Western Philosophy Ancient philosophy
Socrates
Name	Socrates (Σωκράτης)
Birth	c. This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity through the Roman Empire marked the end of Hellenistic 469 BC[1]
Death	399 BC
School/tradition	Classical Greek
Main interests	epistemology, ethics
Notable ideas	Socratic method, Socratic irony
Influenced	Plato, Aristotle, Aristippus, Antisthenes Western philosophy

Socrates (Greek: Σωκράτης c. Events By Place Greece The island of Naxos wishes to secede from the Delian League, but is blockaded by Athens and Events By place Greece February 15 — The Greek Philosopher Socrates is sentenced to death by Athenian Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of Irony is a literary or Rhetorical device, in which there is an incongruity or Discordance between what one says or does and what one means or Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristippus (Ἀρίστιππος of Cyrene, (c 435-c 356 BCE was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy Antisthenes (Ἀντισθένης lived ca 445-365 BCE was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly 469 BC–399 BC^[1]) was a Classical Greek philosopher. Events By Place Greece The island of Naxos wishes to secede from the Delian League, but is blockaded by Athens and Events By place Greece February 15 — The Greek Philosopher Socrates is sentenced to death by Athenian In the context of the art architecture and culture of Ancient Greece, the classical period corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Considered one of the founders of Western philosophy,^[1] he strongly influenced Plato, who was his student, and Aristotle, whom Plato taught. Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His work continues to form an important part of the study of philosophy.

Principally renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, Socrates also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Irony is a literary or Rhetorical device, in which there is an incongruity or Discordance between what one says or does and what one means or The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. Pedagogy (ˈpɛdəgɒdʒi or paedagogy is the Art or Science of being a Teacher. Socrates also made important and lasting contributions to the fields of epistemology and logic, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy which followed. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference.

Contents 1 Biography 1.1 The "Socratic Problem" 1.2 Life 1.3 Trial and Death 2 Philosophy 2.1 Socratic method 2.2 Philosophical beliefs 2.2.1 Socratic Paradoxes 2.2.2 Knowledge 2.2.3 Virtue 2.2.4 Politics 2.2.5 Mysticism 3 Satirical playwrights 4 Prose sources 4.1 The Socratic dialogues 5 Legacy 5.1 Immediate influence 5.2 Later historical effects 5.2.1 Ahmadiyya viewpoint 5.3 Criticism 6 Notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

Biography

The "Socratic Problem"

Forming an accurate picture of the historical Socrates and his philosophical view points is problematic at best. This issue is known as the Socratic problem. The Socratic problem results from the inability to determine what in the writings of Plato, is an accurate portrayal of Socrates ' thought and what is the thought

Socrates himself did not write philosophical texts. Our knowledge of the man, his life, and his work is based on writings by his students and contemporaries. Foremost among them is Plato; however, works by Xenophon, Aristotle, and Aristophanes also provide important insights. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristophanes (Ἀριστοφάνης ˌærɪˈstɒfəniːz in English ca ^[2] The difficulty of finding the “real” Socrates arises because these works are often philosophical or dramatic texts rather than straightforward histories. Aside from Thucydides (who makes no mention of Socrates or philosophers in general), there is in fact no such thing as straightforward history contemporary with Plato. Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek A corollary of this is that these sources don't claim to be historically accurate. Historians are therefore faced with the challenge of reconciling the various texts that come from these men to create an accurate and consistent account of Socrates' life and work. The result of such an effort is not necessarily realistic, merely consistent.

In general, Plato is viewed as the most reliable and informative source of information about Socrates' life and philosophy. ^[3] However, it is also clear from other writings, and historical artifacts that Socrates was not simply a character, or invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes' work within The Clouds, can be usefully engaged in fleshing out our perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work. The Clouds (Νεφέλαι / Nephelai) is a comedy written by the Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes lampooning the Sophists

Life

Details about Socrates are derived from three contemporary sources: the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon (both students of Socrates), and the plays of Aristophanes. A dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog) is a reciprocal Conversation between two or more entities. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Aristophanes (Ἀριστοφάνης ˌærɪˈstɒfəniːz in English ca He has been depicted by some scholars, including Eric Havelock and Walter Ong, as a champion of oral modes of communication, standing up at the dawn of writing against its haphazard diffusion. Eric Alfred Havelock (ˈhævlɒk (June 3 1903 &ndash April 4 1988 was a British classicist who spent most of his life in Canada and the United States Father Walter Jackson Ong, PhD ( November 30, 1912 &ndash August 12, 2003) was an American Jesuit Priest, Orality can be defined as Thought and its verbal expression in societies where the technologies of Literacy (especially writing and print are unfamiliar to most of ^[4]

Aristophanes' play The Clouds portrays Socrates as a clown who teaches his students how to bamboozle their way out of debt. The Clouds (Νεφέλαι / Nephelai) is a comedy written by the Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes lampooning the Sophists Most of Aristophanes' works, however, function as parodies. Thus, it is presumed that this characterization was also not literal.

According to Plato, Socrates' father was Sophroniscus and his mother Phaenarete, a midwife. Sophroniscus, ( Greek Σωφρονίσκος) husband of Phaenarete, was the father of the philosopher Socrates. Phaenarete ( Greek Φαιναρέτη wife of Sophroniscus, was the mother of the Greek philosopher Socrates and his half-brother Patrocles Midwifery is a Health care profession where providers give Prenatal care to expecting Mothers attend the birth of the Infant Though characterized as unattractive in appearance and short of stature, Socrates married Xanthippe, who was much younger than he. Xanthippe (Ξανθίππη was the wife of Socrates and mother of their three sons Lamprocles, Sophroniscus, and Menexenus. She bore him three sons, Lamprocles, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. Lamprocles was Socrates ' and Xanthippe 's eldest son His two brothers were Menexenus and Sophroniscus Menexenus (Greek Μενέξενоς was one of three sons of Socrates and Xanthippe. His friend Crito of Alopece criticized him for abandoning his sons when he refused to try to escape before his execution. Crito of Alopece, a Deme of Athens, was a faithful probably life-long companion of Socrates.

It is unclear how Socrates earned a living. According to Timon of Phlius and later sources, Socrates took over the profession of stonemasonry from his father. Timon (Τίμων of Phlius, (c 320-c 230 BC the son of Timarchus was a Greek sceptic, a pupil of Pyrrho, and a celebrated writer The craft of stonemasonry has existed since the dawn of Civilization - creating Buildings structures and Sculpture using stone from the earth There was a tradition in antiquity, not credited by modern scholarship, that Socrates crafted the statues of the Three Graces, which stood near the Acropolis until the second century AD. ^[5]

There is evidence that Socrates never engaged in a profession: In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation: discussing philosophy. Xenophon 's Symposium (Συμπόσιον records the discussion of Socrates and company at a dinner given by Callias for his Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment for teaching and running a sophist school with Chaerephon, in The Clouds, while in Plato's Apology and Symposium and in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. Chaerephon (born ca 470-460 BCE died ca 403-399 BCE, of the Athenian Deme Sphettus was a loyal friend and follower of Socrates. The Symposium is a philosophical dialogue written by Plato sometime after 385 BC More specifically, in the Apology Socrates cites his poverty as proof that he is not a teacher.

Several of Plato's dialogues refer to Socrates' military service. Socrates says he served in the Athenian army during three campaigns: at Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Delium. The Battle of Potidaea was with the Battle of Sybota, one of the catalysts for the Peloponnesian War. The Battle of Amphipolis was fought in 422 BC during the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. The Battle of Delium or of Delion took place in 424 BC between the Athenians and the Boeotians and ended with the siege of Delium In the Symposium Alcibiades describes Socrates' valour in the battles of Potidaea and Delium, recounting how Socrates saved his life in the former battle (219e-221b). Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (ˌælsɨˈbaɪədiːz (pronunciation Greek:, transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnidēs) meaning Alcibiades Socrates' exceptional service at Delium is also mentioned in the Laches by the general after whom the dialogue is named (181b). Laches, also known as Courage, is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato, and concerns the topic of Courage. In the Apology Socrates compares his military service to his courtroom troubles, and says that anyone on the jury who thinks he ought to retreat from philosophy must also think that soldiers should retreat when it looks like they will be killed in battle.

Trial and Death

See main article: Trial of Socrates

Socrates lived during the time of the transition from the height of the Athenian hegemony to its decline with the defeat by Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnesian War. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Hegemony (hɨˈdʒɛməni (Amer /hɨˈɡɛməni/ (Brit (ἡγεμονία hēgemonía) is a concept that has been used to describe and explain the dominance of one social The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη At a time when Athens sought to stabilize and recover from its humiliating defeat, the Athenian public may have been entertaining doubts about democracy as an efficient form of government. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Socrates appears to have been a critic of democracy, and some scholars interpret his trial as an expression of political infighting. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system

Despite claiming death-defying loyalty to his city, Socrates' pursuit of virtue and his strict adherence to truth clashed with the current course of Athenian politics and society. ^[6] He praises Sparta, archrival to Athens, directly and indirectly in various dialogues. But perhaps the most historically accurate of Socrates' offenses to the city was his position as a social and moral critic. Rather than upholding a status quo and accepting the development of immorality within his region, Socrates worked to undermine the collective notion of "might makes right" so common to Greece during this period. Plato refers to Socrates as the "gadfly" of the state (as the gadfly stings the horse into action, so Socrates stung Athens), insofar as he irritated the establishment with considerations of justice and the pursuit of goodness. His attempts to improve the Athenians' sense of justice may have been the source of his execution.

According to Plato's Apology, Socrates' life as the "gadfly" of Athens began when his friend Chaerephon asked the oracle at Delphi if anyone was wiser than Socrates; the Oracle responded that none was wiser. " Gadfly " is a term for people who upset the Status quo by posing upsetting or novel questions or attempt to stimulate innovation by proving an irritant PYTHIA is a computer simulation program for particle collisions at very high energies (see Event (particle physics) in Particle accelerators An oracle is a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic opinion an Infallible authority usually spiritual in nature Socrates believed that what the Oracle had said was a riddle, because he believed that he possessed no wisdom whatsoever. He proceeded to test the riddle through approaching men who were considered to be wise by the people of Athens, such as statesmen, poets, and artisans, in order to refute the pronouncement of the Oracle. But questioning them, Socrates came to the conclusion that while each man thought he knew a great deal and was very wise, they in fact knew very little and were not really wise at all. Socrates realized that the Oracle was correct in that while so-called wise men thought themselves wise and yet were not, he himself knew he was not wise at all which, paradoxically, made him the wiser one since he was the only person aware of his own ignorance. Socrates' paradoxical wisdom made the prominent Athenians he publicly questioned look foolish, turning them against him and leading to accusations of wrongdoing. Socrates defended his role as a gadfly until the end: at his trial, when Socrates was asked to propose his own punishment, he suggests a wage paid by the government and free dinners for the rest of his life instead, to finance the time he spends as Athens' benefactor. ^[7] He was nevertheless found guilty of corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and sentenced to death by drinking a mixture containing poison hemlock. Poison hemlock redirects here For other uses of "hemlock" see Hemlock.

According to Xenophon's story, Socrates purposefully gave a defiant defense to the jury because "he believed he would be better off dead". Xenophon goes on to describe a defense by Socrates that explains the rigors of old age, and how Socrates would be glad to circumvent them by being sentenced to death. It is also understood that Socrates also wished to die because he "actually believed the right time had come for him to die".

Xenophon and Plato agree that Socrates had an opportunity to escape, as his followers were able to bribe the prison guards. He chose to stay for several reasons:

1. He believed that such a flight would indicate a fear of death, which he believed no true philosopher has.
2. If he fled Athens his teaching would fare no better in another country as he would continue questioning all he met and undoubtedly incur their displeasure.
3. Having knowingly agreed to live under the city's laws, he implicitly subjected himself to the possibility of being accused of crimes by its citizens and judged guilty by its jury. To do otherwise would have caused him to break his "social contract" with the state, and so harming the state, an act contrary to Socratic principle. Social contract describes a broad class of republican theories whose subjects are implied agreements by which people form Nations and maintain a Social order

The full reasoning behind his refusal to flee is the main subject of the Crito. The Crito (IPA; in English usually) is a short but important Dialogue by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato.

Socrates' death is described at the end of Plato's Phaedo. Plato 's Phaedo (ˈfiːdoʊ Greek: Φαίδων, Phaidon) is one of the great Dialogues of his middle period along with Socrates turned down the pleas of Crito to attempt an escape from prison. After drinking the poison, he was instructed to walk around until his limbs felt heavy. After he lay down, the man who administered the poison pinched his foot. Socrates could no longer feel his legs. The numbness slowly crept up his body until it reached his heart. Shortly before his death, Socrates speaks his last words to Crito: "Crito, we owe a cock to Asclepius. Asclepius (pronounced /æsˈkliːpiːəs/, Greek, transliterated Asklēpiós; Latin Aesculapius) is the god of Medicine Please, don't forget to pay the debt. " Asclepius was the Greek god for curing illness, and it is likely that Socrates' last words were implied to mean that death is the cure, and freedom, of the soul from the body. The Roman philosopher Seneca attempted to emulate Socrates' death by hemlock when forced to commit suicide by the Emperor Nero. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called

Philosophy

Part of a series on Platonism

Platonic idealism

Platonic realism

Middle Platonism

Neoplatonism

Articles on Neoplatonism

Platonic epistemology

Socratic method

Socratic dialogue

Theory of forms

Platonic doctrine of recollection

Form of the Good

Participants in Dialogues

Socrates

Alcibiades

Protagoras

Parmenides

Notable Platonists

Plato

Plotinus

Iamblichus

Proclus

Discussions of Plato's works

Dialogues of Plato

Metaphor of the sun

Analogy of the divided line

Allegory of the cave

Chariot allegory

Third Man Argument

Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?

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Socratic method

See main article: Socratic method

Perhaps his most important contribution to Western thought is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socratic Method or method of '"elenchus," which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice. Platonism is the Philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it The phrase Platonic idealism usually refers to Plato's theory of forms or doctrine of ideas the exact philosophical meaning of which is perhaps one of the most disputed questions Platonic realism is a philosophical term usually used to refer to the idea of realism regarding the existence of universals after the Greek Middle Platonism was the development of certain philosophical doctrines associated with Plato from approximately 130 B Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by Platonic Epistemology holds that knowledge is innate so that learning is the development of ideas buried deep in the soul often under the mid-wife-like guidance of The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of Socratic dialogue ( Greek Σωκρατικός λόγος or Σωκρατικός διάλογος) is a genre of prose literary works developed in Plato 's Theory of Forms asserts that Forms (or Ideas) and not the material world of change known to us through sensation, possess Platonic Epistemology holds that knowledge is innate so that learning is the development of ideas buried deep in the soul often under the mid-wife-like guidance of Plato describes "The Idea of the Good" in his Dialogue, The Republic, speaking through the character of Socrates. Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (ˌælsɨˈbaɪədiːz (pronunciation Greek:, transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnidēs) meaning Alcibiades Protagoras ( Greek:) (ca 490&ndash 420 BC was a pre-Socratic Greek Philosopher and is numbered as one of the Sophists by Parmenides of Elea ( Greek:, early 5th century BC was an Ancient Greek Philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Plotinus ( Greek:) (ca AD 204–270 was a major philosopher of the ancient world who is widely considered the founder of Neoplatonism (along with his Proclus Lycaeus ( February 8, c 411 &ndash April 17, 485) called "The Successor" or "Diadochos" ( Greek Próklos Plato, in ''The Republic'' (507b-509c uses the sun as a Metaphor for the source of "illumination" arguably intellectual illumination which he held to Plato, in his dialogue The Republic Book 6 (509D–513E has Socrates explain the literary device of a divided line to teach basic philosophical The Allegory of the Cave is an Allegory used by the Greek Philosopher Plato in his work The Republic. Plato, in his dialogue Phaedrus (sections 246a - 254e uses the Chariot Allegory to explain his view of the human soul The Third Man Argument (commonly referred to as TMA) first offered by Plato in his dialogue Parmenides, is a Philosophical criticism of Plato's la ''Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?'' is a Latin phrase from the Roman poet Juvenal, variously translated as "Who watches the watchmen?" "Who watches The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of JUSTICE is a Human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece To solve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually distill the answer you seek. The influence of this approach is most strongly felt today in the use of the Scientific Method, in which hypothesis is the first stage. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible The development and practice of this method is one of Socrates' most enduring contributions, and is a key factor in earning his mantle as the father of political philosophy, ethics or moral philosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes in Western philosophy. Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies

To illustrate the use of the Socratic method; a series of questions are posed to help a person or group to determine their underlying beliefs and the extent of their knowledge. A question may be either a linguistic expression used to make a request for Information, or else the request itself made by such an expression Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true The Socratic method is a negative method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those which lead to contradictions. A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible In Classical logic, a contradiction consists of a logical incompatibility between two or more Propositions It occurs when the propositions taken together yield It was designed to force one to examine one's own beliefs and the validity of such beliefs. In fact, Socrates once said, "I know you won't believe me, but the highest form of Human Excellence is to question oneself and others. "^[8]

Philosophical beliefs

The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are difficult to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two. The lengthy theories given in most of the dialogues are those of Plato, and it is thought that Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to make the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that he did have his own theories and beliefs, but there is much controversy over what these might have been, owing to the difficulty of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon is not easy and it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might more closely reflect the specific concerns of these thinkers.

If anything in general can be said about the philosophical beliefs of Socrates, it is that he was morally, intellectually, and politically at odds with his fellow Athenians. When he is on trial for heresy and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, he uses his method of elenchos to demonstrate to the jurors that their moral values are wrong-headed. He tells them that they are concerned with their families, careers, and political responsibilities when they ought to be worried about the "welfare of their souls. " Socrates' belief in the immortality of the soul, and his conviction that the gods had singled him out as a divine emissary seemed to provoke, if not ridicule, at least annoyance. Socrates also questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete (that is, virtue) can be taught. He liked to observe that successful fathers (such as the prominent military general Pericles) did not produce sons of their own quality. Pericles (also spelled Perikles) (c 495 – 429 BC Greek:, meaning "surrounded by glory" was a prominent and influential Statesman, orator Socrates argued that moral excellence was more a matter of divine bequest than parental nurture. This belief may have contributed to his lack of anxiety about the future of his own sons.

Socrates frequently says that his ideas are not his own, but his teachers'. He mentions several influences: Prodicus the rhetor and Anaxagoras the scientist. Prodicus of Ceos ( Greek: Πρόδικος Pródikos, (c 465 BC - 415 BC was a Greek philosopher, part of the first generation of Sophists. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Anaxagoras ( Greek: Ἀναξαγόρας c 500 BC &ndash 428 BC was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher famous for introducing the Cosmological Perhaps surprisingly, Socrates claims to have been deeply influenced by two women besides his mother. He says that Diotima, a witch and priestess from Mantinea taught him all he knows about eros, or love, and that Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, taught him the art of funeral orations. Diotima of Mantinea is a female philosopher who plays an important role in Plato's Symposium. Mantineia ( Greek: Μαντίνεια formerly also Antigonia - Αντιγόνεια was a city in ancient Arcadia in the central Peloponnese Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. Aspasia (ca 470 BC&ndashca 400 BC Greek:) was a Milesian woman who was famous for her involvement with the Athenian statesman Pericles (also spelled Perikles) (c 495 – 429 BC Greek:, meaning "surrounded by glory" was a prominent and influential Statesman, orator John Burnet argued that his principal teacher was the Anaxagorean Archelaus but that his ideas were as Plato described them; Eric A. Havelock, on the other hand, considered Socrates' association with the Anaxagoreans to be evidence of Plato's philosophical separation from Socrates. John Burnet ( December 9, 1863 &ndash May 26, 1928) was a Scottish classicist. Eric Alfred Havelock (ˈhævlɒk (June 3 1903 &ndash April 4 1988 was a British classicist who spent most of his life in Canada and the United States

Socratic Paradoxes

Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as "paradoxal" because they seem to conflict with common sense. The following are among the so-called Socratic Paradoxes:^[9]

• No one desires evil.
• No one errs or does wrong willingly/knowingly.
• Virtue - all virtue - is knowledge.
• Virtue is sufficient for happiness.

Knowledge

Socrates often said that his wisdom was limited to an awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates believed that wrongdoing was a consequence of ignorance and that those who did wrong knew no better. The one thing Socrates consistently claimed to have knowledge of was "the art of love" which he connected with the concept of "the love of wisdom", i. e. , philosophy. He never actually claimed to be wise, only to understand the path that a lover of wisdom must take in pursuing it. It is debatable whether Socrates believed that humans (as opposed to gods like Apollo) could actually become wise. On the one hand, he drew a clear line between human ignorance and ideal knowledge; on the other, Plato's Symposium (Diotima's Speech) and Republic (Allegory of the Cave) describe a method for ascending to wisdom.

In Plato's Theaetetus (150a) Socrates compares himself to a true matchmaker (προμνηστικός), as distinguished from a panderer (προᾰγωγός). This distinction is echoed in Xenophon's Symposium (3. 20), when Socrates jokes about his certainty of being able to make a fortune, if he chose to practice the art of pandering. For his part as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to a clearer conception of wisdom, although he claims that he is not himself a teacher (Apology). His role, he claims, is more properly to be understood as analogous to a midwife (μαῖα). Midwifery is a Health care profession where providers give Prenatal care to expecting Mothers attend the birth of the Infant Socrates explains that he is himself barren of theories, but knows how to bring the theories of others to birth and determine whether they are worthy or mere "wind eggs" (ἀνεμιαῖον). Perhaps significantly, he points out that midwives are barren due to age, and women who have never given birth are unable to become midwives; a truly barren woman would have no experience or knowledge of birth and would be unable to separate the worthy infants from those that should be left on the hillside to be exposed. To judge this, the midwife must have experience and knowledge of what she is judging.

Virtue

Socrates believed that the best way for people to live was to focus on self-development rather than the pursuit of material wealth. He always invited others to try to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of true community, for Socrates felt that this was the best way for people to grow together as a populace. His actions lived up to this: in the end, Socrates accepted his death sentence when most thought he would simply leave Athens, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the will of his community; as mentioned above, his reputation for valor on the battlefield was without reproach.

The idea that humans possessed certain virtues formed a common thread in Socrates' teachings. These virtues represented the most important qualities for a person to have, foremost of which were the philosophical or intellectual virtues. Socrates stressed that "virtue was the most valuable of all possessions; the ideal life was spent in search of the Good. Truth lies beneath the shadows of existence, and that it is the job of the philosopher to show the rest how little they really know. " Ultimately, virtue relates to the form of the Good; to be truly good and not just act with "right opinion"; one must come to know the unchanging Good in itself. In the Republic, written by Plato, Socrates described the "divided line", a continuum of ignorance to knowledge with the Good on top of it all; only at the top of this line do we find true good and the knowledge of such.

Politics

It is often argued that Socrates believed "ideals belong in a world that only the wise man can understand", making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. According to Plato's account, Socrates was in no way subtle about his particular beliefs on government. He openly objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his adult life. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system It was not only Athenian democracy: Socrates objected to any form of government that did not conform to his ideal of a perfect republic led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that Plato's account is colored here by his own views. During the last years of Socrates' life, Athens was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Plato's relative, Critias, who had been a student of Socrates. A military dictatorship is a Form of government wherein the political power resides with the Military; it is similar but not identical to a Stratocracy, The Thirty Tyrants (30 τύραννοι or οἱ Τριάκοντα were a pro- Spartan Oligarchy installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian Critias is also a work by Plato see Critias (dialogue. Critias ( Greek, 460-403 BC born in Athens son of Callaeschrus was The Tyrants ruled for about a year before the Athenian democracy was reinstated, at which point it declared an amnesty for all recent events. Amnesty (from the Greek amnestia, oblivion is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to

Socrates' opposition to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine what, exactly, it was that Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim that Socrates did not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is Socrates' constant refusal to enter into politics or participate in government of any sort; he often stated that he could not look into other's matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates' acceptance of his death sentence, after his conviction by the Boule (Senate), can also be seen to support this view. In the cities of Ancient Greece, the boule ( Greek: βουλή, plural βουλαί or boulai from the Ancient Greek verb It is often claimed that much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to overcome his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear that Socrates thought that the rule of the Thirty Tyrants was at least as objectionable as democracy; when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escaped death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did however fulfill his duty to serve as prytanis when a trial of a group of generals who presided over a disastrous naval campaign were judged; even then he maintained an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to proceed in a manner not supported by the laws, despite intense pressure. The Prytaneis were the executives of the boule of Ancient Athens. ^[10] Judging by his actions, he considered the rule of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than that of the democratic senate who sentenced him to death.

Mysticism

In the dialogues of Plato, Socrates often seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions; however, this is generally attributed to Plato. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Mystery Religions, Sacred Mysteries or simply Mysteries, were "religious cults of the Graeco-Roman Regardless, this cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates; in addition, there seem to be some corollaries in the works of Xenophon. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca In the culmination of the philosophic path as discussed in Plato's Symposium and Republic, one comes to the Sea of Beauty or to the sight of the form of the Good in an experience akin to mystical revelation; only then can one become wise. The Sea of Beauty is one of many analogies and similes employed in an admittedly vain effort to describe a high vision of reality Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication (In the Symposium, Socrates credits his speech on the philosophic path to his teacher, the priestess Diotima, who is not even sure if Socrates is capable of reaching the highest mysteries. Diotima of Mantinea is a female philosopher who plays an important role in Plato's Symposium. ) In the Meno, he refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates' answers better if only he could stay for the initiations next week. The Eleusinian Mysteries (Ἐλευσίνια Μυστήρια were initiation ceremonies held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone Further confusions result from the nature of these sources, insofar as the Platonic dialogues are arguably the work of an artist-philosopher, whose meaning does not volunteer itself to the passive reader nor again the lifelong scholar. Plato himself was a playwright before taking up the study of philosophy. His works are, indeed, dialogues; Plato's choice of this, the medium of Sophocles, Euripides, and the fictions of theatre, may reflect the interpretable nature of his writings. What is more, the first word of nearly all Plato's works is a, or the, significant term for that respective study, and is used with the commonly approved definition in mind. Finally, the Phaedrus and the Symposium each allude to Socrates' coy delivery of philosophic truths in conversation; the Socrates of the Phaedrus goes so far as to demand such dissembling and mystery in all writing. The mysticism we often find in Plato, appearing here and there and couched in some enigmatic tract of symbol and irony, is often at odds with the mysticism that Plato's Socrates expounds in some other dialogue. These mystical resolutions to hitherto rigorous inquiries and analyses fail to satisfy caring readers, without fail. Whether they would fail to satisfy readers who understood them is another question, and will not, in all probability, ever be resolved.

Perhaps the most interesting facet of this is Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called his "daemonic sign", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικός) inner voice that Socrates heard only when he was about to make a mistake. The words daemon, dæmon, are Latinized spellings of the Greek δαίμων ( daimôn) used purposely today to distinguish the daemons It was this sign that prevented Socrates from entering into politics. In the Phaedrus, we are told Socrates considered this to be a form of "divine madness", the sort of insanity that is a gift from the gods and gives us poetry, mysticism, love, and even philosophy itself. Traditionally insanity or madness is the behaviour whereby a person flouts societal norms and may become a danger to himself and others Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Alternately, the sign is often taken to be what we would call "intuition"; however, Socrates' characterization of the phenomenon as "daemonic" suggests that its origin is divine, mysterious, and independent of his own thoughts. The words daemon, dæmon, are Latinized spellings of the Greek δαίμων ( daimôn) used purposely today to distinguish the daemons

Satirical playwrights

He was prominently lampooned in Aristophanes' comedy The Clouds, produced when Socrates was in his mid-forties; he said at his trial (according to Plato) that the laughter of the theater was a harder task to answer than the arguments of his accusers. Aristophanes (Ἀριστοφάνης ˌærɪˈstɒfəniːz in English ca Comedy (from the Greek κωμωδίαkomodia has a popular meaning (any discourse generally intended to amuse especially in Television, Film, and The Clouds (Νεφέλαι / Nephelai) is a comedy written by the Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes lampooning the Sophists Theatre (or theater, see spelling differences) is the branch of the Performing arts defined by Bernard Beckerman as what "occurs when one Soren Kierkegaard believed this play was a more accurate representation of Socrates than those of his students. Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) In the play, Socrates is ridiculed for his dirtiness, which is associated with the Laconizing fad; also in plays by Callias, Eupolis, and Telecleides. Laconophilia is love or admiration of Sparta and of the Spartan culture or constitution Callias Schoenion was a poet of the Old Comedy, not to be confused with the three Athenian aristocrats named Callias the last of which Callias III, appears in Plato's Eupolis (ca 446 BC-411 BC was an Athenian Poet of the Old Comedy, that flourished in the time of the Peloponnesian War. Telecleides was an Athenian Old Comic poet and dates to the 440s and 430s BCE In all of these, Socrates and the Sophists were criticised for "the moral dangers inherent in contemporary thought and literature. "

Prose sources

Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle are the main sources for the historical Socrates; however, Xenophon and Plato were direct disciples of Socrates, and presumably, they idealize him; however, they wrote the only continuous descriptions of Socrates that have come down to us. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle refers frequently, but in passing, to Socrates in his writings. Almost all of Plato's works center around Socrates. However, Plato's later works appear to be more his own philosophy put into the mouth of his mentor.

The Socratic dialogues

See main article: Socratic dialogues

The Socratic dialogues are a series of dialogues written by Plato and Xenophon in the form of discussions between Socrates and other persons of his time, or as discussions between Socrates' followers over his concepts. Socratic dialogue ( Greek Σωκρατικός λόγος or Σωκρατικός διάλογος) is a genre of prose literary works developed in Socratic dialogue ( Greek Σωκρατικός λόγος or Σωκρατικός διάλογος) is a genre of prose literary works developed in A dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog) is a reciprocal Conversation between two or more entities. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Plato's Phaedo is an example of this latter category. Plato 's Phaedo (ˈfiːdoʊ Greek: Φαίδων, Phaidon) is one of the great Dialogues of his middle period along with Although his Apology is a monologue delivered by Socrates, it is usually grouped with the dialogues.

The Apology professes to be a record of the actual speech that Socrates delivered in his own defense at the trial. In the Athenian jury system, an "apology" is composed of three parts: a speech, followed by a counter-assessment, then some final words. "Apology" is a transliteration, not a translation, of the Greek apologia, meaning "defense"; in this sense it is not apologetic according to our contemporary use of the term.

Plato generally does not place his own ideas in the mouth of a specific speaker; he lets ideas emerge via the Socratic method, under the guidance of Socrates. The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of Most of the dialogues present Socrates applying this method to some extent, but nowhere as completely as in the Euthyphro. Euthyphro is one of Plato 's early dialogues dated to after 399 BCE. In this dialogue, Socrates and Euthyphro go through several iterations of refining the answer to Socrates' question, ". . . What is the pious, and what the impious?"

In Plato's dialogues, learning appears as a process of remembering. The soul, before its incarnation in the body, was in the realm of Ideas (very similar to the Platonic "Forms"). The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living An idea is a form (such as a Thought) formed by Consciousness (including Mind) through the Process of ideation. There, it saw things the way they truly are, rather than the pale shadows or copies we experience on earth. By a process of questioning, the soul can be brought to remember the ideas in their pure form, thus bringing wisdom. Wisdom is a concept of personal gaining of Knowledge, Understanding, Experience, discretion and intuitive understanding, along with a capacity

Especially for Plato's writings referring to Socrates, it is not always clear which ideas brought forward by Socrates (or his friends) actually belonged to Socrates and which of these may have been new additions or elaborations by Plato — this is known as the Socratic problem. The Socratic problem results from the inability to determine what in the writings of Plato, is an accurate portrayal of Socrates ' thought and what is the thought Generally, the early works of Plato are considered to be close to the spirit of Socrates, whereas the later works — including Phaedo and the Republic — are considered to be possibly products of Plato's elaborations. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Plato 's Phaedo (ˈfiːdoʊ Greek: Φαίδων, Phaidon) is one of the great Dialogues of his middle period along with The Republic ( Greek: / Politeía, meaning "political system" Latin: Res Publica, meaning "public business" or

Legacy

Immediate influence

Immediately, the students of Socrates set to work both on exercising their perceptions of his teachings in politics and also on developing many new philosophical schools of thought. Some of Athens' controversial and anti-democratic tyrants were contemporary or posthumous students of Socrates including Alcibiades and Critias. In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (ˌælsɨˈbaɪədiːz (pronunciation Greek:, transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnidēs) meaning Alcibiades Critias is also a work by Plato see Critias (dialogue. Critias ( Greek, 460-403 BC born in Athens son of Callaeschrus was Critias' cousin, Plato would go on to found the Academy in 385 BC - which gained so much notoriety that its name Academy became the base word for educational institutions in later European languages such as English, French, and Italian. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece An academy ( Greek Ἀκαδημία is an institution of higher learning research or honorary membership Events By place Greece Jason of Pherae becomes tyrant of Thessaly. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. Plato's protege, another important figure of the Classical era, Aristotle went on to tutor Alexander the Great and also to found his own school in 335 BC- the Lyceum, whose name also now means an educational institution. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Events By place Greece Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaims him "invincible" This article is about Lyceum as school or as public hall Lyceum can also be short for Lyceum Theatre.

While Socrates was shown to demote the importance of institutional knowledge like mathematics or science in relation to the human condition in his dialogues, Plato would emphasize it with metaphysical overtones mirroring that of Pythagoras - the former who would dominate Western thought well into the Renaissance. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding "Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here For the Samian statuary of the same name see Pythagoras (sculptor. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Aristotle himself was as much of a philosopher as he was a scientist with rudimentary work in the fields of biology and physics. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion.

Socratic thought along the lines of challenging conventions, especially in stressing a simplistic way of living, became divorced from Plato's more detached and philosophical pursuits but was inherited heavily by one of Socrates' older and diehard students, Antisthenes who became another originator of a philosophy in the years after Socrates' death - Cynicism. Antisthenes (Ἀντισθένης lived ca 445-365 BCE was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. The Cynics (Κυνικοί Cynici were an influential group of Philosophers from the ancient school of Cynicism Antisthenes attacked Plato and Alcibiades over what he deemed as their betrayal of Socrates' tenets in his writings.

The idea of austerity being hand in hand with an ethical life or one with piety, ignored by Plato and Aristotle and somewhat dealt with by the Cynics, formed the core of another philosophy in 281 BC - Stoicism when Zeno of Citium would discover Socrates' works and then learn from Crates, a Cynic philosopher. In Economics, austerity is when a national government reduces its spending in order to pay back Creditors Austerity is usually required when a government's fiscal Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Zeno of Citium (Ζήνων ὁ Κιτιεύς Zēnōn ho Kitieŭs) (334 BC - 262 BC was a Greek Philosopher from Citium (Κίτιον Crates (Κράτης of Thebes, was a Cynic philosopher who flourished c The Cynics (Κυνικοί Cynici were an influential group of Philosophers from the ancient school of Cynicism None of the schools however, would inherit his tendency to openly associate with and respect women or the regular citizen. Diotima of Mantinea is a female philosopher who plays an important role in Plato's Symposium.

Later historical effects

While some of the later contributions of Socrates to Hellenistic Era culture and philosophy as well as the Roman Era has been lost to time, his teachings began a resurgence in both medieval Europe and the Islamic Middle East alongside those of Aristotle and Stoicism. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Roman Era is a period in Western history when Ancient Rome was the centre of power of the world around the Mediterranean Sea, where Latin was the Muslim history began in Arabia with the Muhammad 's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century Socrates is mentioned in the dialogue Kuzari by Jewish philosopher and rabbi Yehuda Halevi in which a Jew instructs the Khazar king about Judaism. The Kuzari is one of most famous works of the medieval Spanish Jewish philosopher and poet Rabbi Yehuda Halevi. Yehuda Halevi, in full Yehuda ben Shemuel Ha-Levi, also Judah Halevi, or Judah ben Samuel Halevi ( Hebrew: יהודה הלוי) (c "Kazar" redirects here for the Marvel Comics character see Ka-Zar; for the village in Azerbaijan see Xəzər. al-Kindi, a well-known Arabic philosopher, introduced and tried to reconcile Socrates and Hellenistic philosophy to an Islamic audience. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c

Socrates' stature in Western philosophy returned in full force with the Renaissance and the Age of Reason in Europe when political theory began to resurface under those like Locke and Hobbes. Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation Voltaire even went so far as to write a satirical play about the Trial of Socrates. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French The trial of Socrates refers to the Trial and the subsequent execution of the Athenian Philosopher Socrates in 399 BC. There were a number of paintings about his life including Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by Jean-Baptiste Regnault and The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David in the later 18th Century. Jean-Baptiste Regnault ( October 9, 1754 - November 12, 1829) was a French painter. Jacques-Louis David (August 30 1748 &ndash December 29 1825 was a highly influential French painter in the Neoclassical style considered to be

To this day, the Socratic method is still used in classrooms and law schools as a way of discussing complex topics in order to expose the underlying issues in both the subject and the speaker. The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of He has been rewarded with accolades ranging from numerous mentions in pop culture such as the movie Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure and a Greek rock band to numerous busts in academic institutions in recognition of his contribution to education. Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure ( 1989) is an American comedy / Science fiction Movie in which two Slackers Socrates Drank the Conium is a Greek progressive/blues rock band that formed in 1969 and was active in the early 1970s

Ahmadiyya viewpoint

Mirza Tahir Ahmad (the fourth Caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community) argued in his book Revelation, Rationality, Knowledge & Truth that Socrates was a prophet of the ancient. Mirza Tahir Ahmad (Born 18 December 1928 in Qadian, died 19 April 2003 in London) was Khalifatul Masih IV The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community ( Arabic: الجماعة الأحمدية; transliterated: al-Jamā'a al-Ahmadīya) is the larger community of The apparent prophetic qualities of Socrates are indeed a subject for debate. The constant reference to the oracle and how it performs the active function of a moral compass by preventing him from unseemly acts could easily be taken as a reference to - or substitute for revelation. Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication Similarly, Socrates often refers to God in the singular as opposed to the plural[1].

Criticism

Evaluation and reaction to Socrates has been undertaken with both historical and philosophical inquiry from the time of his death to the present day with a multitude of conclusions and perspectives. One of the initial criticisms levied against the philosopher was presented at his trial - that he was not the proponent of a philosophy but an individual with a method of undermining the fabric of Athenian society, a charge carried by the 500-man jury of Athenians which sentenced him to death. The trial of Socrates refers to the Trial and the subsequent execution of the Athenian Philosopher Socrates in 399 BC. Although he was not directly prosecuted for his connection to Critias, leader of the Spartan-backed Thirty Tyrants, he was seen as a controversial figure that mentored oligarchs who became abusive tyrants and undermined Athenian democracy. The Thirty Tyrants (30 τύραννοι or οἱ Τριάκοντα were a pro- Spartan Oligarchy installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian The Sophist establishment which he railed at in life survived him but was rapidly overtaken by the many philosophical schools of thought that Socrates influenced by the 3rd Century BC.

Socrates' death is considered iconic and his status as a martyr of philosophy overshadowed most contemporary and posthumous criticism at the time. However, Xenophon attempts to explain that Socrates purposely welcomed the hemlock due to his old age using the arguably self-destructive testimony to the jury as evidence. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Direct criticism of Socrates almost disappears at this point but there is a noticeable preference for Plato or Aristotle over the elements of Socratic philosophy that are distinct from those of his students even into the Middle Ages.

Modern scholarship has held that with so much of the philosopher obscured and possibly even altered by Plato, it is impossible to gain a clear picture of Socrates amidst all the seeming contradictions. That both Cynicism and Stoicism, which carried heavy influence from Socratic thought, were unlike or even contrary to Platonism further illustrates this. Cynicism (Kυνισμός originally comprised the various philosophies of a group of ancient Greeks called the Cynics, founded by Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Platonism is the Philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it This ambiguity and lack of reliability serves as the modern basis of criticism - that it is near impossible to know the real Socrates. Some controversy also exists about claims of Socrates exempting himself from the homosexual customs of Ancient Greece and not believing in the Olympian gods to the point of being monotheistic or if this was an attempt by later medieval scholars to reconcile him with the morals of the era. In Classical antiquity, writers such as Herodotus, Plato, Xenophon, Athenaeus and many others explored aspects of same-sex love in The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Twelve Olympians, also known as the Dodekatheon ( Greek: Δωδεκάθεον However, it is still commonly taught and held with little exception that Socrates is the founder of modern Western philosophy to the point that any philosophers before him are referred to as pre-Socratic.

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

• Original Fresque of Socrates in Archaeological Museum of Ephesus
• Socrates Narrates Plato's The Republic
• Apology of Socrates, by Plato.
• Greek Philosophy: Socrates
• Project Gutenberg e-texts on Socrates, amongst others:
  • The Dialogues of Plato (see also Wikipedia articles on Dialogues by Plato)
  • The writings of Xenophon, such as the Memorablia and Hellenica. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
  • The satirical plays by Aristophanes
  • Aristotle's writings
  • Voltaire's Socrates
• A free audiobook of the Socratic dialogue Euthyphro at LibriVox
• Socratic Method Research Portal
• Socrates, from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2005)

Persondata
NAME	Socrates
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Sokrates; Σωκράτης (Greek)
SHORT DESCRIPTION	Greek philosopher
DATE OF BIRTH	circa 470 BC
PLACE OF BIRTH	Athens
DATE OF DEATH	399 BC
PLACE OF DEATH	Athens

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP is a freely-accessible Online encyclopedia of Philosophy maintained by Stanford University. Events By Place Greece Suspected of plotting to seize power in Sparta by instigating a Helot uprising Pausanias takes Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Events By place Greece February 15 — The Greek Philosopher Socrates is sentenced to death by Athenian Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's

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