| Renewable energy |
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| Biofuels Biomass Geothermal Hydro power Solar power Tidal power Wave power Wind power |
Solar energy is energy from the Sun in the form of radiated heat and light. Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth and therme, meaning heat is energy generated by heat stored in the earth or the collection Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of Hydropower that converts the energy of Tides into electricity or other useful forms of power Wave power refers to the Energy of Ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work — including Electricity generation, Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Radiant energy is the Energy of Electromagnetic waves The quantity of radiant energy may be calculated by integrating Radiant flux (or power In Physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is Energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a difference in Temperature Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 It drives the climate and weather and supports life on Earth. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of The weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given Atmosphere at a given Time. Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Solar energy technologies make controlled use of this energy resource. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt
Solar power is a synonym of solar energy or refers specifically to the conversion of sunlight into electricity by photovoltaics, concentrating solar thermal devices or various experimental technologies. Photovoltaics ( PV) is the field of technology and research related to the application of Solar cells for Energy by converting Sunlight directly
In building design, thermal mass is used to conserve heat, and daylighting techniques optimize light. Daylighting is the practice of placing Windows or other transparent media and reflective surfaces so that during the day natural light provides effective internal illumination Solar water heaters heat swimming pools and provide domestic hot water. Solar hot water is water heated by the use of Solar energy. Solar heating systems are generally composed of solar Thermal collectors a Fluid In agriculture, greenhouses grow specialty crops and photovoltaic-powered pumps bring water to grazing animals. A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse or hothouse) is a building where plants are cultivated Evaporation ponds find applications in the commercial and industrial sectors where they are used to harvest salt and clean waste streams of contaminants. Evaporation ponds are artificial Ponds with very large surface areas that are designed to efficiently evaporate water by Sunlight and exposure to the ambient
Solar distillation and disinfection techniques produce potable water for millions of people worldwide. Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Disinfectants are Antimicrobial agents that are applied to non-living objects to destroy Microorganisms, the process of which is known as disinfection. Water of sufficient quality to serve as drinking water is termed potable water whether it is used for drinking or not Family scale solar cookers and larger solar kitchens concentrate sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. A solar oven or solar cooker is a device which uses Sunlight as its energy source Pasteurization is the process of heating Liquids for the purpose of destroying bacteria, Protozoa, Molds and Yeasts The process was More sophisticated concentrating technologies magnify the rays of the Sun for high temperature material testing, metal smelting, and industrial chemical production. Chemical reduction, or smelting, is a form of Extractive metallurgy. A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. A range of prototype solar vehicles provide ground, air and sea transportation. A prototype is an original type form or instance of something serving as a typical example basis or standard for other things of the same category
Contents
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Energy from the Sun
Earth continuously receives 174 PW of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere. This page lists examples of the power in Watts produced by various different sources of energy Insolation is a measure of Solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five [2] When it meets the atmosphere, 6% of the insolation is reflected and 16% is absorbed. Reflection is the change in direction of a Wave front at an interface between two different media so that the wave front returns into the medium from which In Physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the process by which the Energy of a Photon is taken up by matter typically the electrons of an [2] Average atmospheric conditions (clouds, dust, pollutants) further reduce insolation traveling through the atmosphere by 20% due to reflection and 3% via absorption. [2] These atmospheric conditions not only reduce the quantity of energy reaching the earth's surface, but also diffuse approximately 20% of the incoming light and filter portions of its spectrum. Diffuse insolation is the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components ( Clouds for example to the earth's surface A spectrum (plural spectra or spectrums) is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary infinitely within a continuum. [3] After passing through the atmosphere, approximately half the insolation is in the visible electromagnetic spectrum with the other half mostly in the infrared spectrum (a small part is ultraviolet radiation). The electromagnetic (EM spectrum is the range of all possible Electromagnetic radiation frequencies Infrared ( IR) radiation is Electromagnetic radiation whose Wavelength is longer than that of Visible light, but shorter than that of [4]
The absorption of solar energy by atmospheric convection (sensible heat transport) and evaporation and condensation of water vapor (latent heat transport) powers the water cycle and drives the winds. Sensible heat is Potential energy in the form of thermal energy or Heat. In Thermochemistry, latent heat is the amount of Energy in the form of Heat released or absorbed by a substance during a change of phase The Earth 's Water is always in movement and the water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on above Wind is the flow of Air or other Gases that compose an Atmosphere (including but not limited to the Earth's) [5] Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. [6] The conversion of solar energy into chemical energy via photosynthesis produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production [7]
Solar radiation along with secondary solar resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for over 99.9% of the available flow of renewable energy on Earth. Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was Wave power refers to the Energy of Ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work — including Electricity generation, Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production The Earth can be considered as a physical system with an energy budget that includes all gains of incoming energy and all losses of outgoing energy Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal [8][9] The flows and stores of solar energy in the environment are vast in comparison to human energy needs.
- The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans, and land masses is approximately 3850 zettajoules (ZJ) per year. The joule (written in lower case ˈdʒuːl or /ˈdʒaʊl/ (symbol J) is the SI unit of Energy measuring heat, Electricity [10]
- Global wind energy at 80m is estimated at 2. 25 ZJ per year. [11]
- Photosynthesis captures approximately 3 ZJ per year in biomass. [12]
- Worldwide electricity consumption was approximately 0. 0567 ZJ in 2005. [13]
- Worldwide energy consumption was 0. 487 ZJ in 2005. [14]
The output of a solar panels will vary according to their conversion efficiency and the amount of sunlight received. For example, in the United States and Europe, the average insolation at ground level over an entire year (including nights and periods of cloudy weather) is 7. 5 to 21. 5 MJ/m²/day (2. 09 to 5. 96 kWh/m²/day). [15][16] At present, photovoltaic panels typically convert about 15% of incident sunlight into electricity; therefore, a solar panel, may on average, deliver 1. 12 to 3. 22 MJ/m²/day (0. 31 to 0. 90 kWh/m²/day). [17] By contrast, typical solar water heating systems operating at 60% efficiency will deliver 4. 5 to 12. 9 MJ/m²/day. [18]
Types of technologies
Solar energy technologies use solar radiation for practical ends. Technologies that use secondary solar resources such as biomass, wind, waves, and ocean thermal gradients can be included in a broader description of solar energy but only primary resource applications are discussed here. The qualities and performance of solar technologies vary widely between regions; therefore, solar technologies should be deployed in a way that carefully considers these variations.
Solar technologies such as photovoltaics and water heaters increase the supply of energy and may be characterized as supply side technologies. Technologies such as passive design and shading devices reduce the need for alternate resources and may be characterized as demand side. Optimizing the performance of solar technologies is often a matter of controlling the resource rather than simply maximizing its collection.
Architecture and urban planning
Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. [20] Fully developed solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Feng shui ( ˈfəŋˌʃueɪ fehng-shway in English is an ancient Chinese system of Aesthetics believed to utilize the Laws of both heaven (astronomy and earth (geography [21] Roman bathhouses had large south facing windows. [22] Solar design was largely abandoned in Europe after the Fall of Rome but continued unabated in China where cosmological traditions associate the south with summer, warmth and health. The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. [23]
The elemental features of passive solar architecture are Sun orientation, compact proportion (small surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs), and thermal mass. For the application of passive solar technologies in buildings see Passive solar building design. [20] When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. [20] The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling to tie together solar lighting, heating, and ventilation systems in an integrated solar design package. Daylighting is the practice of placing Windows or other transparent media and reflective surfaces so that during the day natural light provides effective internal illumination Solar heating is the usage of Solar energy to provide process space or Water heating. Solar air conditioning refers to any Air conditioning (cooling system that uses Solar power. Passive solar buildings aim to maintain interior Thermal comfort throughout the sun's daily and annual cycles whilst reducing the requirement for active heating and cooling Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans, and switchable windows can also complement passive design and improve system performance. Active solar technologies are employed to convert Solar energy into usable heat cause air-movement for ventilation or cooling or store heat for future use
Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than the surrounding environment. These higher temperatures are the result of urban materials such as asphalt and concrete that have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than the natural environment. The albedo of an object is the extent to which it diffusely reflects light from the sun Specific heat capacity, also known simply as specific heat, is the measure of the heat energy required to increase the Temperature of a unit quantity A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and plant trees. A hypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °C after planting ten million trees, reroofing five million homes, and painting one-quarter of the roads. Los Angeles (lɑˈsændʒələs los ˈaŋxeles in Spanish) is the largest City in the state of California and the American West [24] The estimated cost of the cool communities program is US$1 billion. [24] Estimated annual benefits are US$170 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and US$360 million in smog related health savings. [24]
Agriculture and horticulture
Agriculture inherently seeks to optimize the capture of solar energy, and thereby plant productivity. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows, and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields. [25][26] While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, there are exceptions which highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age, French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy. The Little Ice Age (LIA was a period of cooling occurring after a warmer era known as the Medieval Warm Period or Medieval Climate Optimum Until July 2008 solar power in the United Kingdom ( photovoltaic Electricity generation) was relatively commercially unattractive due to the moderate level of These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground with a south facing orientation but over time sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun. Nicolas Fatio de Duillier (alternative names are Facio or Faccio) ( 26 February 1664 - 12 May 1753) was a Swiss A solar tracker is a device for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel or concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun [27] Solar energy is also used in many areas of agriculture aside from growing crops. Applications include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks, and drying chicken manure. [28][29]
Greenhouses control the use of solar heat and light to grow specialty crops. A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse or hothouse) is a building where plants are cultivated Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to grow cucumbers year-round for the Roman emperor Tiberius. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman [30] In the 16th century the first modern greenhouses were built in Europe to conserve exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad. [31] Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today where they are used to cultivate fruits, vegetables, and flowers in controlled environments. For example, a large greenhouse complex in Willcox, Arizona grows 106 hectare (262 acre) of tomatoes and cucumbers year-round despite freezing temperatures during the winter. Willcox is a city in Cochise County, Arizona, United States. According to 2006 Census Bureau estimates the population of the city is 3769 Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, The acre is a unit of Area in a number of different systems including the imperial and U [32][33] Plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers. A polytunnel is a tunnel made of Polyethylene used to grow Plants that require a higher temperature and/or humidity than that which is available in the environment In Horticulture, row cover is any material used as a protective covering to shield plants usually Vegetables, primarily from the undesirable effects of cold and wind
Solar lighting
The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The Romans recognized the Right to Light as early as the 6th century and English law echoed these judgments with the Prescription Act of 1832. In English law, ancient lights or a right to Light is a form of Easement that gives a long-standing owner of a building with windows a right The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 [34][35] In the 20th century artificial lighting became the main source of interior illumination and today approximately 22% of the electricity used in the United States is for lighting. Lighting includes both artificial Light sources such as lamps and natural illumination of interiors from Daylight. Solar power in the United States is the largest available energy source for the United States, although in 2006 it accounted for less than 0 [36]
Daylighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior illumination. These systems directly offset energy use by replacing artificial lighting and indirectly offset energy use by reducing the need for air-conditioning. HVAC (pronounced either "H-V-A-C" or occasionally " H-vak " is an Initialism or Acronym that stands for " Heating [37] Although difficult to quantify, the use of natural lighting also offers physiological and psychological benefits compared to artificial lighting. Sunlight, in the broad sense is the total spectrum of the Electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. Lighting includes both artificial Light sources such as lamps and natural illumination of interiors from Daylight. [37] Daylighting design carefully selects window type, size, and orientation and may consider exterior shading devices as well. Individual features include sawtooth roofs, clerestory windows, light shelves, skylights and light tubes. Clerestory (ˈklɪə(rstɔəri lit clear storey, also clearstory, clearstorey, or overstorey) is an architectural term denoting Light tubes or light pipes are used for transporting or distributing natural or artificial light [38] These features may be incorporated into existing structures but are most effective when integrated in a solar design package that accounts for factors such as glare, heat gain, heat loss and time-of-use. Passive solar buildings aim to maintain interior Thermal comfort throughout the sun's daily and annual cycles whilst reducing the requirement for active heating and cooling Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous pollution, is excess or obtrusive Light created mainly by Humans Among other effects When daylighting features are properly implemented they can reduce commercial lighting related energy requirements by 25%. [39] This 1 EJ savings compares to the total annual U. The joule (written in lower case ˈdʒuːl or /ˈdʒaʊl/ (symbol J) is the SI unit of Energy measuring heat, Electricity S. electricity consumption of 8. 6 EJ. [36][39]
Hybrid solar lighting (HSL) is an active solar method of using sunlight to provide illumination. Active solar technologies are employed to convert Solar energy into usable heat cause air-movement for ventilation or cooling or store heat for future use These systems collect sunlight using focusing mirrors that track the Sun and use optical fibers to transmit the light into a building's interior to supplement conventional lighting. A solar tracker is a device for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel or concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun An optical fiber (or fibre) is a Glass or Plastic fiber that carries Light along its length In single-story applications, these systems are able to transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received. [3]
Although daylight saving time is promoted as a way to use sunlight to save energy, recent research is limited and reports contradictory results: several studies report savings, but just as many suggest no effect or even energy penalties, particularly when gasoline consumption is taken into account. Daylight saving time ( DST Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate, and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies. [40]
Solar thermal
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat generation. Solar thermal energy ( STE) is a technology for harnessing Solar energy for Thermal energy ( Heat) [41]
Water heating
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. Approximately 14% of the total energy used in the United States is for water heating. [42] The 0. 25 EJ produced by solar water heaters worldwide in 2006 compares to 15 EJ used annually to heat water in the U. S. [43] When sited in low latitudes (below 40 degrees), solar heating system can provide around 60 to 70% of domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 °C. [44] Worldwide, solar water heaters annually deliver approximately 600 kWh per kW installed. The most common types of solar water heaters are glazed flat plate collectors (34%) and evacuated tube collectors (44%) generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools. [45]
As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is approximately 154 GW. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. [46] China is the world leader in the deployment of solar hot water with 70 GW installed as of 2006 and a long term goal of 210 GW by 2020. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National [43] Israel is the per capita leader in the use of solar hot water with 90% of homes using this technology. [47] In the United States, Canada, and Australia, heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GW as of 2005. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. [48]
Heating, cooling and ventilation
In the United States, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for over 25% (4. HVAC (pronounced either "H-V-A-C" or occasionally " H-vak " is an Initialism or Acronym that stands for " Heating 75 EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10. 1 EJ) of the energy used in residential buildings. [49][39] Solar heating, cooling, and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy.
Thermal mass, in the most general sense, is any material that has the capacity to store heat. In Physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is Energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a difference in Temperature In the context of solar energy, thermal mass materials are used to store heat from the Sun. These materials prevent the overheating of internal environments during the day and radiate their stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement, and water. The proportion and placement of thermal mass should consider several factors such as climate, daylighting, and shading conditions. These materials have historically been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool but they can also be used in cold temperate areas to keep buildings warm. When properly incorporated, thermal mass can passively maintain comfortable temperatures without consuming energy.
A solar chimney (or thermal chimney) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building. An updraft or downdraft ( air pocket) is the vertical movement of Air as a Weather related phenomenon Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses. These systems have been in use since Roman times and remain common in the Middle east.
Deciduous trees and plants can be used to provide heating and cooling. Botany Autumn leaf color. See --> In Botany and Horticulture, deciduous Plants, including When planted on the southern elevation of the building, the leaves can provide shade during the summer while the bare limbs allow light and warmth to pass during the winter. The water content of trees will also help moderate local temperatures.
Process heat
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Concentrating solar technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. A solar pond is large-scale Solar thermal energy collector with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy Salt evaporation ponds are shallow man-made Ponds designed to produce Salt from Sea water. For the cooking apparatus see Solar cooker. For electricity generation see Solar updraft tower. The first commercial process heating project was the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia where a field of 120 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. [50] This system generated 400 kW of electricity, 3 MW of thermal energy in the form of steam, and had a thermal storage system which allowed for peak-load shaving. A food processing facility in Modesto, California uses 5,000 m² of parabolic troughs to provide heat for a manufacturing line. Modesto is the County seat of Stanislaus County in the US state of California. The system is expected to produce 4. 3 GJ per year, which will meet a significant portion of the facility's process heating needs. [51] A prototype Scheffler reflector is currently being constructed in India for use in a solar crematorium. This 50 m² reflector will generate temperatures of 700 °C and displace 200-300 kg of firewood used per cremation. [52]
Evaporation ponds are shallow ponds that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation. Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams. Altogether, evaporation ponds represent one of the largest commercial applications of solar energy in use today. [53]
Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation. A clothes line or washing line is any type of Rope, cord or Twine that has been stretched between two points (e A clotheshorse (often written as two words ie clothes horse) also known as a winterdyke, a clothes maiden, or a drying rack, refers to These devices use wind and sunlight instead of electricity or natural gas. In 2005, electric clothes dryers used 0. 833 EJ and natural gas dryers used 0. 074 EJ. [54] Florida legislation specifically protects the 'right to dry' and similar solar rights legislation has been passed in Utah and Hawaii. Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the The State of Utah (ˈjuːtɔː or) is a western state of the United States. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the [55]
Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 °C and deliver outlet temperatures of 45-60 °C. [56] The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) make them a more cost-effective alternative to glazed collection systems. [56] As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000 m² had been installed worldwide. M^2 redirects here For other uses see M². CM2 redirects here [29] Representatives include an 860 m² collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1300 m² collector in Coimbatore, India used for drying marigolds. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in Coimbatore (கோயம்புத்தூர் also known as Kovai (கோவை is a major industrial city in India and the second largest city in the India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country [29]
Cooking
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. Pasteurization is the process of heating Liquids for the purpose of destroying bacteria, Protozoa, Molds and Yeasts The process was Solar cooking offsets fuel costs, reduces demand for fuel or firewood, and improves air quality by reducing or removing a source of smoke. The simplest type of solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767. Horace-Bénédict de Saussure ( February 17, 1740 - January 22, 1799) was a Swiss aristocrat Physicist and Alpine traveller A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. These cookers can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 50-100 °C. [57][58] Concentrating solar cookers use reflectors to concentrate light on a cooking container. The most common reflector geometries are flat plate, disc and parabolic trough type. These designs reach temperatures up to 315 °C but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun. A solar tracker is a device for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel or concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun [58]
The solar bowl is a unique concentrating technology used by the Solar Kitchen in Auroville, India. Auroville ( City of Dawn) is an "experimental" township in founded in 1968 Viluppuram district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India near India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Contrary to nearly all concentrating technologies that use tracking reflector systems, the solar bowl uses a stationary spherical reflector. This reflector focuses light along a line perpendicular to the sphere's surface and a computer control system moves the receiver to intersect this line. Steam is produced in the solar bowl's receiver at temperatures reaching 150 °C and then used for process heat in the kitchen where 2,000 meals are prepared daily. [59]
A reflector developed by Wolfgang Scheffler in 1986 is used in many solar kitchens. Scheffler reflectors are flexible parabolic dishes that combine aspects of trough and power tower concentrators. Polar tracking is used to follow the Sun's daily course and the curvature of the reflector is adjusted for seasonal variations in the incident angle of sunlight. A solar tracker is a device for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel or concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun These reflectors can reach temperatures of 450-650 °C and have a fixed focal point which improves the ease of cooking. [60] The world's largest Scheffler reflector system in Abu Road, Rajasthan, India is capable of cooking up to 35,000 meals a day. Rājasthān ( Devanāgarī: राजस्थान raːdʒəst̪ʰaːn is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area [61] By early 2008, over 2,000 large Scheffler cookers had been built worldwide. [62]
Desalination and disinfection
Solar distillation is the production of potable water from saline or brackish water using solar energy. The first recorded use was by 16th century Arab alchemists. [63] In 1589, Giambattista della Porta distilled water from crushed leaves. Giambattista della Porta (1535?1 - 1615 also known as Giovanni Battista Della Porta was an Italian scholar Polymath and Playwright who [63] The first large-scale solar distillation project was constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the [64] This 4,700 m² still could produce up to 22,700 L per day and operated for 40 years. The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. [64] Individual still designs include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick and multiple effect. [63] These stills can operate in passive, active or hybrid modes. Double slope stills are the most economic for decentralized domestic purposes while active multiple effect units are more suitable to large-scale applications. [63]
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a method of disinfecting water by exposing water-filled plastic PET bottles to several hours of sunlight. Disinfectants are Antimicrobial agents that are applied to non-living objects to destroy Microorganisms, the process of which is known as disinfection. Uses PET can be semi-rigid to rigid depending on its thickness and is very lightweight [65] Exposure times vary according weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions. [66] SODIS is usually applied at the household level and is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. [67] Over two million people in developing countries use SODIS for their daily drinking water needs. [66]
Solar electricity
Electricity can be generated from the Sun in several ways. Photovoltaics (PV) has been mainly developed for small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to the PV power plant. For large-scale generation, concentrating solar thermal power plants have been more common but new multi-megawatt PV plants have been built recently. Other solar electrical generation technologies are still at the experimental stage.
Photovoltaics
A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light into direct current using the photoelectric effect. A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts Solar energy into Electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Direct current ( DC) is the unidirectional flow of Electric charge. Introduction When a Metallic surface is exposed to Electromagnetic radiation above a certain threshold Frequency, the light is absorbed and Electrons The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in 1883. Charles Fritts was an American Inventor credited with creating the first working Solar cell in 1884 [68] Although these prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery. Selenium (səˈliniəm is a Chemical element with the Atomic number 34 represented by the chemical symbol Se, an atomic mass of 78 Ernst Werner von Siemens (known as Werner von Siemens) ( December 13, 1816 &ndash December 6, 1892) was a German Inventor James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 &ndash 5 November 1879 was a Scottish mathematician and theoretical physicist. [69] Following the fundamental work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954. Russell Ohl (1898 - 1987 was an American engineer who is generally recognized for Patenting the modern Solar cell (US Patent 2402662 "Light sensitive device" Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Calvin Souther Fuller ( May 25, 1902 &ndash October 28, 1994) was a Physical chemist at AT&T Bell Laboratories where he Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 [70] These early solar cells cost 286 $/watt and reached efficiencies of 4. 5-6%. [71]
The earliest significant application of solar cells was as a back-up power source to the Vanguard I satellite. Vanguard 1 was the fourth artificial Satellite launched and is the oldest still orbiting Earth though there is no longer any communication with it [72] The chemical battery aboard the Vanguard was exhausted in a few weeks but the solar cells allowed the satellite to continue transmitting for over a year. [73] The successful operation of solar cells on this mission was duplicated in many other Soviet and American satellites, so that by the late 1960s PV had become the established source of power for satellites. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [74] Photovoltaics went on to play an essential part in the success of early commercial satellites such as Telstar and continue to remain vital to the telecommunications infrastructure today. Telstar was the first active Communications satellite (launched in 1962 and the first Satellite designed to transmit telephone and high-speed data communications [75]
While not a barrier to space applications, the high cost of solar cells limited terrestrial uses throughout the 1960s. This changed in the early 1970s when system prices reached levels that made PV generation competitive in remote areas without grid access. Electric power transmission, a process in the delivery of Electricity to consumers is the bulk transfer of electrical power Early terrestrial uses included powering telecommunication stations, off-shore oil rigs, navigational buoy's, and railroad crossings. An oil platform or oil rig is a large structure used to house workers and machinery needed to drill and/or extract oil and Natural gas through wells [76] These and other off-grid applications have proven very successful and accounted for over half of worldwide installed capacity until 2004. The term off the grid or off-grid refers to living in a self-sufficient manner without reliance on one or more public utilities [43]
The 1973 oil crisis stimulated a rapid rise in the production of PV during the 1970s and early 1980s. The 1973 oil crisis began on October 17 1973 when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC consisting of the Arab members of [77] Economies of scale which resulted from increasing production along with improvements in system performance brought the price of PV down from 100 $/watt in 1971 to 7 $/watt in 1985. [78] Steadily falling oil prices during the early 1980s led to a reduction in funding for photovoltaic R&D and a discontinuation of the tax credits associated with the Energy Tax Act of 1978. The Energy Tax Act (, enacted November 9[[ 978]] is a law passed by the U These factors helped moderate growth to approximately 15% per year from 1984 through 1996. [79]
Since the mid-1990s, leadership in the PV sector has shifted from the U. S. to Japan and Germany. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Between 1992 and 1994 Japan increased R&D funding, established net metering guidelines, and introduced a subsidy program to encourage the installation of residential PV systems. Net metering is an Electricity policy for Consumers who own generally small Renewable energy facilities such as wind or Solar power [80] As a result, PV installations climbed from 31. 2 MW in 1994 to 318 MW in 1999. [81] The developing PV market in Japan raised worldwide production growth to 30% in the late 1990s. [82]
In 1990 Germany introduced Feed-in Tariffs to support the development of renewable energy sources, but it was the revision of the tariff structure as part of the Renewable Energy Sources Act in 2000 that has made Germany the leading PV market worldwide. See also PV financial incentives, Feed-in tariff Feed-in electricity tariffs have been introduced in Germany to encourage the use of new energy technologies Installed PV capacity has risen from 100 MW in 2000 to approximately 4,150 MW at the end of 2007. [83][84] Since adopting a similar feed-in tariff structure in 2004, Spain has become the third largest PV market along with Germany and Japan. France, Italy, South Korea, and the U. S. (primarily California and New Jersey) have also seen rapid growth recently due to various incentive programs and local market conditions. [85] Cumulative worldwide capacity as of year end 2007 is 10. 6 GW and average costs of solar modules range from 3. 75 - 4. 75 $/watt. [86].
Concentrating solar energy
Concentrated sunlight has been used to perform useful tasks from the time of ancient China. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era A legend claims Archimedes used polished shields to concentrate sunlight on the invading Roman fleet and repel them from Syracuse. Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer Syracuse, as a place name may refer to In Italy Syracuse Sicily the Province of Syracuse In the United States In 1866, Auguste Mouchout used a parabolic trough to produce steam for the first solar steam engine. [87] Over the following 50 years, inventors such as John Ericsson and Frank Shuman developed concentrating solar-powered devices for irrigation, refrigeration and locomotion. This article is about John Ericsson the Swedish-American inventor [88] The progeny of these early developments are the concentrating solar thermal power plants of today.
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated light is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. Although a wide range of concentrating technologies exist, the most developed are the solar trough, parabolic dish and solar power tower. Each concentration method is capable of producing high temperatures and correspondingly high thermodynamic efficiencies, but they vary in the way they track the Sun and focus light.
A solar trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The reflector is made to follow the Sun during the daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. A working fluid is heated up to 150-350 °C as it flows through the receiver and is then used as a heat source for a power generation system. The working fluid in a machine is the pressurized gas or liquid which actuates the machine [89] Trough systems are the most developed CSP technology. The SEGS plants in California and Acciona's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada are representatives of this technology. Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS is the largest Solar energy generating facility in the world Nevada Solar One is the third largest Solar power plant in the world with a nominal capacity of 64 MW and maximum capacity of 75 MW as of June 2007 Boulder City is a city in Clark County, Nevada, United States.
A parabolic dish or dish engine system consists of a stand-alone parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned at the reflector's focal point. A parabolic reflector (or dish or mirror) is a Parabola -shaped reflective device used to collect or distribute Energy such as The reflector tracks the Sun along two axes. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 250-700 °C and then used by a Stirling engine for power generation. A Stirling engine is a closed-cycle regenerative Heat engine with a Gaseous working fluid [89] Parabolic dish systems display the highest solar-to-electric efficiency among CSP technologies and their modular nature offers scalability. The Big Dish in Canberra, Australia is a representative of this technology. Canberra ( is the capital city of Australia With a population of over 340000 it is Australia's largest inland City.
A solar power tower consists of an array of dual axis tracking reflectors (heliostats) that concentrate light on a central receiver atop a tower. A Heliostat (from Helios, the Greek word for sun, and stat, as in stationary is a device that tracks the movement of the Sun. The working fluid in the receiver is heated up to 500-1000 °C and then used as a heat source for a power generation or energy storage system. [89] Power towers are less advanced than trough systems but they offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability. The Solar Two in Daggett, California and the Planta Solar 10 in Sanlucar la Mayor, Spain are representatives of this technology. The Solar Projects Solar One, Solar Two and Solar Tres are power plants based on Solar thermal energy in the Mojave Desert and Spain Daggett is an unincorporated town located in San Bernardino County California. Europe's first commercial concentrating PS10 solar power tower is operating near the sunny southern Spanish city of Seville. Sanlúcar la Mayor is a Municipality in Seville, Spain. SimpleSanlucar la Mayor
Experimental solar power
A solar updraft tower (also known as a solar chimney or solar tower) consists of a large greenhouse that funnels into a central tower. The solar updraft tower is a proposed type of renewable-energy Power plant. A solar pond is large-scale Solar thermal energy collector with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy Thermogenerators are devices which convert heat (temperature differences directly into electrical energy As sunlight shines on the greenhouse, the air inside is heated and expands. The expanding air flows toward the central tower where a turbine converts the air flow into electricity. A 50 kW prototype was constructed in Ciudad Real, Spain and operated for eight years before decommissioning in 1989. Ciudad Real ( Spanish for Royal City) is a city in Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. [90]
A solar pond is a pool of salt water (usually 1-2 m deep) that collects and stores solar energy. A solar pond is large-scale Solar thermal energy collector with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International Solar ponds were first proposed by Dr. Rudolph Bloch in 1948 after he came across reports of a lake in Hungary in which the temperature increased with depth. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic This effect was due to salts in the lake's water, which created a "density gradient" that prevented convection currents. Convection in the most general terms refers to the movement of molecules within Fluids (i A prototype was constructed in 1958 on the shores of the Dead Sea near Jerusalem. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the [91] The pond consisted of layers of water that successively increased from a weak salt solution at the top to a high salt solution at the bottom. Brine (lat saltus) is Water saturated or nearly saturated with Salt (NaCl This solar pond was capable of producing temperatures of 90 °C in its bottom layer and had an estimated solar-to-electric efficiency of two percent. Representatives of this technology include a 150 kW pond in Ein Bokek, Israel, and another used for industrial process heat at the University of Texas El Paso. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. [92]
Thermoelectric devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current. Thermogenerators are devices which convert heat (temperature differences directly into electrical energy The solar pioneer Mouchout envisioned using the thermoelectric effect to store solar energy; however, his experiments toward this end never progressed beyond primitive devices. [93] Thermoelectrics reemerged in the Soviet Union during the 1930s. Under the direction of Soviet scientist Abram Ioffe a concentrating system was used to thermoelectricly generate power for a 1 hp engine. Abram Fedorovich Ioffe (Абра́м Фёдорович Ио́ффе &ndash October 14, 1960) was a prominent Soviet / Russian Physicist [94] Thermogenerators were later used in US space program as an energy conversion technology for powering deep space missions such as Cassini, Galileo and Viking. Research in this area is focused on raising the efficiency of these devices from 7-8% up to 15-20%. [95]
Solar chemical
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical changes. Solar chemical refers to a number of possible processes that harness Solar energy by absorbing sunlight in a chemical reaction in a way similar to Photosynthesis These processes offset energy that would otherwise be required from an alternate source and can serve as a method of converting solar energy into a storable and transportable fuel. Solar chemical reactions are diverse but can generically be described as either thermochemical or photochemical. Photochemistry, a sub-discipline of Chemistry, is the study of the interactions between Atoms, small Molecules, and light (or Electromagnetic radiation
Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s. Hydrogen is commonly produced by extraction from Hydrocarbon Fossil fuels via a chemical path Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells several thermochemical processes have also been explored. The seemingly most direct of these routes uses concentrators to split water at high temperatures (2300-2600 °C), but this process has been limited by complexity and low solar-to-hydrogen efficiency (1-2%). [96] A more conventional approach uses process heat from solar concentrator to drive the steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield. Steam reforming (SR hydrogen reforming or catalytic oxidation, is a method of producing Hydrogen from Hydrocarbons. Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present yet another avenue of hydrogen production. The Solzinc process under development at the Weitzman Institute is one such method. The Weizmann Institute of Science (מכון ויצמן למדע known as Machon Weizmann is a university and research institute in Rehovot, Israel. This process uses a 1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide (ZnO) at temperatures above 1200 °C. This initial reaction produces pure zinc which can subsequently be reacted with water to produce hydrogen. [97]
Sandia's Sunshine to Petrol (S2P) technology uses the high temperatures generated by concentrating sunlight along with a zirconia/ferrite catalyst to break down atmospheric carbon dioxide into oxygen and carbon monoxide. Sandia National Laboratories which is managed and operated by the Sandia Corporation (a wholly owned subsidiary of Lockheed Martin Corporation) is a major United Zirconia redirects here For the Sailor Moon character see Dead Moon Circus. The CO may then be used to synthesize fuels such as methanol, gasoline and jet fuel. [98][99]
Photoelectrochemical cells or PECs consists of a semiconductor, typically titanium dioxide or related titanates, immersed in an electrolyte. When the semiconductor is illuminated an electrical potential develops. As the name implies, there are two types of photoelectrochemical cells: photoelectric cells that convert light into electricity and photochemical cells that use light to drive chemical reactions such as electrolysis. In chemistry and manufacturing electrolysis is a method of separating chemically bonded elements and compounds by passing an Electric current [100]
A photogalvanic device is a type of battery in which the cell solution (or equivalent) forms energy rich chemical intermediates when illuminated. These chemical intermediates then react at the electrodes to produce an electric potential. The ferric-thionine chemical cell is an example of this technology. [101]
Solar mechanical
Solar mechanical technologies use sunlight to produce a mechanical effect. There are many such technologies covered in the solar thermal category but the devices listed here are notable for having both passive solar and mechanical characteristics. For the application of passive solar technologies in buildings see Passive solar building design.
A light mill or Crookes radiometer consists of a glass bulb containing a set of vanes mounted on a spindle. The Crookes radiometer, also known as the light mill, consists of an airtight glass bulb containing a partial Vacuum. Each vane has a dark side and a white side. When illuminated, the dark side becomes warm due to absorbing light but the white side reflects light and stays cool. The vanes rotate due to the motion of gases from the hot to the cool side of each vane.
Passive solar tracking devices use imbalances caused by the movement of a low boiling point fluid to respond to the movement of the Sun. A solar tracker is a device for orienting a solar photovoltaic panel or concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun Tracking PV systems can generally produce 25% more electricity than fixed tilt PV systems. [102] Shading systems that respond to the movement of the Sun can also be used in buildings to maximize natural lighting during winter, lessen summer glare, and reduce cooling loads associated with unwanted solar gain. Solar gain (also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain) refers to the increase in Temperature in a space object or structure that results from [103]
Solar vehicles
Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The center of this development is the World Solar Challenge, a biannual solar-powered car race in which teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. The World Solar Challenge is a solar-powered car race which covers 3021 km (1877 miles through the Australian Outback, from Darwin The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand A mile is a unit of Length, usually used to measure Distance, in a number of different systems including Imperial units United States Adelaide is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of South Australia, and is the fifth largest city in Australia with a In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph). (For the South African airport with IATA code "KMH" see Johan Pienaar Airport. [104] The 2007 race included a new challenge class using cars with an upright seating position and which, with little modification, could be a practical proposition for sustainable transport. The winning car averaged 90. 87 kilometres per hour (56. 46 mph). The North American Solar Challenge (formerly Sunrayce USA) and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles. The North American Solar Challenge (NASC is a solar car race across the United States and Canada The South African Solar Challenge is an Alternative fuel vehicle Auto racing challenge in South Africa, with classes for Hybrid vehicles
In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland [105] By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively. [106] In 1996, Kenichi Horie made the first solar powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the sun21 catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006/2007. is a Japanese solo yachtsman. Horie first came to prominence when he became the first person to sail solo across the Pacific Ocean in 1962 [107] Plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2009 are indicative of the progress solar boats have made.
In 1974, the unmanned Sunrise II inaugurated the era of solar flight. In 1980, the Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. The Gossamer Albatross was a Human-powered aircraft built by American Aeronautical engineer Dr This was quickly followed by the Solar Challenger which demonstrated a more airworthy design with its crossing of the English Channel in July, 1981. Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles with the Pathfinder (1997), Pathfinder Plus (1998) and Centurion (1998) each building on one another. NASA's Pathfinder, Pathfinder Plus, Centurion and Helios Prototype were an evolutionary series of solar - and Fuel cell System [108] These designs culminated in the Helios which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft of 29,524 metres (96,860 ft) in 2001. NASA's Pathfinder, Pathfinder Plus, Centurion and Helios Prototype were an evolutionary series of solar - and Fuel cell System The Zephyr, developed by BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record breaking solar aircraft. Zephyr is a lightweight solar-powered plane engineered by the United Kingdom defence firm QinetiQ. This aircraft made a record setting 54 hours duration flight in 2007, and month long duration flights are envisioned by 2010. [109]
A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. A solar balloon or solar airship, is a balloon that is filled with air and gains buoyancy because of the air inside the balloon gets heated because of the sun's radiation black As sunlight shines on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands, causing an upward buoyancy force, much like an artificially-heated hot air balloon. In Physics, buoyancy ( BrE IPA: /ˈbɔɪənsi/ is the upward Force on an object produced by the surrounding liquid or gas in which it is The hot air balloon is the oldest successful human-carrying Flight technology Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is rather high.
Solar sails are a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using large membrane mirrors. Solar sails (also called light sails or photon sails, especially when they use Light sources other than the Sun) are a proposed form of Radiation pressure is small and decreases by the square of the distance from the Sun, but unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel. Although the thrust is small compared to rockets, it continues as long as the Sun shines and the sail is deployed and in the frictionless vacuum of space significant speeds can eventually be achieved. [110]
Thermal and electrical storage
Storage is an important issue in the development of solar energy because modern energy systems usually assume continuous availability of energy. Solar energy is not available at night, and the performance of solar power systems is affected by unpredictable weather patterns; therefore, a storage medium or back-up power systems must be used.
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or seasonal durations. A seasonal thermal store (also known as a seasonal heat store or inter-seasonal thermal store) is a store designed to retain heat deposited during the hot summer months Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Specific heat capacity, also known simply as specific heat, is the measure of the heat energy required to increase the Temperature of a unit quantity Well designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time-of-use to off-peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements. Peak demand is used to refer to a historically high point in the sales record of a particular product.
Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective storage medium because they are non-flammable, nontoxic, low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity, and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. A molten salt storage system consists of a salt loop connected to an insulated storage tank. During the heating cycle, the salt mixture is heated from an initial temperature of 290 °C up to 565 °C. During the power cycle, the salt is used to make steam for a thermal power station. A thermal power station is a Power plant in which the prime mover is Steam driven The Solar Two used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1. The Solar Projects Solar One, Solar Two and Solar Tres are power plants based on Solar thermal energy in the Mojave Desert and Spain 44 TJ in its 68 m³ storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99%. The joule (written in lower case ˈdʒuːl or /ˈdʒaʊl/ (symbol J) is the SI unit of Energy measuring heat, Electricity CM3 redirects here If you were looking for the 3rd game in the Cooking Mama series abbreviated as CM3 see here. [111]
A Paraffin wax thermal storage system consists of a solar hot water loop connected to a paraffin wax tank. In chemistry paraffin is the common name for the Alkane Hydrocarbons with the general formula C n H2 n +2 During the storage cycle, hot water flows through the storage tank melting the paraffin. The enthalpy of fusion for paraffin is 210-230 kJ/kg. The standard Enthalpy of fusion (symbol \Delta{}H_{fus} also known as the heat of fusion or specific melting heat, is the amount of During the heating cycle, stored heat is extracted from the tank as the wax resolidifies. These systems heat air and water to 64 °C and can reduce conventional energy use by 50 to 70%. [112][113]
Eutectic salts such as Glauber's salt also can be employed in thermal storage systems. Sodium sulfate is the Sodium salt of Sulfuric acid Glauber's salt is inexpensive and readily available. It can store 347 kJ/kg and deliver heat at 64 °C. The "Dover House" (in Dover, Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber's salt heating system in 1948. Dover is a town in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. [114]
Rechargeable batteries can be used to store excess electricity from a photovoltaic system. See also Rechargeable electricity storage system A rechargeable battery, also known as a storage battery, is a group of two or more secondary Lead acid batteries are the most common type of battery associated with photovoltaic systems because they are cheap and available. Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French Physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of Rechargeable battery. Batteries used in off-grid applications should be sized for three to five days of capacity. [115]
Excess electricity can also be fed into the transmission grid. A grid-tied electrical system, also called Tied to grid or Grid tie system is a semi-autonomous electrical generation or Grid energy storage system which links to the mains Net metering programs give photovoltaic system owners a credit for the electricity they deliver to the grid. Net metering is an Electricity policy for Consumers who own generally small Renewable energy facilities such as wind or Solar power This credit is used to offset electricity provided from the grid when the photovoltaic system cannot meet demand, effectively acting as a giant battery. For large scale use of renewable energy the most practical storage is hydro-storage, although V2G (Vehicle to Grid) is also being developed, which will become viable when more plug-in hybrids and electric cars are in use. Hydro-storage redirects here For storage of water for other purposes see Reservoir. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G describes a system in which power can be sold to the electrical power grid by an electric-drive motor vehicle that is connected to the grid when it is not A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV) is a Hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an Electric power An electric car is a type of alternative fuel Car that utilizes Electric motors and Motor controllers instead of an Internal combustion engine
Development, deployment and economics
Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. See also Solar energy Deployment of solar power to energy grids depends largely upon local conditions and requirements The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. The first oil well in 1859 accelerated the energy transition so that by the mid-1880s the U. West Texas PumpjackJPG|thumb|right|300px|This Pumpjack located south of Midland TX is a common sight in West Texas. S. consumption of fossil fuels surpassed the consumption of wood which had traditionally been the main energy resource. [116] The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce but solar development stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit [117]
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies. The 1973 oil crisis began on October 17 1973 when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC consisting of the Arab members of The 1979 (or second) oil crisis in the United States occurred in the wake of the Iranian Revolution. Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the USA (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE). The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL located in Golden Colorado, as part of the U New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization ( Japanese: 新エネルギー・産業技術総合開発機構 also known as NEDO is an Independent Strong demand for solar cells from German farmers and homeowners resulted in another record year for the installation of solar Photovoltaic (PV systems in the country according to data The Fraunhofer Society (Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft is a German research organization with 58 institutes spread throughout Germany each focusing on different fields of applied [118][119]
Between 1970 and 1983, photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but dropping oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984 through 1996. Since 1997, PV development has accelerated due to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns (see Kyoto Protocol), and the improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies. The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing Greenhouse gases in an effort Incentives first in Japan and then Germany have resulted in increased production and has reduced prices. Photovoltaic electricity is now competitive with conventional electricity rates in many locations. Particularly due to sale of renewable energy credits and other incentives, Nellis Air Force Base is obtaining photovoltaic power for about 2. Renewable Energy Certificates ( RECs) also known as Green tags, Renewable Energy Credits, or Tradable Renewable Certificates ( TRC s Nellis Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located in Clark County, Nevada. 2 ¢/kWh and grid power for 9 ¢/kWh. [120] Typical payback periods for installing photovoltaics are 15 to 25 years. [121] Photovoltaic production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000 and installed capacity reached 10. 6 GW at the end of 2007. [43] By 2006 more polysilicon was used for photovoltaics than for computer chips.
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s. [122] These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels. [123] As with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20% per year since 1999. [46] Estimated payback time for solar water heaters is about 9 years. [124] Although generally underestimated, solar water heating is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007. [46]
Commercial concentrating solar power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s. CSP plants such as SEGS project in the United States have a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of 12-14 cents/kWh. Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS is the largest Solar energy generating facility in the world [125] The 11 MW PS10 power tower in Spain, completed in late 2005, is Europe's first commercial CSP system and a total capacity of 300 MW is expected to be installed in the same area by 2013. Europe's first commercial concentrating PS10 solar power tower is operating near the sunny southern Spanish city of Seville. [126]
See also
Notes
- ^ The volume of each cube represents the amount of energy available and consumed. Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance. Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world a world in which emissions Desertec is the name of a proposed large scale solar power project The Drake Landing Solar Community (DLSC is a Planned community area powered solely by using the light of the Sun ( Solar power) and energy efficient technology Energy storage is the storing of some form of Energy that can be drawn upon at a later time to perform some useful operation Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct Irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic Greasestock is an American event held yearly in Yorktown Heights, New York. Green energy is a term used to describe sources of energy that are considered to be Environmentally friendly and non- polluting. This is a list of conservation topics. It is a list of articles relating to Conservation biology and conservation of the Natural environment. This is a list of notable renewable energy organizations: Associations Renewable energy - American Council on Renewable Energy Renewable energy This is a list of power stations that are based on Solar thermal energy technology Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity and many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built mainly in Europe Renewable heat is an application of Renewable energy. It refers to the renewable generation of heat rather than electrical power A solar lamp is a portable device composed of an incandescent lamp or LED, a Solar panel and a small Rechargeable battery. A solar power satellite, or SPS or Powersat, as originally proposed would be a Satellite built in High Earth orbit that uses Microwave Soil Solarization is an environmentally-friendly method of using Solar power for controlling disease agents in the soil by Mulching the soil usually with a transparent The Timeline of Solar cells begins in the 1800s when it is observed that the presence of sunlight is capable of generating usable electrical energy Thin films are thin material layers ranging from fractions of a Nanometre to several Micrometres in thickness A Trombe wall is a sun-facing Wall built from material that can act as a Thermal mass (such as stone, Metal, Concrete, Adobe A wafer is a thin slice of Semiconductor material such as a Silicon crystal used in the fabrication of Integrated circuit and other microdevices The amount of solar energy available to the earth in one hour exceeds global energy demand for a year. Energy and Inspiration: Inventing the Future in Time
- ^ a b c Smil (1991) p. 240
- ^ a b Muhs, Jeff. Design and Analysis of Hybrid Solar Lighting and Full-Spectrum Solar Energy Systems. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Natural Forcing of the Climate System. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Radiation Budget. NASA Langley Research Center (2006-10-17). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 539 BC - King Cyrus The Great of Persia marches into the city of Babylon, releasing the Jews from almost Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Somerville, Richard. Historical Overview of Climate Change Science. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Vermass, Wim. An Introduction to Photosynthesis and Its Applications. Arizona State University. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Scheer (2002), p. 8
- ^ Plambeck, James. Energy on a Planetary Basis. University of Alberta. Retrieved on 2008-05-21. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily.
- ^ Smil (2006), p. 12
- ^ Archer, Cristina. Evaluation of Global Wind Power. Stanford. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, proclaims himself Roman Emperor, entering
- ^ Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved on 2008-05-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors.
- ^ World Total Net Electricity Consumption, 1980-2005. Energy Information Administration. The United States Energy Information Administration (EIA created by Congress in 1977, is the independent statistical agency within the U Retrieved on 2008-05-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors.
- ^ World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980-2004. Energy Information Administration. The United States Energy Information Administration (EIA created by Congress in 1977, is the independent statistical agency within the U Retrieved on 2008-05-17. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1521 - Edward Stafford 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for Treason.
- ^ Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and Analysis Tools - Solar Maps. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ What is Insolation? retrieved 26 May 2008
- ^ PV Solar Radiation (Flat Plate, Facing South, Latitude Tilt). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Schittich (2003), p. 166
- ^ Darmstadt University of Technology solar decathlon home design. Darmstadt University of Technology. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
- ^ a b c Schittich (2003), p. 14
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 4,159
- ^ The History of Solar. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 159
- ^ a b c Rosenfeld, Arthur; Lloyd, Alan. Painting the Town White -- and Green. Heat Island Group. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Charles L. Deichman. Plant arrangement for improving crop yields.. Patent Storm. Retrieved on 2007-11-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 498 - Kofi Aseidu- After the death of Anastasius II, Symmachus is elected Pope in the Lateran
- ^ Kaul (2005), p. 169–174
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 42–46
- ^ Bénard (1981), p. 347
- ^ a b c Leon (2006), p. 62
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 19
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 41
- ^ US: Record year in contributions for Eurofresh Farms. FreshPlaza. Retrieved on 2008-05-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1264 - Battle of Lewes: Henry III of England is captured in France making Simon de Montfort the
- ^ WILLCOX, ARIZONA (029334) - Period of Record Monthly Climate Summary. Western Regional Climate Center. Retrieved on 2008-06-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes.
- ^ Prescription Act (1872 Chapter 71 2 and 3 Will 4). Office of the Public Sector Information. Retrieved on 2008-05-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.
- ^ Noyes, WM. "The Law of Light", New York Times, 1860-03-31. Retrieved on 2008-05-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine.
- ^ a b Lighting Research and Development. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2007-11-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration
- ^ a b Tzempelikos (2007), p. 369
- ^ Daylighting. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ a b c Apte, J. et al. . Future Advanced Windows for Zero-Energy Homes. ASHRAE. Retrieved on 2008-04-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 193 - Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans)
- ^ Myriam B. C. Aries; Guy R. Newsham (2008). "Effect of daylight saving time on lighting energy use: a literature review". Energy Policy 36 (6): 1858–1866. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Solar Energy Technologies and Applications. Canadian Renewable Energy Network. Retrieved on 2007-10-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 202 BC - Hannibal Barca, leader of the Carthaginians, is defeated by the Roman legions under Scipio Africanus
- ^ R&D on Heating, Cooling, and Commercial Refrigeration. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2007-11-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration
- ^ a b c d Renewables 2007 Global Status Report. Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved on 2008-04-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule
- ^ Renewables for Heating and Cooling. International Energy Agency. Retrieved on 2008-05-26. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place
- ^ Weiss, Werner. Solar Heat Worldwide (Markets and Contributions to the Energy Supply 2005). International Energy Agency. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
- ^ a b c Weiss, Werner. Solar Heat Worldwide - Markets and Contribution to the Energy Supply 2006. International Energy Agency. Retrieved on 2008-06-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits
- ^ Del Chiaro, Bernadette. Solar Water Heating (How California Can Reduce Its Dependence on Natural Gas). Environment California Research and Policy Center. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Philibert, Cédric. The Present and Future use of Solar Thermal Energy as a Primary Source of Energy. International Energy Agency. Retrieved on 2008-05-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John
- ^ Energy Consumption Characteristics of Commercial Building HVAC Systems 1–6, 2-1. United States Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2008-04-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 193 - Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans)
- ^ Poche, A. . Solar total energy project at Shenandoah, Georgia system design. SAO/NASA ADS Physics Abstract Service. Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held
- ^ "Frito-Lay solar system puts the sun in SunChips, takes advantage of renewable energy", The Modesto Bee. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
- ^ DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLAR CREMATORIUM. Solare Brüecke. Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held
- ^ Bartlett (1998), p. 393–394
- ^ 2005 U.S. Buildings Energy End-Use Splits, by Fuel Type (Quadrillion Btu). Energy Information Association. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed
- ^ Thomson-Philbrook, Julia. RIGHT TO DRY LEGISLATION IN NEW ENGLAND AND OTHER STATES. Connecticut General Assembly. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed
- ^ a b Solar Buildings (Transpired Air Collectors - Ventilation Preheating). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 54–59
- ^ a b Design of Solar Cookers. Arizona Solar Center. Retrieved on 2007-09-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the
- ^ The Solar Bowl. Auroville Universal Township. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
- ^ Scheffler-Reflector. Solare Bruecke. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
- ^ Solar Steam Cooking System. Gadhia Solar. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
- ^ Solar Kitchens. Reboot Now. Retrieved on 2008-05-10. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England.
- ^ a b c d Tiwari (2003), p. 368-371
- ^ a b Daniels (1964), p. 6
- ^ SODIS solar water disinfection. SANDEC. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ a b Household Water Treatment Options in Developing Countries: Solar Disinfection (SODIS). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved on 2008-05-13. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola.
- ^ Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage. World Health Organization. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ Science Engineering and Technology timeline
- ^ Perlin (1999), p. 18-20
- ^ Perlin (1999), p. 29
- ^ Perlin (1999), p. 29-30,38
- ^ Perlin (1999), p. 45
- ^ Perlin (1999), p. 45-46
- ^ Perlin (1999), p. 49-50
- ^ Perlin (1999), p. 49-50,190
- ^ Perlin (1999), p. 57-85
- ^ Photovoltaic Milestones. Energy Information Agency - DOE. Retrieved on 2008-05-20. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held
- ^ Perlin (1999), p. 50,118
- ^ World Photovoltaic Annual Production, 1971-2003. Earth Policy Institute. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
- ^ Policies to Promote Non-hydro Renewable Energy in the United States and Selected Countries. Energy Information Agency - DOE. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
- ^ Foster, Robert. JAPAN PHOTOVOLTAICS MARKET OVERVIEW. DOE. Retrieved on 2008-06-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem
- ^ Handleman, Clayton. An Experience Curve Based Model for the Projection of PV Module Costs and Its Policy Implications. Heliotronic. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
- ^ Renewable energy sources in figures - national and international development. Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (Germany). Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the
- ^ MARKETBUZZ 2008: ANNUAL WORLD SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC INDUSTRY REPORT. solarbuzz. Retrieved on 2008-06-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem
- ^ Trends in Photovoltaic Applications - Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2006. International Energy Agency. Retrieved on 2008-06-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem
- ^ Photovoltaic Module Survey Retail Prices (DEC 2001 - JUN 2008). solarbuzz. Retrieved on 2008-06-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 68
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 60–100
- ^ a b c Martin and Goswami (2005), p. 45
- ^ Mills (2004), p. 19–31
- ^ Halacy (1973), p. 181
- ^ Tabor (1990), p. 247
- ^ Perlin and Butti (1981), p. 73
- ^ Halacy (1973), p. 76
- ^ Tritt (2008), p. 366–368
- ^ Agrafiotis (2005), p. 409
- ^ ZINC POWDER WILL DRIVE YOUR HYDROGEN CAR. Isracast. Retrieved on 2008-04-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule
- ^ Sandia’s Sunshine to Petrol project seeks fuel from thin air. Sandia Corporation. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ Sandia Applying Solar Thermochemical Hydrogen Technology to Recycling CO2 to Liquid Fuels. Green Car Congress. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
- ^ Bolton (1977), p. 11
- ^ Bolton (1977), p. 16, 119
- ^ Passive Solar Tracker for Photovoltaic Modules. e-Marine, Inc. . Retrieved on 2007-11-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani
- ^ Large louvre blades (passive). Schüco. Retrieved on 2007-11-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani
- ^ History of World Solar Challenge. Panasonic World Solar Challenge. Retrieved on 2007-09-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the
- ^ Electrical Review Vol 201 No 7 12 August 1977
- ^ Schmidt, Theodor. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid Also 1977 (album by Ash. Year 1977 ( MCMLXXVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays Solar Ships for the new Millennium. TO Engineering. Retrieved on 2007-09-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the
- ^ The sun21 completes the first transatlantic crossing with a solar powered boat. Transatlantic 21. Retrieved on 2007-09-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the
- ^ Solar-Power Research and Dryden. NASA. Retrieved on 2008-04-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule
- ^ The NASA ERAST HALE UAV Program. Greg Goebel. Retrieved on 2008-04-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule
- ^ Breakthrough In Solar Sail Technology. Space. com. Retrieved on 2007-11-26. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 43 BC - The Second Triumvirate alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus ("Octavian" later "Caesar Augustus"
- ^ Advantages of Using Molten Salt. Sandia National Laboratory. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Romanowicz, Goska. "Heat 'batteries' dramatically cut energy use", edie newsroom, 2006-05-19. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Gok, Özgül. Stabilization of Glauber's Salt for Latent Heat Storage. Çukurova University. Retrieved on 2007-09-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 212–214
- ^ Batteries. DC Power Systems. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
- ^ Energy in the United States: 1635-2000. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2008-06-10. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 63,77,101
- ^ Chronicle of Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft. Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft. Retrieved on 2007-11-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani
- ^ Bellis, Mary. History: Photovoltaics Timeline. About. com. Retrieved on 2007-11-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani
- ^ Nellis Air Force Base Solar Power System
- ^ Supporting Solar Photovoltaic Electricity - An Argument for Feed-in Tariffs. European Phtovoltaic Industry Association. Retrieved on 2008-06-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 117
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 139
- ^ Solar Water Heating - Well-Proven Technology Pays Off in Several Situations. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2008-06-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits
- ^ DOE Concentrating Solar Power 2007 Funding Opportunity Project Prospectus. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2008-06-12. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1381 - Peasants' Revolt: in England, rebels arrive at Blackheath.
- ^ "First EU Commercial Concentrating Solar Power Tower Opens in Spain", Environment News Service. Retrieved on 2008-06-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits
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- Perlin, John (1999). From Space to Earth (The Story of Solar Electricity). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674010132.
- Scheer, Hermann (2002). The Solar Economy (Renewable Energy for a Sustainable Global Future). Earthscan Publications Ltd. ISBN 1844070751.
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External links
- Energy transitions past and future, Encyclopedia of Earth
- Energy Education a2z from the Energy Education Foundation
- Solar calculator
- Build It Solar, The Renewable Energy site for Do-It-Yourselfers
- NASA photovoltaic info
Dictionary
solar energy
-noun
- Energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation emitted from the Sun; especially that part of this energy that is converted into usable thermal or electrical energy by man.
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