Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Acid rain is Rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually Acidic It has harmful effects on plants aquatic animals and infastructure The Air Quality Index ( AQI) is a standardized indicator of the Air Quality in a given location Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. The haloalkanes (also known as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of Chemical compounds consisting of Alkanes such as Methane Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct Irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky Indoor Air Quality (IAQ deals with the content of interior air that could affect health and comfort of building occupants Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related observations a slow steady decline of about 4 percent per decade in the total amount of Ozone in Earth's Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas Smog is a kind of Air pollution; the word "smog" is a Portmanteau of Smoke and Fog. Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Eutrophication is an increase in chemical Nutrients -- typically compounds containing Nitrogen or Phosphorus -- in an Ecosystem, and may occur For other uses of the term "hypoxia" see Hypoxia. Hypoxia or oxygen depletion is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environments Marine pollution is the harmful effect caused by the entry into the ocean of chemicals particles, or Plastic debris. For the fictional character see Oil Slick (Transformers. An oil spill is the release of a Liquid Petroleum Hydrocarbon into Ship pollution is the pollution of air and Water by Shipping. Surface runoff is a term used to describe when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess Water, from Rain, Snowmelt, or other sources flows Thermal pollution is a Temperature change in natural bodies of water caused by human influence Distinguish from Wastwater (a lake in the Lake District in northwest England Waterborne diseases are caused by Pathogenic Microorganisms which are directly transmitted when contaminated Drinking water is consumed Water quality is the physical chemical and biological characteristics of Water in relationship to a set of standards Water stagnation occurs when Water stops flowing Stagnant water can be a major Environmental hazard. Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses Microorganisms Fungi, green plants or their Enzymes to return the natural environment altered A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Radioactive contamination is the uncontrolled distribution of radioactive material in a given environment Actinides in the environment refer to the sources environmental behaviour and effects of Actinides in the environment. Environmental Radioactivity is the study of radioactive materials in the Human environment. Fission products are the atomic fragments left after a large nucleus fissions. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion Plutonium in the environment is an article which is part of the Actinides in the environment series Radiation poisoning, also called " radiation sickness " or a " creeping dose " is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to This is a subpage of Environmental radioactivity. Radium Radium in quack medicine See the story of Eben Byers for details of one very nasty case Uranium in the environment, this page is about the Science of Uranium in the environment and in animals (including humans Introduced species|Weed Invasive species is a phrase with several definitions Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous pollution, is excess or obtrusive Light created mainly by Humans Among other effects Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human- or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life Radio spectrum pollution is the straying of waves in the radio and Electromagnetic spectrums outside their allocations that cause problems for some activities Visual pollution is the term given to unattractive or unnatural (human-made visual elements of a vista a Landscape, or any other thing that a person might not want to For other similarly-named agreements see Montreal Convention (disambiguation. Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes, opened for signature on The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing Greenhouse gases in an effort The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLRTAP, is intended to protect the human environment against Air This is a list of environmental organizations. See also Environmental organization Intergovernmental organizations International organizations The Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra) is the United Kingdom government department responsible for environmental protection The Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW is a worldwide system established by the World Meteorological Organization a United Nations agency to monitor trends in the Greenpeace, originally known as the Greenpeace Foundation, was founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada in 1972 The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS are standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency that apply for outdoor Air Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. An Underground Storage Tank (UST in United States environmental law, is a tank and any underground piping connected to the tank that has at least 10 percent of its A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. For other uses see Water treatment and Land reclamation. A landfill, also known as a dump (and historically as The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. In Organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an Organic compound consisting entirely of Hydrogen and Carbon. A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.
The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, both of direct contact and from secondary contamination of water supplies[1]. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts of geology, hydrology, chemistry and computer modeling skills. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a Computer program, or network of computers that attempts to simulate an
It is in North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land is most well known, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem; this however may well be just the tip of the iceberg with developing countries very likely to be the next generation of new soil contamination cases. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe '
The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The State Environmental Protection Administration believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. The Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China ( Chinese: 中华人民共和国环境保护部 formerly State Environmental Protection Administration According to a scientific sampling, 150 million mi (100,000 square kilometres) of China’s cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further 32. 5 million mi (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2 million mi (1,300 square kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of China’s cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan (US$2. 57 billion). [2].
The United States, while having some of the most widespread soil contamination, has actually been a leader in defining and implementing standards for cleanup[3]. Other industrialized countries have a large number of contaminated sites, but lag the U. S. in executing remediation. Developing countries may be leading in the next generation of new soil contamination cases.
Each year in the U. S. , thousands of sites complete soil contamination cleanup, some by using microbes that “eat up” toxic chemicals in soil[4], many others by simple excavation and others by more expensive high-tech soil vapor extraction or air stripping. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Air stripping is the transferring of volatile components of a liquid into an air stream At the same time, efforts proceed worldwide in creating and identifying new sites of soil contamination, particularly in industrial countries other than the U. S. , and in developing countries which lack the money and the technology to adequately protect soil resources.
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Microanalysis of soil contamination
To understand the fundamental nature of soil contamination, it is necessary to envision the variety of mechanisms for pollutants to become entrained in soil. Soil particulates may be composed of a gamut of organic and inorganic chemicals with variations in cation exchange capacity, buffering capacity, and redox poise. Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation Inorganic chemistry is the branch of Chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of Inorganic compounds This field covers all Chemical compounds In Soil science, cation exchange capacity (CEC is the capacity of a Soil for Ion exchange of positively charged ions between the soil and the Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state [5] For example, at the extremes, one has a sand component, a coarse grained, inert, and totally inorganic substance; whereas peat soils are dominated by a fine organic material, made of decomposing organic material and highly active. Sand is a naturally occurring Granular material composed of finely divided rock and Mineral particles Peat is an accumulation of partially Decayed Vegetation matter. Most soils are mixtures of soil subtypes and thus have quite complex characteristics. There is also a great diversity of soil porosity, ranging from gravels to sands to silt to clay (in increasing order of porosity), pore size, and pore tortuosity (both in decreasing order). Porosity is a measure of the void spaces in a material and is measured as a fraction between 0–1 or as a Percentage between 0–100% Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Tortuosity is a property of Curve being tortuous (twisted having many turns Finally there is a wide spectrum of chemical bonding or adhesion characteristics: each contaminant has a different interaction or bonding mechanism with a given soil type. A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between Atoms and Molecules and which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic
On balance, some contaminants may literally drain through soils such as sand and gravel and move to other soils or deeper aquifers, while polar or organic chemicals discharged into a clay soil will have a very high adsorption. Gravel is rock that is of a specific Particle size range In Geology, gravel is any loose rock that is larger than two millimeters (2mm An aquifer is an underground layer of Water -bearing Permeable rock or unconsolidated materials ( Gravel, Sand, Silt, or Clay Adsorption is a process that occurs when a gas or liquid Solute accumulates on the surface of a solid or a liquid (adsorbent forming a film of molecules or atoms (the Thus most soil contamination is the result of pollutants adhering to the soil particle surface, or lodging in interstices of a soil matrix. Clearly the equilibrium reached is a dynamic one, where new pollutants may lodge on new soil particles and the action of groundwater movement may over time transport some of the soil contaminants to other locations or depths. A dynamic equilibrium occurs when two opposing Processes proceed at the same rate Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations
Soil contamination results when hazardous substances are either spilled or buried directly in the soil or migrate to the soil from a spill that has occurred elsewhere. For example, soil can become contaminated when small particles containing hazardous substances are released from a smokestack and are deposited on the surrounding soil as they fall out of the air. Another source of soil contamination could be water that washes contamination from an area containing hazardous substances and deposits the contamination in the soil as it flows over or through it.
Health effects
The major concern is that there are many sensitive land uses where people are in direct contact with soils such as residences, parks, schools and playgrounds. Other contact mechanisms include contamination of drinking water or inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized. There is a very large set of health consequences from exposure to soil contamination depending on pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chromium and obsolete pesticide formulations are carcinogenic to populations. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Lead is especially hazardous to young children, in which group there is a high risk of developmental damage to the brain,while to all populations kidney damage is a risk.
Chronic exposure to at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher incidence of leukemia. Obsolete pesticides such as mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage, some irreversible; cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Organophosphates and carbamates can induce a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache,nausea,fatigue(physical),eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals.
Ecosystem effects
Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems[6]. There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident in a given soil environment. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and potentially species extinction. Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. In Biology and Ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a Species or group of taxa.
Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, most commonly to reduce crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the earth's soil mantle from erosion phenomena. Soil conservation is set of management strategies for prevention of Soil being eroded from the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page
Regulatory framework
United States of America
Until about 1970 there was little widespread awareness of the worldwide scope of soil contamination or its health risks. In fact, areas of concern were often viewed as unusual or isolated incidents. Since then, the U. S. has established guidelines for handling hazardous waste and the cleanup of soil pollution. In 1980 the U. S. Superfund/CERCLA established strict rules on legal liability for soil contamination. Not only did CERCLA stimulate identification and cleanup of thousands of sites, but it raised awareness of property buyers and sellers to make soil pollution a focal issue of land use and management practices.
While estimates of remaining soil cleanup in the U. S. may exceed 200,000 sites, in other industrialized countries there is a lag of identification and cleanup functions. Even though their use of chemicals is lower than industrialized countries, often their controls and regulatory framework is quite weak. For example, some persistent pesticides that have been banned in the U. S. are in widespread uncontrolled use in developing countries. It is worth noting that the cost of cleaning up a soil contaminated site can range from as little as about $10,000 for a small spill, which can be simply excavated, to millions of dollars for a widespread event, especially for a chemical that is very mobile such as perchloroethylene.
China
China, an economy that regularly records double digit annual economic growth, has little or no legislation to protect the environment. Currently, given the amount of land in question (up to one-tenth of China's cultivatable land may be polluted), the degree of the pollution in specific locations is unclear, making both prevention and remedy difficult. There are no laws or environmental standards regarding soil. Funding is limited, too, so there is little advanced scientific study of China’s soil taking place. The severity of the pollution is not known by the public or business population, and the situation is most likely worsening as a result.
United Kingdom
Generic guidance commonly used in the UK are the Soil Guideline Values published by DEFRA and the Environment Agency. These are screening values that demonstrate the minimal acceptable level of a substance. Above this there can be no assurances in terms of significant risk of harm to human health. These have been derived using the Contaminated Land Exposure Asseeement Model (CLEA UK). Certain input parameters such as Health Criteria Values, age and land use are fed into CLEA UK to obtain a probablistic output.
Guidance by the Inter Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL) has been formally withdrawn by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), for use as a prescriptive document to determine the potential need for remediation or further assessment. Therefore, no further reference is made to these former guideline values.
Other generic guidance that exists (to put the concentration of a particular contaminant in context), includes the United States EPA Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals (US PRGs), the US EPA Region 3 Risk Based Concentrations (US EPA RBCs) and National Environment Protection Council of Australia Guideline on Investigation Levels in Soil and Groundwater.
However international guidance should only be used in the UK with clear justification. This is because foreign standards are usually particular to that country due to drivers such as political policy, geology, flood regime and epidemiology. It is generally accepted by UK regulators that only robust scientific methods that relate to the UK should be used.
The CLEA model published by DEFRA and the Environment Agency (EA) in March 2002 sets a framework for the appropriate assessment of risks to human health from contaminated land, as required by Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990. As part of this framework, generic Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) have currently been derived for ten contaminants to be used as “intervention values”. These values should not be considered as remedial targets but values above which further detailed assessment should be considered.
Three sets of CLEA SGVs have been produced for three different land uses, namely
- residential (with and without plant uptake)
- allotments
- commercial/industrial
It is intended that the SGVs replace the former ICRCL values. It should be noted that the CLEA SGVs relate to assessing chronic (long term) risks to human health and do not apply to the protection of ground workers during construction, or other potential receptors such as groundwater, buildings, plants or other ecosystems. The CLEA SGVs are not directly applicable to a site completely covered in hardstanding, as there is no direct exposure route to contaminated soils.
To date, the first ten of fifty-five contaminant SGVs have been published, for the following: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, inorganic mercury, nickel, selenium ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene. Draft SGVs for benzene, naphthalene and xylene have been produced but their publication is on hold. Toxicological data (Tox) has been published for each of these contaminants as well as for benzo[a]pyrene, benzene, dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs, naphthalene, vinyl chloride, 1,1,2,2 tetrachloroethane and 1,1,1,2 tetrachloroethane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,2-dichloroethane, trichloroethene and xylene. The SGVs for ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene are dependent on the soil organic matter (SOM) content (which can be calculated from the total organic carbon (TOC) content). As an initial screen the SGVs for 1% SOM are considered to be appropriate.
Cleanup options
Cleanup or remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models for analyzing transport[7] and fate of soil chemicals. Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. Soil chemistry studies the chemical characteristics of soil Soil chemistry is affected by mineral composition organic matter and environmental factors A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a Computer program, or network of computers that attempts to simulate an Thousands of soil contamination cases are currently in active cleanup across the U. S. as of 2006. There are several principal strategies for remediation:
- Excavate soil and remove it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or sensitive ecosystem contact. Generally remediation means providing a Remedy, so environmental remediation deals with the removal of Pollution or Contaminants from environmental This technique also applies to dredging of bay muds containing toxins. Bay mud consists of thick deposits of soft unconsolidated Silty Clay, which is saturated with Water; these soil layers are situated at the bottom of
- Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating air pollution)
- Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses Microorganisms Fungi, green plants or their Enzymes to return the natural environment altered Techniques used in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentation soil biota with commercially available microflora. Land Farming is a Bioremediation treatment process that is performed in the upper Soil zone or in biotreatment cells Biostimulation involves the modification of the environment to stimulate existing Bacteria capable of Bioremediation. Bioaugmentation is the introduction of a group of natural microbial strains or a genetically engineered variant to treat contaminated soil or water Soil biology is the study of microbial and faunal activity and Ecology in Soil.
- Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system, with subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract. Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations A vapor or vapour (see Spelling differences) is a substance in the Gas phase at a Temperature lower than its Critical temperature In Engineering, electromechanics combines the Sciences of Electromagnetism of Electrical engineering and mechanics.
- Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place).
See also
- Land degradation
- Land pollution
- List of waste management companies
- List of waste management topics
- List of solid waste treatment technologies
- List of Superfund sites in the United States
- Pesticide drift
- Pollution
- Contamination control
- Water contamination
- Water pollution
References
- ^ Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Human Health Evaluation Manual, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, U. Land degradation are a concept in which the value of the Biophysical environment is affected by one or more combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land Land pollution is the Degradation of earth's land surfaces often caused by human activities and their misuse of land resources Although many entries in this List of waste management companies are Multinational corporations the associated country listing is by location of Management HQ. This page has a list of waste management topics: Anaerobic digestion ArrowBio Autoclave Best The following page contains a list of different forms of solid Waste treatment technologies and facilities employed in Waste management infrastructure These are lists of Superfund sites in the United States designated under the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA environmental Inappropriate Pesticide application can lead to off-target contamination due to spray drift and "run-off" from plants causing contamination of the bystanders the Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Contamination control ( IPA: /kənˌtæməˈneɪʃən kənˈtroʊl/ is the collective name for any method that effectively controls the growth and proliferation of contamination Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D. C. 20450
- ^ Facing up to “invisible pollution”
- ^ Rainer Stegmann, Treatment of Contaminated Soil: Fundamentals, Analysis, Applications, Springer Verlag, Berlin 2001
- ^ D. A. Crossley, Roles of Microflora and fauna in soil systems, International Symposium on Pesticides in Soils, Feb. 25, 1970, University of Michigan
- ^ Negraa, Christine; Donald S. The University of Michigan Ann Arbor ( U of M, U-M, UM or simply Michigan) is a top-ranked Coeducational public research Rossa and Antonio Lanzirottib (2005). "Oxidizing Behavior of Soil Manganese: Interactions among Abundance, Oxidation State, and pH". Soil Science Society of America Journal 1 (69): 97–95.
- ^ Michael Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw and Harry Seidman Computer modelng of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, prepared for the U. A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a Computer program, or network of computers that attempts to simulate an S. Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc. , Sunnyvale, California (1973)
- ^ S. K. Gupta, C. T. Kincaid, P. R. Mayer, C. A. Newbill and C. R. Cole, ‘’A multidimensional finite element code for the analysis of coupled fluid, energy and solute transport’‘, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory PNL-2939, EPA contract 68-03-3116 (1982)
External links
- Environmental Protection Agency link to health effects of specific pollutants cited in this article
- Sound blaster cleans contaminated soil - High powered ultrasound can clean up soil tainted with organic toxins like PCBs or DDT
- [1] - Article on soil contamination in China
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