Citizendia
Your Ad Here

Certainty series:
This box: view • talk • edit
This article is about the philosophical term. A related article is titled Uncertainty. For statistical certainty see Probability. Nihilism (from the Latin nihil, nothing is a philosophical position that argues that Existence is without objective meaning Purpose Agnosticism ( Greek: α- a-, without + γνώσις gnōsis, knowledge after Gnosticism) is the philosophical view that the Uncertainty is a term used in subtly different ways in a number of fields including Philosophy, Statistics, Economics, Finance, Insurance Probability is the likelihood or chance that something is the case or will happen An approximation (represented by the symbol ≈ is an inexact representation of something that is still close enough to be useful Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge A related article is titled Uncertainty. For statistical certainty see Probability. Determinism is the philosophical Proposition that every event including human cognition and behaviour decision and action is causally determined For the metal band, see Skepticism (band). Skepticism is a funeral doom metal band from Finland. Formed in 1991, they are regarded as one of the pioneers of the genre
"Skeptic" redirects here. For magazines, see Skeptic (magazine) and The Skeptic

In ordinary usage, skepticism or scepticism (Greek: skeptomai, to look about, to consider; see also spelling differences) refers to

  1. an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object,
  2. the doctrine that true knowledge or knowledge in a particular area is uncertain, or
  3. the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics (Merriam–Webster). The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c American and British English spelling differences are one aspect of American and British English differences. Doctrine (Latin doctrina) is a codification of beliefs or "a body of teachings quot or "instructions" taught principles or positions as the Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding

In philosophy, skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language These include propositions about

  1. an inquiry
  2. the limitations of knowledge,
  3. a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing,
  4. the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values,
  5. a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment,

In classical philosophy, skepticism refers to the teachings and the traits of the Skeptikoi, a school of philosophers of whom it was said that they "asserted nothing but only opined" (Liddell and Scott). This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity through the Roman Empire marked the end of Hellenistic In this sense, philosophical skepticism, or Pyrrhonism, is the philosophical position that one should avoid the postulation of final truths. For a general discussion of skepticism see Skepticism. Philosophical skepticism (from Greek σκέψις - skepsis meaning Pyrrhonism, or Pyrrhonian skepticism, was a school of Skepticism founded by Aenesidemus in the first century BC and recorded by Sextus Empiricus Turned on itself, skepticism would question that skepticism is a valid perspective at all.

In religion, skepticism refers to "doubt concerning basic religious principles (as immortality, providence, and revelation)" (Merriam–Webster). A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos

The word skepticism can characterize a position on a single claim, but in scholastic circles more frequently describes a lasting mindset and an approach to accepting or rejecting new information. Individuals who proclaim to have a skeptical outlook are frequently called skeptics, often without regard to whether it is philosophical skepticism or empirical skepticism that they profess.

Contents

Philosophical skepticism

Main article: philosophical skepticism

In philosophical skepticism, pyrrhonism is a position that refrains from making truth claims. For a general discussion of skepticism see Skepticism. Philosophical skepticism (from Greek σκέψις - skepsis meaning A philosophical skeptic does not claim that truth is impossible (which would be a truth claim). The label is commonly used to describe other philosophies which appear similar to philosophical skepticism, such as "academic" skepticism, an ancient variant of Platonism that claimed knowledge of truth was impossible. Empiricism is a closely related, but not identical, position to philosophical skepticism. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Empiricists see empiricism as a pragmatic compromise between philosophical skepticism and nomothetic science; philosophical skepticism is in turn sometimes referred to as "radical empiricism. Nomothetic literally means "proposition of the law" (Greek derivation and is used in both Philosophy (see also Nomothetic and idiographic) and in Psychology "

Philosophical skepticism (in the West) originated in ancient Greek philosophy. Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. One of its first proponents was Pyrrho of Elis (c. Pyrrho (ca 360 BC - ca 270 BC a Greek Philosopher of Classical antiquity, is credited as being the first Skeptic philosopher and the inspiration Elis, or Eleia ( Greek, Modern Ήλιδα Ilida, Ancient Ēlis, Doric: Alis, Elean: Walis) is an ancient 360-275 B. C. ), who traveled and studied as far as India, and propounded the adoption of 'practical' skepticism. The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent Subsequently, in the 'New Academy' Arcesilaus (c. Arcesilaus (Ἀρκεσίλαος (ca 316-ca 241 BC was a Greek Philosopher and founder of the Second or Middle Academy &mdashthe skeptical 315-241 B. C. ) and Carneades (c. Carneades (Καρνεάδης (c 214 – 129 BC) was a radical Skeptic born in Cyrene and the first of the Philosophers to pronounce 213-129 B. C. ) developed more theoretical perspectives, by which conceptions of absolute truth and falsity were refuted as uncertain. Carneades criticized the views of the Dogmatists, especially supporters of Stoicism, asserting that absolute certainty of knowledge is impossible. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Sextus Empiricus (c. Sextus Empiricus (c 160-210 AD was a Physician and Philosopher, and has been variously reported to have lived in Alexandria, Rome, or A. D. 200), the main authority for Greek skepticism, developed the position further, incorporating aspects of empiricism into the basis for asserting knowledge. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience.

Greek skeptics criticized the Stoics, accusing them of dogmatism. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Dogma (the plural is either dogmata or dogmas, Greek, plural) is the established Belief or For the skeptics, the logical mode of argument was untenable, as it relied on propositions which could not be said to be either true or false without relying on further propositions. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. This was the regress argument, whereby every proposition must rely on other propositions in order to maintain its validity (see the five tropes of Agrippa the Sceptic). The regress argument (also known as the diallelus) is a problem in Epistemology and in general a problem in any situation where a statement has to be justified For other uses of this name see Agrippa (disambiguation. Agrippa (Ἀγρίππας was a Sceptic Philosopher who probably In addition, the skeptics argued that two propositions could not rely on each other, as this would create a circular argument (as p implies q and q implies p). In Logic, begging the question has traditionally described a type of Logical fallacy (also called petitio principii) in which the proposition For the skeptics such logic was thus an inadequate measure of truth which could create as many problems as it claimed to have solved. Truth was not, however, necessarily unobtainable, but rather an idea which did not yet exist in a pure form. Although skepticism was accused of denying the possibility of truth, in actual fact it appears to have mainly been a critical school which merely claimed that logicians had not discovered truth.

René Descartes is credited for developing a global skepticism, as a thought experiment in his attempt to find absolute certainty on which to base as the foundation of his philosophy. A thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is a proposal for an Experiment that would test a Hypothesis or Theory David Hume has also been described as a global skeptic. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy However, Descartes was not himself a skeptic and developed his theory of an absolute certainty to disprove other skeptics who argued that there is no certainty.

Scientific skepticism

Main article: Scientific skepticism

A scientific (or empirical) skeptic is one who questions the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation. Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism ( also spelled scepticism) sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry, is a scientific or practical A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence The scientific method details the specific process by which this investigation of reality is conducted. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Reality, in everyday usage means "the state of things as they actually exist" Considering the rigor of the scientific method, science itself may simply be thought of as an organized form of skepticism. This does not mean that the scientific skeptic is necessarily a scientist who conducts live experiments (though this may be the case), but that the skeptic generally accepts claims that are in his/her view likely to be true based on testable hypotheses and critical thinking. A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible Critical thinking consists of mental processes of discernment, Analysis and Evaluation.

Common topics that scientifically-skeptical literature questions include health claims surrounding certain foods, procedures, and medicines, such as homeopathy, Reiki, Thought Field Therapy (TFT), vertebral subluxations; the plausibility of supernatural entities (such as ghosts, poltergeists, angels, and gods); as well as the existence of ESP/telekinesis, psychic powers, and telepathy (and thus the credibility of parapsychology); topics in cryptozoology, Bigfoot, the Loch Ness monster, alien visitations, UFOs, crop circles, astrology, repressed memories, creationism, intelligent design, dowsing, conspiracy theories, and other claims the skeptic sees as unlikely to be true on scientific grounds. This article has been the subject of edit wars and has been placed on probation is a Spiritual practice developed in 1922 by Mikao Usui. After three weeks of Fasting and Meditating on Mount Kurama, in Japan Thought Field Therapy, or TFT, is an alternative treatment developed by an American psychologist Roger Callahan Ph Vertebral subluxation is a Chiropractic term that is used to describe a myriad of signs and symptoms ( Syndrome) thought to occur as a result of a misaligned or The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events A ghost is said to be the apparition of a Deceased person frequently similar in appearance to that person and usually encountered in places she or he frequented (from German poltern, meaning to rumble or make noise and Geist, meaning " Ghost ", " Spirit " An angel is a Spiritual Supernatural being found in many Religions Although the nature of angels and the tasks given to them vary from tradition to tradition See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always Extrasensory perception (ESP is the apparent ability to acquire information by Paranormal means independent of any known physical Senses or deduction from previous The term psychokinesis (from the Greek ψυχή, "psyche" meaning mind soul heart or breath; and κίνησις, "kinesis" The word psychic (ˈsaɪkɨk from the Greek psychikos—"of the soul mental" refers to the claimed ability to perceive things hidden from the normal senses Telepathy ( Greek τηλε tele meaning "distant" and πάθεια patheia meaning "to be affected by" describes the purported transfer Parapsychology is a discipline that seeks to demonstrate the existence and causes of Psychic abilities and life after death using the Scientific method Cryptozoology (from Greek κρυπτός kruptos, "hidden" + Zoology; literally "study of hidden animals" is the study of and search Bigfoot or Sasquatch is alleged to be an Ape -like creature inhabiting remote forests mainly in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada The Loch Ness Monster ( Nessiteras rhombopteryx) is an alleged animal family and upward Incertae sedis, purportedly inhabiting Scotland 's Loch Ness Extraterrestrial life is Life originating outside of the Earth. Crop circles are patterns created by the flattening of crops such as Wheat, Barley, Rapeseed (also called "canola" Rye Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems Repressed memory is a theoretical concept used to describe a significant Memory, usually of a traumatic nature that has become unavailable for recall also called "Creationism" can also refer to Creation myths in general or to a concept about the origin of the soul. Intelligent Dowsing, sometimes called doodlebugging, divining or water witching, is a practice whereby dowsers attempt to locate hidden Water wells A conspiracy theory attributes the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually Political, Social or Historical events or the concealment

Empirical or scientific skeptics do not profess philosophical skepticism. Whereas a philosophical skeptic may deny the very existence of knowledge, an empirical skeptic merely seeks likely proof before accepting that knowledge.

Activist skepticism

Main article: Debunker

Activist skeptics, self-described "debunkers" are a subset of scientific skeptics who aim to expose in public what they see as the truth behind specific extraordinary claims. A debunker is an individual who discredits and exposes claims as being false exaggerated unscientific or pretentious A debunker is an individual who discredits and exposes claims as being false exaggerated unscientific or pretentious Debunkers may publish books, air TV programs, create websites, or use other means to advocate their message. In some cases they may challenge claimants outright or even stage elaborate hoaxes to prove their point, such as Project Alpha. A hoax is a deliberate attempt to Dupe, Deceive or trick an audience into believing or accepting that something is real when in fact it is not or that For the military project see Project Alpha (military. Project Alpha was a Hoax orchestrated by the stage magician and

Because debunkers often challenge popular ideas, many are not strangers to controversy. Critics of debunkers sometimes accuse them of robbing others of hope. Debunkers frequently reply that it is the claimant, whom they many times accuse of exploiting public gullibility, who is guilty of abuse.

Religious skepticism

Main article: Religious skepticism

Religious skepticism is skepticism regarding faith-based claims. Religious skepticism is a type of Skepticism relating to Religion, but should not be confused with Atheism. Religious skeptics may focus on the core tenets of religions, such as the existence of divine beings, or reports of earthly miracles. The world's principal Religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small number of major groups or world religions'. A miracle is an event believed to be caused by interposition of Divine intervention by a Supernatural being in the Universe by which the ordinary operation A religious skeptic is not necessarily an atheist or agnostic. Atheism Agnosticism ( Greek: α- a-, without + γνώσις gnōsis, knowledge after Gnosticism) is the philosophical view that the

Notes and references

Further reading

See also

Literary skeptics

Organizations

Media

External links

Dictionary

skepticism

-noun

  1. (US) The practice or philosophy of being a skeptic.
  2. (US) A studied attitude of questioning and doubt
  3. (US) The doctrine that absolute knowledge is not possible
  4. (US) A methodology that starts from doubt and aims to acquire certainty
  5. (US) Doubt or disbelief of religious doctrines
© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic