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Slavery
Period and context

History · Antiquity
Religious views: Biblical · Christian · Islamic · Jewish
Slave trades: Atlantic · African · Arab · Asian
Human trafficking · Sexual slavery · Abolitionism · Servitude
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Gulag · Serfdom · Unfree labour · Debt bondage · Indentured servant · List of slaves · Legal status
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Slavery as an institution in Mediterranean cultures of the ancient world comprised a mixture of debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime, and the enslavement of prisoners of war. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history The issue of religion and slavery is an area of historical research into the relationship between the world's major Religions and the practice of Slavery. The Bible contains several references to slavery. The Hebrew Bible does not promote Slavery, but neither does it condemn it Christianity does not have a clear position regarding slavery, in favour or against The major juristic schools of Islam traditionally accepted the institution of Slavery. Judaism has been influenced by the experience of slavery of the Hebrews in the land of Egypt, as narrated in the biblical story of The Exodus The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World This article discusses systems of slavery within Africa the history and effects of the slavery trade upon Africa The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history Human trafficking is the recruitment transportation harbouring or receipt of people for the purposes of slavery forced labor (including bonded labor or debt bondage and servitude Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies Involuntary servitude is a United States legal and Constitutional term for a person laboring against that person's will to benefit another under some form The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations especially in modern or early modern history in which people are employed against their will Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off loans with direct labor instead of currency or goods An indentured servant is a form of Debt bondage worker The Laborer is under Contract of an Employer for some period of time usually three to Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services In Law legal status refers to the concept of individuals having a particular place in society relative to the law as it determines the laws which affect them Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off loans with direct labor instead of currency or goods [1]

The institution of slavery condemned a majority of slaves to agricultural or industrial labour and they lived hard lives. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Personal life (or everyday life or human existence) is the course of an individual Human 's life especially when viewed as the sum of personal choices In some of the city-states of Greece and in the Roman Empire, slaves formed a very large part of the economy, and the Roman Empire built a large part of its wealth on slaves acquired through conquest. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial In Ancient Rome, probably over 25% of the population was enslaved. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC [2][3]

Masters could free slaves, and in many cases such freedmen went on to rise to positions of power. A freedman is a former slave who has been manumitted or emancipated. Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people This would include those children born into slavery but who were actually the children of the master of the house. Their father would ensure that his children were not condemned to a life of slavery.

Contents

Slavery in ancient Egypt

Historians can trace slavery in Egypt from an early date. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Private ownership of slaves, captured in war and given by the king to their captor, certainly occurred at the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550 - 1295 BCE). "Amarna period" redirects here For information on Amarna see Amarna The Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1292 BC is perhaps the best known of Sales of slaves occurred in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (732 - 656 BCE), and contracts of servitude survive from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (ca 672 - 525 BCE) and from the reign of Darius: apparently such a contract then required the consent of the slave. The twenty-first twenty-second twenty-third twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth dynasties of Ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title Third Intermediate The Saite or Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt was the last native dynasty to rule Egypt before the Persian conquest (although others followed and had its capital at

The Old Testament also recounts tales of slavery in Egypt: slave-dealers sold Joseph into bondage there, and the Hebrews suffered collective enslavement (Exodus, chapter 1) prior to the Exodus. In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Joseph or Yosef (יוֹסֵ Standard Yosef Tiberian Yôsēp̄, يوسف Yusuf; "He Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. The Exodus ( is the term used for the escape departure and emancipation of the enslaved Israelites freed from Ancient Egypt as described in the Hebrew However, the historicity of the Biblical account is questioned. The historicity of the Bible addresses in what ways the Bible is historically accurate the extent to which it can be used as a historic source and what qualifications should

Slavery among the Hittites

The Hittite texts discovered by archaeologists since the 19th Century include laws regulating the institution of slavery. The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established Of particular interest is a law stipulating that reward for the capture of an escaped slave would be higher if the slave had already succeeded in crossing the Halys River and getting farther away from the center of Hittite civilization - from which it can concluded that at least some of the slaves kept by the Hittites possessed a realistic chance of escaping and regaining their freedom, possibly by finding refuge with other kingdoms or ethnic groups.

Slavery in the Bible

See Sabbatical year, Onesimus, Bible-based advocacy of slavery, in addition to the details of the Book of Exodus. Shmita ( Hebrew: שמיטה literally "release" also called the Sabbatical Year, is the seventh year of the seven-year agricultural cycle mandated by the Saint Onesimus ( d Ca 90-95 (Greek for "useful" also called Onesimus of Byzantium and The Holy Apostle Onesimus in some Eastern Christianity does not have a clear position regarding slavery, in favour or against Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament.

Old Testament or Tanakh

Leviticus draws a distinction between Hebrew debt slavery:

and "bondslaves", foreigners:

You could beat a slave within an inch of his or her life and if they died in the first day your punishment was a fine. If they survived one day and died, there was no fine.

Exo 21:21 Notwithstanding, if he continue a day or two, he shall not be punished: for he is his money.

As evident from the above, the Old Testament accepts the institution of slavery as such, but seeks to regulate it and ameliorate the slaves' conditions. Transmitted throughout Western culture via Christianity, this ambiguous message could (and did) inspire both advocates of slavery and abolitionists.

Slavery in Greece

Main article: Slavery in ancient Greece
Black slave, Ptolemaic Egypt, Louvre.
Black slave, Ptolemaic Egypt, Louvre. Slavery was common practice and an integral component of Ancient Greece throughout its history as it was in other societies of the time Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France

The study of slavery in ancient Greece remains a complex subject, in part because of the many different levels of servility, from traditional chattel slave through various forms of serfdom, such as Helots, Penestai, and several other classes of non-citizen. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another The helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were an unfree population group that formed the The penestae (in Greek oι Πενέσται hoi penestai) were a class of unfree labourers tied to the land once inhabiting Thessaly, whose status was

Most philosophers of Classical antiquity defended slavery as a natural and necessary institution [4]; Aristotle believed that the practice of any manual or banausic job should disqualify the practitioner from citizenship. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Banausos ( Ancient Greek, plural, banausoi) is an epithet of the class of manual laborers or Artisans in Ancient Greece Quoting Euripides, Aristotle declared all non-Greeks slaves by birth, fit for nothing but obedience. Euripides ( Ancient Greek:) (ca 480 BC–406 BC was the last of the three great tragedians of classical Athens (the other two being Aeschylus

By the late 4th century BCE passages start to appear from other Greeks, especially in Athens, which opposed slavery and suggested that every person living in a city-state had the right to freedom subject to no one, except only to laws decided using majoritarianism. The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. Attica (Αττική Attikí;) is a periphery (subdivision in Greece, containing Athens, the capital of Greece Majoritarianism is a traditional Political philosophy or agenda which asserts that a Majority (sometimes categorized by Religion, Language, or Alcidamas, for example, said: "God has set everyone free. Alcidamas, of Elaea, in Aeolis, Greek Sophist and Rhetorician flourished in the 4th century BC. No one is made a slave by nature. " Furthermore, a fragment of a poem of Philemon also shows that he opposed slavery. Philemon (ca 362 BC – ca 262 BC was an Athenian poet and playwright of the New Comedy.

Greece in pre-Roman times consisted of many independent city-states, each with its own laws. A polis ( πόλις, pronunciation, in English-- plural poleis ( πόλεις, pronunciation, in English --is a City, a All of them permitted slavery, but the rules differed greatly from region to region.

Greek slaves had some opportunities for emancipation; though all of these came at some cost to their masters. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The law protected slaves, and though a slave's master had the right to beat him at will, a number of moral and cultural limitations existed on excessive use of force by masters.

In Ancient Athens about 30% of the population consisted of slaves. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca [5] The system in Athens encouraged slaves to save up to purchase their freedom, and records survive of slaves operating businesses by themselves, making only a fixed tax-payment to their masters. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Athens also had a law forbidding the striking of slaves — if a person struck an apparent slave in Athens, that person might find himself hitting a fellow-citizen, because many citizens dressed no better. It startled other Greeks that Athenians tolerated back-chat from slaves (Old Oligarch, Constitution of the Athenians). Pausanias (writing nearly seven centuries after the event) states that Athenian slaves fought together with Athenian freemen in the Battle of Marathon, and the monuments memorialize them [1]. Pausanias ( Greek:) was a Greek traveller and Geographer of the 2nd century CE, who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus The Battle of Marathon ( Greek: Μάχη τοῡ Μαραθῶνος Machē tou Marathōnos) during the Greco-Persian Wars took place in 490 Spartan serfs, Helots, could win freedom through bravery in battle. The helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were an unfree population group that formed the Plutarch mentions that during the Battle of Salamis Athenians did their best to save their "women, children and slaves". Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c The Battle of Salamis ( Ancient Greek:) was a decisive naval battle between the Greek City-states and Persia in September 480 BC in the

On the other hand, much of the wealth of Athens came from its silver-mines at Laurion, and slaves, working in extremely poor conditions, produced the greatest part of the silver (although recent excavations seem to suggest the presence of free workers at Laureion). Athenian democracy developed in the Greek City-state of Athens Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Laurion redirects here For the Moth Genus, see Laurion (moth. During the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, twenty thousand Athenian slaves, including both mine-workers and artisans, escaped to the Spartans when their army camped at Decelea in 413 BC. Decelea (Greek Δεκέλεια modern Dekeleia or Dekelia, Deceleia or Decelia, previous name Tatoi, was an ancient village in Events By place Greece After suffering a defeat in which the Athenian commander Lamachus is killed Demosthenes suggests

Other than flight, resistance on the part of slaves occurred only rarely. GEM de Ste. Croix gives two reasons:

  1. slaves came from various regions and spoke various languages
  2. a slave-holder could rely on the support of fellow slave-holders if his slaves offered resistance. Geoffrey Ernest Maurice de Ste Croix ( February 10, 1910 – February 5, 2000) was a British historian who specialized in examining

Athens had various categories of slave, such as:

The comedies of Menander show how the Athenians preferred to view a house-slave: as an enterprising and unscrupulous rascal, who must use his wits to profit from his master, rescue him from his troubles, or gain him the girl of his dreams. Menander ( Greek:, Menandros; ca 342&ndash291 BC Greek Dramatist, the best-known representative of Athenian New Comedy, was the son We have most of these plays in translations by Plautus and Terence, suggesting that the Romans liked the same genre. Titus Maccius Plautus (c 254–184 BCE commonly known as Plautus, was a Roman Playwright. Publius Terentius Afer (195/185&ndash159 BC better known as Terence, was a Playwright of the Roman Republic. And the same sort of tale has not yet become extinct, as the popularity of Jeeves and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum attest. Reginald Jeeves is a Fictional character in the short stories and novels of P A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and a book by Burt Shevelove and Larry

In some areas of Greece there existed a class of unfree labourers tied to the land and called penestae in Thessaly and helots in Sparta. The penestae (in Greek oι Πενέσται hoi penestai) were a class of unfree labourers tied to the land once inhabiting Thessaly, whose status was Thessalia redirects here For the Butterfly Genus, see Thessalia (butterfly. The helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were an unfree population group that formed the The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη Penestae and helots did not rate as chattel slaves; one could not freely buy and sell them. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another

Slavery in Rome

Main article: Slavery in ancient Rome

Estimates for the prevalence of slavery in the Roman Empire vary. The institution of Slavery in ancient Rome increased those held to a condition of more than persons under their legal system. Some estimate that the slave population in the 1st century consisted of approximately 1/3 of the total. A high proportion of the populations in Italy, present-day Tunisia, southern Spain and western Anatolia consisted of slaves. The overall proportion of slaves may have not have reached 20% for the whole Empire of 12-15 million people, but there are few reliable statistics. The best statistic that we have refers to Roman Egypt, in which slaves made up only 7% of the total population. The provinces with more expensive labour (like Roman Italy) absorbed a large number of slaves that came from provinces with low wages.

In Republican Rome, the law recognised slaves as a social class, and some authors have found in their condition the earliest concept of a proletariat, given that the only property they might own was the gift of reproduction. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. The proletariat (from Latin la ''proles'' "offspring" is a term used to identify a lower Social class; a member of such a class is proletarian Slaves lived then within this class with very little hope of a better life; and free men owned and exchanged them just like goods. Personal life (or everyday life or human existence) is the course of an individual Human 's life especially when viewed as the sum of personal choices They had a price as "human instruments"; their life had not, and their patron could freely even kill them.

Most of the gladiators came from the ranks of the slaves. Gladiators (gladiatores "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword" from la ''gladius'' "sword" were professional fighters in Ancient Rome who fought One of them, Spartacus, formed an army of slaves that battled the Roman senatorial forces for several years in the Third Servile War (73 - 71 BCE). Spartacus (c 109 BC-71 BC according to Roman historians was a Slave who became the leader (or possibly one of several leaders in the unsuccessful slave The Third Servile War, also called the Gladiator War and The War of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last of a series of unrelated and unsuccessful slave

Augustus punished a wealthy Roman, one Vedius Pollio, for feeding clumsy slaves to his eels; and the Empire brought into force and steadily extended laws restricting the power of masters over their slaves and children; however, we cannot know how well the authorities enforced such laws. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Publius Vedius Pollio (d 15 BC was a Roman equestrian of the 1st century BC and a friend of the Roman emperor Augustus, who appointed him to a position A lamprey (sometimes also called lamprey eel) is a Jawless fish with a toothed funnel-like sucking mouth The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial

Martial's epigrams refer to the extreme cruelty shown to slaves in Roman society. Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial) (March 1 40 AD - ca An epigram is a short Poem, often with a clever twist at the end or a concise and witty statement He chides, for example, a man named Rufus for flogging his cook for a minor mistake:

"You say, Rufus, that your rabbit has not been cooked well,
and you call for a whip. Flagellation is the act of whipping (Latin flagellum, "whip" the human body
You prefer to cut up your cook,
rather than your rabbit. "
Book III, No. 94

Claudius (ruled 41 - 54 CE) ruled that if a master abandoned an old or sick slave and the slave recovered, the slave became free. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Under Nero (ruled 54 - 68 CE), slaves gained the right to complain against their masters in court. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Under Antoninus Pius (ruled 138 - 168), a slave could claim his freedom if treated cruelly, and a master who killed his slave without just cause could go on trial for homicide. Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius List of countries by homicide rate Homicide ( Latin homicidium, homo human being + caedere to cut kill refers to the act of killing another At the same time, it became more difficult for a person to fall into slavery under Roman law. By the time of Diocletian (ruled 284 - 305), free men could not sell their children — or even themselves — into slavery, and creditors could not claim insolvent debtors as slaves. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate

Freedmen and freedwomen, called liberti, formed a separate class in Roman society at all periods. A freedman is a former slave who has been manumitted or emancipated. They had the Phrygian cap as their symbol. The Phrygian cap is a soft red conical cap with the top pulled forward worn in antiquity by the inhabitants of Phrygia, a region of central Anatolia These people remained few in numbers, but Rome needed to demonstrate at times the great frank spirit of this "civitas", and so trumpeted the freed slaves as hopeful examples. Freed people suffered some minor legal disabilities that show in fact how otherwise open the society was to them — they could not hold certain high offices and they could not marry into the senatorial classes. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. They might grow rich and influential, but free-born Romans still looked down on them as vulgar nouveaux riches, like Trimalchio. Nouveau riche ( French for "new rich" or new money, refers to a person who has acquired considerable Wealth within his or her Trimalchio is a character in the Roman " novel " The Satyricon by Petronius. Their children had no prohibitions.

The Latin poet Horace, the son of a freedman, served as a military officer in the army of Marcus Junius Brutus and seemed headed for a political career before the defeat of Brutus by Octavian and Mark Antony. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ( Venosa, December 8, 65 BC - Rome, November 27, 8 BC known in the English-speaking world as Horace Marcus Junius Brutus (85&ndash42 BC or Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Though Horace may count as an exceptional case, freedmen did become an important part of Roman administration. Freedmen of the Imperial families often provided the main functionaries in the Imperial administration. Some rose to positions of great power and influence, for example Narcissus, a freedman of the Emperor Claudius. Tiberius Claudius Narcissus ( fl 1st century was one of the freedmen who formed the core of the imperial court under the Roman emperor Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to

Many historians credit this improvement to the influence of Stoicism and of Christianity. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The Stoics regarded all men as manifestations of the same universal spirit, and thus by nature equal. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC At the same time, however, Stoicism held that external circumstances (such as being enslaved) did not truly impede a person from practicing the Stoic ideal of inner self-mastery: one of the more important Roman stoics, Epictetus, spent his youth as a slave. Epictetus ( Greek:; ca 55&ndashca 135 was a Greek Stoic philosopher.

Both the Stoics and the early Christians opposed the ill-treatment of slaves, rather than slavery itself, and Saint Paul's Epistle to Philemon directly addressed a Christian master's treatment of his Christian slave. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and The Epistle to Philemon is a prison letter from Paul of Tarsus to Philemon, a leader in the Colossian church. Keith R. Bradley argues, indeed, that the influence of such texts as "obey your masters. . . with fear and trembling" may have made beatings more common in late Antiquity. Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in Many Christian leaders (such as Gregory of Nyssa and John Chrysostom) often called for good treatment for slaves and condemned slavery. Gregory of Nyssa ( Greek: Άγιος Γρηγόριος Νύσσης Latin: Gregorius Nyssenus; Arabic: غريغوريوس النيصي This article refers to the Christian saint For other uses of the name see Chrysostomos. In fact, tradition describes Pope Clement I (term c. Saint 92 - 99), Pope Pius I (term c. Year 92 was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 99 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Pope 158 - 167) and Pope Callixtus I (term c. 217 - 222) as former slaves. Events By Place Roman Empire April 8 — Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian Guard Events By Place Roman Empire March 11 — Elagabalus is assassinated along with his mother Julia Soemias by legionnaires during [2]

Also children of slaves would become slaves instantly and belong to the same master.

See also

References

  1. ^ Ancient Slavery
  2. ^ BBC - History - Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome
  3. ^ Slavery in Ancient Rome
  4. ^ G.E.M. de Ste. Croix. Geoffrey Ernest Maurice de Ste Croix ( February 10, 1910 – February 5, 2000) was a British historian who specialized in examining The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World, 409 ff. The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World from the Archaic Age to the Arab Conquests (ISBN 01-9872-112-9 published in 1982, is a major work of the British - Ch. VII, § ii The Theory of Natural Slavery.  
  5. ^ Ancient Greece

This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone

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