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For other uses, see Solvent (disambiguation).

A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution. In Chemistry, a solution is a Homogeneous Mixture composed of two or more substances In Chemistry, a solution is a Homogeneous Mixture composed of two or more substances

The most common solvent in everyday life is water. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Most other commonly-used solvents are organic (carbon-containing) chemicals. Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 These are called organic solvents. Solvents usually have a low boiling point and evaporate easily or can be removed by distillation, leaving the dissolved substance behind. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture To distinguish between solutes and solvents, solvents are usually present in the greater amount. Solvents can also be used to extract soluble compounds from a mixture, the most common example is the brewing of coffee or tea with hot water. Liquid-liquid extraction, also known as solvent extraction and partitioning, is a method to separate compounds based on their relative solubilities in two Solubility is the characteristic Physical property referring to the ability of a given substance the Solute, to dissolve in a Solvent. CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market Solvents are usually clear and colorless liquids and many have a characteristic odor. The concentration of a solution is the amount of compound that is dissolved in a certain volume of solvent. In Chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance The solubility is the maximal amount of compound that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature. Solubility is the characteristic Physical property referring to the ability of a given substance the Solute, to dissolve in a Solvent. Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e. g. tetrachloroethylene), as paint thinners (e. g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish removers and glue solvents (acetone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate), in spot removers (e. Acetone (also known as propanone, dimethyl ketone, 2-propanone, propan-2-one and β-ketopropane) is a colorless mobile flammable Methyl acetate, also known as acetic acid methyl ester or methyl ethanoate, is a clear flammable liquid with a characteristic not unpleasant smell like certain Ethyl acetate ( systematically, ethyl ethanoate commonly abbreviated EtOAc or EA is the Organic compound with the formula CH3COOCH2CH3 g. hexane, petrol ether), in detergents (citrus terpenes), in perfumes (ethanol), and in chemical syntheses. Hexane is an Alkane Hydrocarbon with the Chemical formula CH3(CH24CH3 or C6H14 The use of inorganic solvents (other than water) is typically limited to research chemistry and some technological processes.

Contents

Solutions and solvation

When one substance is mixed with another, a solution is formed. [1] The mixing is referred to as miscibility. However, in addition to mixing, both substances in the solution can interact with each other in specific ways. Solvation describes these interactions. When something is dissolved, molecules of the solvent arrange itself around molecules of the solute. Heat is evolved and entropy is decreased making the solution more thermodynamically stable than the solute alone. This arranging is mediated by the respective chemical properties of the solvent and solute, such as hydrogen bonding, dipole moment and polarizability. [2]

Solvent classifications

Solvents can be broadly classified into two categories polar/non-polar and protic/aprotic. Generally, the dielectric constant of the solvent provides a rough measure of a solvent's polarity. Measurement The relative static permittivity εr can be measured for static Electric fields as follows first the Capacitance of a test Solvents with a dielectric constant of less than 15 are generally considered nonpolar. [3] Technically, the dielectric constant measures the solvent's ability to reduce the field strength of the electric field surrounding a charged particle immersed in it. This reduction is then compared to the field strength of the charged particle in a vacuum. [4] In laymen's terms, dielectric constant of a solvent can be thought of as its ability to reduce the solute's internal charge.

Other polarity scales

Dielectric constants are not the only measure of polarity. Because solvents are used by chemists to carry out chemical reactions or observe chemical and biological phenomena, more specific measures of polarity are required.

The Grunwald Winstein mY scale measures polarity in terms of solvent influence on buildup of positive charge of a solute during a chemical reaction.

Kosower's Z scale measures polarity in terms of the influence of the solvent on uv absorption maxima of a salt, usually pyridinium iodide or the pyridinium zwitterion. Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays Pyridinium refers to the Cationic form of Pyridine. This can either be due to Protonation of the ring nitrogen or because of addition of a substituent An iodide Ion is an iodine atom with a &minus1 charge. Compounds with iodine in formal Oxidation state &minus1 are called iodides A zwitterion (first part pronounced "tsvitter" from German " Zwitter " &mdash "hybrid" " Hermaphrodite " is a [5]

Donor number and donar acceptor scale measures polarity in terms of how a solvent interacts with specific substances, like a strong Lewis acid or a strong Lewis base. [6]

The polarity, dipole moment, polarizability and hydrogen bonding of a solvent determines what type of compounds it is able to dissolve and with what other solvents or liquid compounds it is miscible. A hydrogen bond results from a Dipole-dipole force between an Electronegative atom and a Hydrogen atom bonded to Nitrogen, Oxygen A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed proportion by Mass. Miscibility is a term commonly used in Chemistry that refers to the property of Liquids to mix in all proportions forming a Homogeneous Solution As a rule of thumb, polar solvents dissolve polar compounds best and non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar compounds best: "like dissolves like". Strongly polar compounds like sugars (e. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. g. sucrose) or ionic compounds, like inorganic salts (e. Inorganic chemistry is the branch of Chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of Inorganic compounds This field covers all Chemical compounds Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants g. table salt) dissolve only in very polar solvents like water, while strongly non-polar compounds like oils or waxes dissolve only in very non-polar organic solvents like hexane. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is Wax has traditionally referred to a substance that is secreted by Bees ( Beeswax) and used by them in constructing their Hexane is an Alkane Hydrocarbon with the Chemical formula CH3(CH24CH3 or C6H14 Similarly, water and hexane (or vinegar and vegetable oil) are not miscible with each other and will quickly separate into two layers even after being shaken well. Hexane is an Alkane Hydrocarbon with the Chemical formula CH3(CH24CH3 or C6H14 Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid Miscibility is a term commonly used in Chemistry that refers to the property of Liquids to mix in all proportions forming a Homogeneous Solution

Polar protic and polar a-protic

Solvents with a relative static permittivity greater than 15 can be further divided into protic and aprotic. Measurement The relative static permittivity εr can be measured for static Electric fields as follows first the Capacitance of a test Protic solvents solvate anions (negatively charged solutes) strongly via hydrogen bonding. An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge A hydrogen bond results from a Dipole-dipole force between an Electronegative atom and a Hydrogen atom bonded to Nitrogen, Oxygen Water is a protic solvent. Aprotic solvents such as acetone or dichloromethane tend to have large dipole moments (separation of partial positive and partial negative charges within the same molecule) and solvate positively charged species via their negative dipole. Acetone (also known as propanone, dimethyl ketone, 2-propanone, propan-2-one and β-ketopropane) is a colorless mobile flammable Dichloromethane ( DCM) or methylene chloride is the Chemical compound with the formula CH2Cl2 [7] In chemical reactions the use of polar protic solvents favors the SN1 reaction mechanism, while polar aprotic solvents favor the SN2 reaction mechanism. A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of Chemical substances The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called The SN1 reaction is a Substitution reaction in Organic chemistry. Chemistry, a reaction mechanism is the step by step Sequence of Elementary reactions by which overall Chemical change occurs. The SN2 reaction (also known as bimolecular nucleophilic substitution) is a type of Nucleophilic substitution, where a lone pair from a Nucleophile

Solvent effects

Boiling point

Another important property of solvents is boiling point. This also determines the speed of evaporation. Small amounts of low-boiling solvents like diethyl ether, dichloromethane, or acetone will evaporate in seconds at room temperature, while high-boiling solvents like water or dimethyl sulfoxide need higher temperatures, an air flow, or the application of vacuum for fast evaporation. Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a Dichloromethane ( DCM) or methylene chloride is the Chemical compound with the formula CH2Cl2 Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO is the Chemical compound with the formula (CH32SO This vacuum means "absence of matter" or "an empty area or space" for the cleaning appliance see Vacuum cleaner.

Density

Most organic solvents have a lower density than water, which means they are lighter and will form a separate layer on top of water. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different An important exception: many halogenated solvents like dichloromethane or chloroform will sink to the bottom of a container, leaving water as the top layer. Abundance Owing to their high Reactivity, the halogens are found in the environment only in compounds or as Ions Halide ions and oxoanions Dichloromethane ( DCM) or methylene chloride is the Chemical compound with the formula CH2Cl2 Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl This is important to remember when partitioning compounds between solvents and water in a separatory funnel during chemical syntheses. In the fields of organic and Medicinal chemistry, a partition (P or distribution coefficient (D is A separating funnel, also known as separation funnel, separatory funnel, or colloquially sep funnel, is a laboratory glassware used in Liquid-liquid

Health and safety

Fire

Most organic solvents are flammable or highly flammable, depending on their volatility. Exceptions are some chlorinated solvents like dichloromethane and chloroform. Dichloromethane ( DCM) or methylene chloride is the Chemical compound with the formula CH2Cl2 Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl Mixtures of solvent vapors and air can explode. An explosion is a sudden increase in Volume and release of Energy in an extreme manner usually with the generation of high Temperatures and the release Solvent vapors are heavier than air, they will sink to the bottom and can travel large distances nearly undiluted. Solvent vapors can also be found in supposedly empty drums and cans, posing a flash fire hazard; hence empty containers of volatile solvents should be stored open and upside down. A flash fire is an unexpected sudden intense Fire caused by ignition of flammable solids (including Dust) liquids or gases

Both diethyl ether and carbon disulfide have exceptionally low autoignition temperatures which increase greatly the fire risk associated with these solvents. Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external The autoignition temperature of carbon disulfide is below 100°C (212°F), so as a result objects such as steam pipes, light bulbs, hotplates and recently extinguished bunsen burners are able to ignite its vapours. Uses A Steam engine uses the expansion of steam in order to drive a Piston or Turbine to perform Mechanical work. The incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is a source of electric Light that works by Incandescence, (a general A heating element converts Electricity into Heat through the process of Joule heating. A Bunsen burner is a common piece of Laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas Flame, which is used for heating sterilization and combustion

Peroxide formation

Ethers like diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran (THF) can form highly explosive organic peroxides upon exposure to oxygen and light, THF is normally more able to form such peroxides than diethyl ether. Ether is a class of Organic compounds which contain an ether group — an Oxygen Atom connected to two (substituted Alkyl Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a "THF" redirects here For other uses see THF (disambiguation. Organic peroxides are Organic compounds containing the Peroxide Functional group (ROOR' A peroxide is a compound containing an Oxygen -oxygen single bond. One of the most susceptible solvents is diisopropyl ether. Diisopropyl ether is secondary Ether that is used as a Solvent.

The heteroatom (oxygen) stabilizes the formation of a free radical which is formed by the abstraction of a hydrogen atom by another free radical. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the In Chemistry, radicals (often referred to as free radicals) are atoms molecules or ions with Unpaired electrons on an otherwise Open shell Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 The carbon centred free radical thus formed is able to react with an oxygen molecule to form a peroxide compound. A range of tests can be used to detect the presence of a peroxide in an ether, one is to use a combination of iron sulfate and potassium thiocyanate. Potassium thiocyanate is the Chemical compound with the molecular formula KSCN The peroxide is able to oxidize the Fe2+ ion to an Fe3+ ion which then form a deep red coordination complex with the thiocyanate. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state The term complex in Chemistry is usually used to describe molecules or ensembles formed by the combination of Ligands and metal Ions. Thiocyanate (also known as sulphocyanate or thiocyanide or rhodanide) is the anion − In extreme cases the peroxides can form crystalline solids within the vessel of the ether. In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating

Unless the desiccant used can destroy the peroxides, they will concentrate during distillation due to their higher boiling point. A Desiccant is a Hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains a state of dryness ( Desiccation) in its local vicinity in a moderately-well sealed container The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid When sufficient peroxides have formed, they can form a crystalline and shock sensitive solid precipitate. Precipitation is the formation of a Solid in a Solution during a Chemical reaction. When this solid is formed at the mouth of the bottle, turning the cap may provide sufficient energy for the peroxide to detonate. Peroxide formation is not a significant problem when solvents are used up quickly; they are more of a problem for laboratories which take years to finish a single bottle. Ethers have to be stored in the dark in closed canisters in the presence of stabilizers like butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or over sodium hydroxide. Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT also known as Butylhydroxytoluene, is a Lipophilic (fat-soluble Organic compound that is primarily used as an Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature

Peroxides may be removed by washing with acidic iron(II) sulfate, filtering through alumina, or distilling from sodium/benzophenone. Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Sodium (ˈsoʊdiəm is an element which has the symbol Na( Latin natrium, from Arabic natrun) atomic number 11 atomic mass 22 Benzophenone is the Organic compound with the formula ( C 6 H 52C O, generally abbreviated Ph 2CO Alumina does not destroy the peroxides; it merely traps them. The advantage of using sodium/benzophenone is that moisture and oxygen is removed as well. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the

Health effects

Many solvents can lead to a sudden loss of consciousness if inhaled in large amounts. Inhalation (also known as respiration) is the movement of air from the external environment through the air ways and into the Alveoli. Solvents like diethyl ether and chloroform have been used in medicine as anesthetics, sedatives, and hypnotics for a long time. Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις A sedative, or more specifically a sedative-hypnotic, is a substance that depresses the Central nervous system (CNS resulting in calmness relaxation sleepiness For the state of mind see Hypnosis. Hypnotic drugs induce Sleep (which differentiates them from the Sedative Ethanol is a widely used and abused psychoactive drug. A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a Chemical substance that acts primarily upon the Central nervous system where it alters Brain Diethyl ether, chloroform, and many other solvents (e. g. from gasoline or glues) are used recreationally in glue sniffing, often with harmful long term health effects like neurotoxicity or cancer. Neurotoxicity occurs when the exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances which are called Neurotoxins alters the normal activity of the Nervous system in Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Methanol can cause internal damage to the eyes, including permanent blindness. Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a Chemical compound Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain

It is interesting to note that ethanol has a synergistic effect when taken in combination with many solvents. For instance a combination of toluene/benzene and ethanol causes greater nausea/vomiting than either substance alone. Toluene, also known as methylbenzene or phenylmethane, is a clear water -insoluble liquid with the typical smell of Paint thinners redolent of Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 Nausea ( Latin: Nausea, Greek:, " Sea-sickness " also called wamble) is the sensation of unease and discomfort Vomiting (also called throwing up, emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's Stomach through the Mouth and sometimes the Many chemists make a point of not drinking beer/wine/other alcoholic drinks if they know that they have been exposed to an aromatic solvent. Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice

Environmental contamination

A major pathway to induce health effects arises from spills or leaks of solvents that reach the underlying soil. Since solvents readily migrate substantial distances, the creation of widespread soil contamination is not uncommon; there may be about 5000 sites worldwide that have major subsurface solvent contamination; this is particularly a health risk if aquifers are affected. Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment An aquifer is an underground layer of Water -bearing Permeable rock or unconsolidated materials ( Gravel, Sand, Silt, or Clay

Chronic health effects

Some solvents including chloroform and benzene (an ingredient of gasoline) are carcinogenic. Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 The term carcinogen refers to any substance Radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of Cancer or in the fatation of its propagation Many others can damage internal organs like the liver, the kidneys, or the brain. The liver is a vital organ in the human body and is present in Vertebrates and some other animals The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain

General precautions

Properties table of common solvents

The solvents are grouped into non-polar, polar aprotic, and polar protic solvents and ordered by increasing polarity. The polarity is given as the dielectric constant. Measurement The relative static permittivity εr can be measured for static Electric fields as follows first the Capacitance of a test The density of nonpolar solvents that are heavier than water is bolded. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different

Solvent Chemical Formula Boiling point Dielectric constant Density
Non-Polar Solvents
Hexane CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 69 °C 2. A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the Atoms that constitute a particular Chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid Measurement The relative static permittivity εr can be measured for static Electric fields as follows first the Capacitance of a test The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different Hexane is an Alkane Hydrocarbon with the Chemical formula CH3(CH24CH3 or C6H14 0 0. 655 g/ml
Benzene C6H6 80 °C 2. Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 3 0. 879 g/ml
Toluene C6H5-CH3 111 °C 2. Toluene, also known as methylbenzene or phenylmethane, is a clear water -insoluble liquid with the typical smell of Paint thinners redolent of 4 0. 867 g/ml
Diethyl ether CH3CH2-O-CH2-CH3 35 °C 4. Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a 3 0. 713 g/ml
Chloroform CHCl3 61 °C 4. Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl 8 1. 498 g/ml
Ethyl acetate CH3-C(=O)-O-CH2-CH3 77 °C 6. Ethyl acetate ( systematically, ethyl ethanoate commonly abbreviated EtOAc or EA is the Organic compound with the formula CH3COOCH2CH3 0 0. 894 g/ml
Polar Aprotic Solvents
1,4-Dioxane /-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-CH2-O-\ 101 °C 2. 3 1. 033 g/ml
Tetrahydrofuran (THF) /-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-CH2-\ 66 °C 7. "THF" redirects here For other uses see THF (disambiguation. 5 0. 886 g/ml
Dichloromethane (DCM) CH2Cl2 40 °C 9. Dichloromethane ( DCM) or methylene chloride is the Chemical compound with the formula CH2Cl2 1 1. 326 g/ml
Acetone CH3-C(=O)-CH3 56 °C 21 0. Acetone (also known as propanone, dimethyl ketone, 2-propanone, propan-2-one and β-ketopropane) is a colorless mobile flammable 786 g/ml
Acetonitrile (MeCN) CH3-C≡N 82 °C 37 0. Acetonitrile (ACN is the Chemical compound with formula CH3CN 786 g/ml
Dimethylformamide (DMF) H-C(=O)N(CH3)2 153 °C 38 0. Dimethylformamide is the Organic compound with the formula ( CH3)2NC(OH 944 g/ml
Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) CH3-S(=O)-CH3 189 °C 47 1. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO is the Chemical compound with the formula (CH32SO 092 g/ml
Polar Protic Solvents
Acetic acid CH3-C(=O)OH 118 °C 6. Acetic acid, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic chemical compound, giving Vinegar its sour taste 2 1. 049 g/ml
n-Butanol CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH 118 °C 18 0. Butanol or butyl alcohol (sometimes also called biobutanol when produced biologically is a Primary alcohol with a 4 Carbon structure and the Molecular 810 g/ml
Isopropanol (IPA) CH3-CH(-OH)-CH3 82 °C 18 0. Isopropyl alcohol (also isopropanol, iso, isopro, Rubbing alcohol, or the abbreviation IPA) is a common name for 785 g/ml
n-Propanol CH3-CH2-CH2-OH 97 °C 20 0. 803 g/ml
Ethanol CH3-CH2-OH 79 °C 24 0. 789 g/ml
Methanol CH3-OH 65 °C 33 0. Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a Chemical compound 791 g/ml
Formic acid H-C(=O)OH 100 °C 58 1. Formic acid (systematically called methanoic acid) is the simplest Carboxylic acid. 21 g/ml
Water H-O-H 100 °C 80 1. Water ( H2[[oxygen O]] H OH) is the most abundant Molecule on Earth 's surface composing of about 70% of the Earth's surface as 000 g/ml

See also

References

  1. ^ Tinoco, Sauer, Wang & Puglisi, Physical Chemistry Prentice Hall 2002 p. In the fields of organic and Medicinal chemistry, a partition (P or distribution coefficient (D is A supercritical fluid is any substance at a Temperature and Pressure above its Thermodynamic critical point. An ionic liquid is a liquid that contains essentially only ions Some ionic liquids such as Ethylammonium nitrate are in a dynamic equilibrium where at any time more A deep eutectic solvent or DES is a type of ionic Solvent with special properties composed of a mixture which forms a Eutectic with a Melting Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities A Desiccant is a Hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains a state of dryness ( Desiccation) in its local vicinity in a moderately-well sealed container Occupational safety and health is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the Safety, Health and welfare of people engaged in 134
  2. ^ Lowery, T. H. and Richardson, K. S. , Mechanism and Theory in Organic Chemistry, Harper Collins Publishers 3rd ed. 1987 p. 181-183 .
  3. ^ Lowery, T. H. and Richardson, K. S. , Mechanism and Theory in Organic Chemistry, Harper Collins Publishers 3rd ed. 1987 p. 177.
  4. ^ Lowery, T. H. and Richardson, K. S. , Mechanism and Theory in Organic Chemistry, Harper Collins Publishers 3rd ed. 1987 p. 177.
  5. ^ Kosower, E. M. "An introduction to Physical Organic Chemistry" Wiley: New York, 1969 p. 293
  6. ^ Gutmann, V. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1976, 18 225
  7. ^ Lowery, T. H. and Richardson, K. S. , Mechanism and Theory in Organic Chemistry, Harper Collins Publishers 3rd ed. 1987 p. 183.

External links

Dictionary

solvent

-noun

  1. A liquid that dissolves a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution.

-adjective

  1. Able to pay all debts.
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