoners from previous eras. The four occupations or " four categories of the people " (Chinese 四民 pinyin simin) was a hierarchic social class structure developed in ancient [209] He also disapproved of his peers' pursuit of archaeology simply to enhance state ritual, since Shen not only took an interdisciplinary approach with the study of archaeology, but he also emphasized the study of functionality and investigating what was the ancient relics' original processes of manufacture. In Academia, Pedagogy, Physical sciences, Earth sciences, Human sciences and Social sciences [209] Shen used ancient texts and existing models of armillary spheres to create one based on ancient standards; Shen described ancient weaponry such as the use of a scaled sighting device on crossbows; while experimenting with ancient musical measures, Shen suggested hanging an ancient bell by using a hollow handle. "Sights" redirects here For the rock band see The Sights. In Musical notation, a bar or measure is a segment of time defined as a given number of beats of a given duration Bianzhong ( is an ancient Chinese musical instrument consisting of a set of Bronze bells played melodically [209]
Despite the gentry's overriding interest in archaeology simply for reviving ancient state rituals, some of Shen's peers took a similar approach to the study of archaeology. His contemporary Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze which pioneered ideas in early epigraphy and archeology. Early life He was born in Mingyang, Sichuan where his father was a judge though his family comes from present day Jishui (then known as Luling Epigraphy (ἐπιγραφολογία from Greek ἐπιγραφή — "inscription" is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs engraved [71] On the unreliability of historical works written after the fact, scholar-official Zhao Mingcheng (1081–1129) stated ". . . the inscriptions on stone and bronze are made at the time the events took place and can be trusted without reservation, and thus discrepancies may be discovered. "[211] Historian R. C. Rudolph states that Zhao's emphasis on consulting contemporary sources for accurate dating is parallel with the concern of the German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886),[211] and was in fact emphasized by many Song scholars. Leopold von Ranke ( December 21, 1795 – May 23, 1886) was a German Historian of the 19th century and frequently considered [212] The Song scholar Hong Mai (1123–1202) heavily criticized what he called the court's "ridiculous" archaeological catalogue Bogutu compiled during the Huizong reign periods of Zheng He and Xuan He (1111–1125). [213] Hong Mai obtained old vessels from the Han Dynasty and compared them with the descriptions offered in the catalogue, which he found so inaccurate he stated he had to "hold my sides with laughter. "[214] Hong Mai pointed out that the erroneous material was the fault of Chancellor Cai Jing (1047–1126), who prohibited scholars from reading and consulting the written histories. Cai Jing (蔡京 1047 - 1126) was the Imperial Tutor during the reign of Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty. [214]
See also
- Four Great Books of Song
- Lu You
- Longquan celadon
- Shao Yong
- Tiger Cave Kiln
- Wang Chongyang
- Water Margin
- Wen Tianxiang
- Zeng Gong
Notes
^ a: During the reign of the Song Dynasty the world population grew from about 250 million to approximately 330 million, a difference of 80 million. The Four Great Books of Song ( was compiled by Li Fang and others during the Song Dynasty ( 960 - 1279) Career Early career Lu You came from a family in which there were some government officials Longquan celadon (龍泉青磁 refers to Chinese Celadon to have produced in Longguan (龍泉 kilns which were largely located in the Zhejiang prefecture Shao Yong ( 1011–1077 Courtesy name Yaofu (堯夫 named Shào Kāngjié (邵康節 after death was a Song Dynasty Chinese philosopher Recent excavations at the Tiger Cave Kiln at Hangzhou in the Chinese province of Zhejiang have helped to identify one site of origin of the important ceramic Wang Chongyang ( 11 January 1113 – 22 January 1170) calendar] 宋徽宗政和二年十二月廿二 – 金世宗大定十年正月初四] Water Margin ( (also Outlaws of the Marsh, All Men Are Brothers or The Marshes of Mount Liang) is one of the Four Great Classical Novels Wen Tianxiang ( June 6 1236 &ndash January 9 1283) Duke of Xinguo also Man Tin Cheung in Cantonese, was a scholar-general Zeng Gong ( 1019–1083 Courtesy name Zigu (子固 was a Chinese Scholar and Historian of the Song Dynasty in China Please also see Medieval demography. Medieval Demography is the study of human Demography in Europe during the Middle Ages.
^ b: For the history of paper-printed money, please see banknote. A banknote (often known as a bill, paper money or simply a note) is a kind of Negotiable instrument, a Promissory note made by a
^ c: Despite the establishment of permanent standing navy in Song Dynasty, China already had a long naval history prior to the Song, see Naval history of China. The naval history of China dates back thousands of years with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn Period ( 722 BC - 481 BC) about the
^ d: As opposed to the previous Han and Tang Dynasty, each of which boasted roughly 50 million inhabitants
^ e: See the technology section for more information. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
- ^ a b c d Ebrey et al. , 156.
- ^ Brook, 96.
- ^ a b c d e f Ebrey et al. , 167.
- ^ Rossabi, 115
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 518.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 469–471.
- ^ Hall, 23.
- ^ Sastri, 173, 316.
- ^ Shen, 158.
- ^ Mote, 69.
- ^ Ebrey et al. , 154.
- ^ Mote, 70–71.
- ^ Sivin, III, 8.
- ^ Sivin, III, 9.
- ^ a b Ebrey et al. , 163.
- ^ a b c d e f Ebrey et al. , 164.
- ^ Sivin, III, 3–4.
- ^ a b Ebrey et al. , 165.
- ^ Wang, 14
- ^ Sivin, III, 5.
- ^ a b Paludan, 136.
- ^ Shen, 159–161.
- ^ a b c Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 476.
- ^ Levathes, 43–47
- ^ Needham, Volume 1, 134.
- ^ Ebrey, 239.
- ^ Embree, 385.
- ^ Rossabi, 80.
- ^ Ebrey et al. , 235.
- ^ a b Ebrey et al. , 236.
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 1, 139.
- ^ Ebrey et al. , 240.
- ^ Rossabi, 55–56.
- ^ Rossabi, 49.
- ^ Rossabi, 50–51.
- ^ Rossabi, 56.
- ^ a b Rossabi, 82.
- ^ Rossabi, 88.
- ^ Rossabi, 94.
- ^ Rossabi, 90.
- ^ Fairbank, 89.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 35.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 36.
- ^ Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 155.
- ^ a b Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 158.
- ^ Ebrey et al. , 170.
- ^ a b Ebrey et al. , 171.
- ^ a b Sivin, III, 1.
- ^ Ebrey, 172.
- ^ Sen, 13.
- ^ Gernet, 82–83
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 465.
- ^ a b China. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. From Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2007-06-28
- ^ Gernet, 222–225. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul.
- ^ West, 69–70.
- ^ Gernet, 223.
- ^ Rossabi, 162.
- ^ West, 76.
- ^ Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 145-146.
- ^ a b c d Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 147.
- ^ a b c Ebrey et al. , 162.
- ^ a b Hartwell, 417–418.
- ^ a b Hymes, 35–36.
- ^ a b c d e Ebrey, 159.
- ^ Hartwell, 405–413.
- ^ Hartwell, 416–420.
- ^ a b c Fairbank, 106.
- ^ Fairbank, 101–106.
- ^ Yuan, 196–199
- ^ Ebrey, 162–163.
- ^ a b c Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 148.
- ^ Fairbank, 104.
- ^ Gernet, 92–93.
- ^ Gernet, 60–61, 68–69.
- ^ a b c Ebrey, 161.
- ^ McKnight, 155–157.
- ^ a b c Gernet, 107.
- ^ Sivin, III, 30–31
- ^ Sivin, III, 30–31, footnote 27.
- ^ Gernet, 170.
- ^ Sung, 12.
- ^ Sung, 72.
- ^ Graff, 25–26.
- ^ Lorge, 43.
- ^ Lorge, 45.
- ^ a b c Peers, 130.
- ^ Peers, 130-131.
- ^ Peers, 131.
- ^ Peers, 129.
- ^ Graff, 87.
- ^ a b Graff, 86-87.
- ^ a b Schafer, 291.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 19.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 119.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 122-124.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 82-84.
- ^ Ebrey, 81–83.
- ^ Hargett (1985), 74–76.
- ^ Bol, 44.
- ^ Ebrey, Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 151.
- ^ a b Ebrey et al. , 168.
- ^ Wright, 93.
- ^ Ebrey et al. , 169.
- ^ Wright, 88–89.
- ^ Gernet, 215.
- ^ a b Gernet, 136.
- ^ a b Gernet, 128.
- ^ a b Gernet, 130.
- ^ Gernet, 127–128.
- ^ a b Gernet, 129.
- ^ a b Gernet, 133.
- ^ Gernet, 134.
- ^ Gernet, 136–137.
- ^ a b Rossabi, 78.
- ^ West, 73.
- ^ Gernet, 135-136.
- ^ Gernet, 134–135.
- ^ Gernet, 138.
- ^ West, 86.
- ^ a b Ebrey et al. , 157.
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 23.
- ^ Wagner, 178–179.
- ^ Wagner, 181–183.
- ^ a b Ebrey et al. , 158.
- ^ Embree 339.
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 48.
- ^ Shen, 159–161.
- ^ Islam in China (650–present): Origins. Religion & Ethics - Islam. BBC. Retrieved on 2007-08-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 465.
- ^ Golas, Peter (1980). "Rural China in the Song". The Journal of Asian Studies: 291. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 117.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 80.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 82.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 220–221.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 192.
- ^ Rossabi, 79.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 117.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 173–174.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 174–175.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 283.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 281–282.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 283–284.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 291.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 287.
- ^ Needham, Volume 1, 136.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 446.
- ^ Mohn, 1.
- ^ Embree, 843.
- ^ Chan, 15.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 614.
- ^ Sivin, III, 23–24.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 98.
- ^ a b Sivin, III, 17.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 445.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 448.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 111.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 165 & 445.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 569.
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 3, 208.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 107–108.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 134-137.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 59-60.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 46.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 104.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 43.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 62–63.
- ^ Hsu, 90–93.
- ^ Hsu, 96–97
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 538–540.
- ^ a b Sivin, III, 22.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 547–549, Plate LXXXI.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 549, Plate LXXXII.
- ^ Hargett (1996), 406, 409–412.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 569.
- ^ Sivin, III, 32.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 201–203.
- ^ a b Sivin, III, 27.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 33.
- ^ Ebrey, 160.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 206.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 208.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 217.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 212–213.
- ^ Brook, xxi
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 215–216.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 350.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 350–351.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 463.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 660.
- ^ a b c d Graff, 86.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 141.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 82-84.
- ^ Guo, 4.
- ^ a b Guo, 6.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 85.
- ^ Guo, 5.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 96.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 98.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 100.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 108.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 109.
- ^ Guo, 1.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 151–153.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 84.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 153.
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 115.
- ^ a b Steinhardt, 375.
- ^ Steinhardt, 376.
- ^ a b c d e Fraser & Haber, 227.
- ^ Fairbank, 33.
- ^ a b Rudolph, 170.
- ^ Rudolph, 172.
- ^ Rudolph, 170–171.
- ^ a b Rudolph, 171.
References
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This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. Mojibake is the happenstance of incorrect unreadable characters (garbage characters shown when Computer software fails to render a text correctly according to its associated A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( |
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- Hargett, James M. "Some Preliminary Remarks on the Travel Records of the Song Dynasty (960–1279)," Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR) (July 1985): 67–93.
- Hargett, James M. "Song Dynasty Local Gazetteers and Their Place in The History of Difangzhi Writing," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (Volume 56, Number 2, 1996): 405–442.
- Hartwell, Robert M. "Demographic, Political, and Social Transformations of China, 750-1550," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (Volume 42, Number 2, 1982): 365–442.
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- Levathes, Louise (1994). When China Ruled the Seas. New York: Simon & Schuster. Simon & Schuster Inc, a division of CBS Corporation, is a Publisher founded in New York in 1924 by Richard L ISBN 0-671-70158-4.
- Lorge, Peter (2005). War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900–1795: 1st Edition. New York: Routledge. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals
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Further reading
- Gascoigne, Bamber (2003). The Dynasties of China: A History. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 1-84119-791-2.
- Giles, Herbert Allen (1939). A Chinese biographical dictionary (Gu jin xing shi zu pu). Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh. (see here for more)
- Gernet, Jacques (1982). A history of Chinese civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24130-8.
- Kruger, Rayne (2003). All Under Heaven: A Complete History of China. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-86533-4.
- Tillman, Hoyt C. and Stephen H. West (1995). China Under Jurchen Rule: Essays on Chin Intellectual and Cultural History. New York: State University of New York Press.
External links
- Song Dynasty in China
- China 7 BC To 1279
- Song Dynasty at China Heritage Quarterly
- Song Dynasty at bcps.org
- Song Dynasty at MSN encarta
- Song and Liao artwork
- Paintings of Song, Liao and Jin dynasties
- Song Dynasty art with video commentary
| Preceded by Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms |
Dynasties in Chinese history 960-1279 |
Succeeded by Yuan Dynasty |
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