Smelt-whitings Fossil range: Eocene - Recent
A catch of Japanese whiting, Sillago japonica
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Actinopterygii Order: Perciformes Suborder: Percoidei Superfamily: Percoidea Family: Sillaginidae Richardson, 1846
Type genus
Sillago Cuvier, 1817
Genera
Sillaginodes Sillaginopsis Sillago See text for species. The Eocene epoch (558 ± 02 - 339 ± 01 Ma) is a major division of the Geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in The Japanese whiting, Sillago japonica, (also known as the Japanese sillago or Shiro-gisu) is a common species of Coastal marine Chordates ( Phylum Chordata) are a group of Animals that includes the Vertebrates together with several closely related Invertebrates The Actinopterygii (the plural form of Actinopterygius) comprise the class of the ray-finned fishes. The Perciformes, also called the Percomorphi or Acanthopteri, include about 40% of all bony Fish and are the largest order of vertebrates. Percoidei is one of eighteen suborders of bony fish in the order Perciformes. Percoidea is a Superfamily of Fish of the order Perciformes. Sir John Richardson ( November 5, 1787 &ndash June 5, 1865) was a Scottish naval surgeon, naturalist In biology a type is that which fixes a name to a Taxon. Depending on the nomenclature code which is applied to the organism in question a type may be a specimen Sillago is one of three genera in the family Sillaginidae containing the smelt-whitings and contains 29 Species, making Sillago the A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic The King George whiting, Sillaginodes punctatus (also known as the spotted whiting or spotted sillago) is a Coastal marine The Gangetic whiting, Sillaginopsis panijus (also known as the flathead sillago) is a Species of Inshore Marine and Estuarine Sillago is one of three genera in the family Sillaginidae containing the smelt-whitings and contains 29 Species, making Sillago the

The Sillaginidae, commonly known as the smelt-whitings, whitings, sillaginids, sand borers and sand-smelts, are a family of benthic coastal marine fishes in the order Perciformes. In Biological classification, family ( Latin The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a Body of water such as an Ocean or a Lake, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface The coast is defined as the part of the land adjoining or near the Ocean. Marine is an Umbrella term. As an adjective it is usually applicable to things relating to the Sea or Ocean, such as Marine biology, Marine Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two This article is about the taxonomic rank for the sequence of species in a taxonomic list see Taxonomic order In scientific classification used The Perciformes, also called the Percomorphi or Acanthopteri, include about 40% of all bony Fish and are the largest order of vertebrates. The smelt-whitings inhabit a wide region covering much of the Indo-Pacific, from the west coast of Africa east to Japan and south to Australia. The Indo-Pacific is a biogeographic region of the earth's seas comprising the tropical waters of the Indian Ocean, the western and central Pacific Ocean For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The family is comprised of only three genera and thirty one species, of which a number are dubious, with the last major revision of the family in 1992 unable to confirm the validity of a number of species. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. They are elongate, slightly compressed fish often light brown to silver in colour with a variety of markings and patterns on their upper body. The Sillaginidae are not related to a number of fishes commonly called 'whiting' in the Northern Hemisphere, including the fish originally called whiting, Merlangius merlangus. A number of Actinopterygiian Fish have been given the common name whiting. Northern Hemisphere is the half of a Planet that is North of the Equator —the word hemisphere literally means 'half ball'

The smelt-whitings are mostly inshore fishes that inhabit sandy, silty and muddy substrates on both low and high energy environments ranging from protected tidal flats and estuaries to surf zones. Stream substrate ( Sediment) is the material that rests at the bottom of a Stream. Mudflats (also tidal flats, tide flats, etc are coastal wetlands that form when mud is deposited by tides or rivers An estuary is a semi-enclosed Coastal body of Water with one or more Rivers or Streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open As Ocean surface waves come closer to Shore they break forming the foamy bubbly surface we call surf. A few species predominantly live offshore on deep sand shoals and reefs, although the larvae and juvenile phases of most species return to inshore grounds, where they spend the first few years of their lives. A shoal or sandbar (also called sandbank) is a somewhat Linear Landform within or extending into a body of Water, In nautical terminology a reef is a rock, sandbar, or other feature lying beneath the surface of the water (six fathoms or less at low water Smelt-whitings are benthic carnivores that prey predominantly on polychaetes, a variety of crustaceans, molluscs and to a lesser extent echinoderms and fish, feeding by detecting vibrations emitted by their prey. A carnivore (ˈkɑrnɪvɔər meaning 'meat eater' ( Latin carne meaning 'flesh' and vorare meaning 'to devour' is any animal with a diet consisting The Polychaeta or polychaetes are a class of Annelid worms generally marine Structure of crustaceans As Arthropods crustaceans have a stiff Exoskeleton, which must be shed to allow the animal to grow ( Ecdysis or molting Molluscs are animals belonging to the phylum Mollusca. There are around 250000 extant Species within the phylum with an estimated 70000 Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata) are a phylum of marine Animals (including Sea stars)

The family is highly important to fisheries throughout the Indo-Pacific, with species such as the Northern whiting, Japanese whiting and King George whiting forming the basis of major fisheries throughout their range. For the fishing industry and the practice of fishing see Fishing. The northern whiting, Sillago sihama (also known as the silver whiting and sand smelt) is a marine Fish, the most widespread and The Japanese whiting, Sillago japonica, (also known as the Japanese sillago or Shiro-gisu) is a common species of Coastal marine The King George whiting, Sillaginodes punctatus (also known as the spotted whiting or spotted sillago) is a Coastal marine Many species are also of major importance to small subsistence fisheries while others are little more than occasional bycatch. Subsistence is the food necessary to sustain life The following is a list of subsistence techniques: Hunting and Gathering Smelt-whitings are caught by a number of methods including trawling, seine nets and cast nets. Trawling is a method of Fishing that involves pulling a large Fishing net through the water behind one or more boats A fishing net or fishnet is a net that is used for Fishing. Fishing nets are Meshes usually formed by Knotting a relatively thin thread In Australia and Japan in particular, members of the family are often highly sought by recreational fishermen who also seek the fish for their prized flesh.

Contents 1 Taxonomy 1.1 Classification 2 Evolution 3 Phylogeny 4 Morphology 5 Distribution and habitat 6 Biology 6.1 Diet and feeding 6.2 Predators 6.3 Reproduction 7 Relationship to humans 7.1 Commercial fisheries 7.2 Recreational fisheries 7.3 Aquaculture 8 References 9 External links

Taxonomy

The first species of sillaginid to be scientifically described was Sillago sihama, by Peter Forsskål in 1775, who initially referred the species to a genus of hardyhead, Atherina. The northern whiting, Sillago sihama (also known as the silver whiting and sand smelt) is a marine Fish, the most widespread and Peter Forsskål, sometimes spelled Pehr Forsskål, Peter Forskaol, Petrus Forskål or Pehr Forsskåhl, ( 11 January, 1732 UserPolbot. --> Atherina boyeri is a species of Fish in the Atherinidae family ^[1] It was not until 1817 that the type genus Sillago was created by Georges Cuvier based on his newly described species Sillago acuta, which was later found to be a junior synonym of S. Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier ( August 23 1769 &ndash May 13, 1832) was a French naturalist In Scientific nomenclature, synonyms are different Scientific names used for a single Taxon. sihama and subsequently discarded. Cuvier continued to describe species of sillaginid with the publishing of his ichthyological work Histoire Naturelle des Poissons with Achille Valenciennes in 1829, also erecting the genus Sillaginodes in this work. Ichthyology (from Greek ἰχθυ ikhthu, "fish" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the branch of Zoology devoted to the study Histoire Naturelle des Poissons was a 22-volume study of Ichthyology written by Georges Cuvier and his student Achille Valenciennes in the 1830s Achille Valenciennes ( August 9, 1794 - April 13, 1865) was a French Zoologist. The King George whiting, Sillaginodes punctatus (also known as the spotted whiting or spotted sillago) is a Coastal marine ^[1] The species Cheilodipterus panijus was named in 1822 by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton and was subsequently reexamined by Theodore Gill in 1861, leading to the creation of the monotypic genus Sillaginopsis. Theodore Nicholas Gill ( March 21, 1837 – September 25, 1914) was an American Ichthyologist, Mammalogist, Monotypic is an adjective that refers to a taxonomic group with only one type: In Botany, "monotypic" means that a Taxon has only The Gangetic whiting, Sillaginopsis panijus (also known as the flathead sillago) is a Species of Inshore Marine and Estuarine John Richardson was the first to propose that Sillago, the only genus of sillaginid then recognised, be assigned to their own taxonomic family, "Sillaginidae" (used interchangeably with 'Sillaginoidae'), at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Sir John Richardson ( November 5, 1787 &ndash June 5, 1865) was a Scottish naval surgeon, naturalist ^[2] There were, however, many differing opinions on the relationships of the "sillaginoids", leading to the naturalists of the day continually revising the position of the three genera, placing in them in a number of families. The first review of the sillaginid fishes was Gill's 1861 work "Synopsis of the sillaginoids", in which the name "Sillaginidae" was popularized and expanded on to include Sillaginodes and Sillaginopsis,^[3] however the debate on the placement of the family remained controversial. ^[4]

In the years after Gill's paper was published, over thirty 'new' species of sillaginid were reported and scientifically described, many of which were synonyms of previously described species, with similarity between species as well as minor geographical variation confounding taxonomists. This article deals with the general meaning of the term "synonym" Genetic diversity is a level of Biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos ^[5] It wasn't until 1985 when Roland McKay of the Queensland Museum published a comprehensive review of the family that these relationships were formally resolved, although a number of species are still listed as doubtful, with McKay unable to locate the holotypes. The Queensland Museum is a museum at South Bank in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Along with the review of previously described species, McKay described an additional seven species, a number of which he described as subspecies. In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. ^[4] After this 1985 paper, additional specimens came to light, proving that all the subspecies he had identified were individual species. In Biology, a specimen is an individual Animal, part of an animal Plant, part of a plant or Microorganism used as a representative to In 1992 McKay published a synopsis of the Sillaginidae for the FAO, in which he elevated these subspecies to full species status. ^[5]

The name "Sillaginidae" was derived from Cuvier's Sillago, which itself takes its name from a locality in Australia,^[6] possibly Sillago reef off the coast of Queensland. The Whitsunday Islands are a collective of continental Islands of various sizes off the coast of Queensland, Australia, situated between Townsville ^[7] The term Sillago is derived from the Greek term "syllego", which means "to meet". ^[8]

Classification

The following is a comprehensive list of the 31 known extant species of sillaginids, with a number of the species still in doubt due to the loss of the holotype specimen. In zoological nomenclature, a nomen dubium ( Latin for "doubtful name" plural nomina dubia) is a scientific name that is A holotype is one of several possible Biological types A type is what fixes a name to a Taxon. This classification follows Fishbase, which itself is based on McKay's last revision of the family. FishBase is a comprehensive Database of information about Fish. ^[8]

• Family SILLAGINIDAE
  • Genus Sillaginodes
    • King George whiting, Sillaginodes punctatus (Cuvier, 1829). The oriental trumpeter whiting, Sillago aeolus, is a widely distributed species of benthic inshore fish in the smelt-whiting family The southern school whiting, Sillago bassensis, (also known as the silver whiting or trawl whiting) is a common Species of coastal marine fish The sand whiting, Sillago ciliata, (also known as the summer whiting or blue-nose whiting) is a common species of coastal marine Fish The club-foot whiting, Sillago chondropus, (also known as the Horrelvoet sillago) is a Coastal marine Fish of the smelt whiting family The bay whiting, Sillago ingenuua, is a species of Coastal marine Fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The King George whiting, Sillaginodes punctatus (also known as the spotted whiting or spotted sillago) is a Coastal marine The King George whiting, Sillaginodes punctatus (also known as the spotted whiting or spotted sillago) is a Coastal marine
  • Genus Sillaginopsis
    • Gangetic whiting, Sillaginopsis panijus (Hamilton, 1822). The Gangetic whiting, Sillaginopsis panijus (also known as the flathead sillago) is a Species of Inshore Marine and Estuarine The Gangetic whiting, Sillaginopsis panijus (also known as the flathead sillago) is a Species of Inshore Marine and Estuarine Dr Francis Buchanan, later known as Francis Hamilton but often referred to as Francis Buchanan-Hamilton ( February 15, 1762 - June 15
  • Genus Sillago
    • Oriental trumpeter whiting, Sillago aeolus (Jordan & Evermann, 1902)
    • Golden lined whiting, Sillago analis (Whitley, 1943)
    • Shortnose whiting, Sillago arabica (McKay & McCarthy, 1989)
    • Silver-banded whiting, Sillago argentifasciata (Martin & Montalban, 1935)
    • Asian whiting, Sillago asiatica (McKay, 1982)
    • Slender whiting, Sillago attenuata (McKay, 1985)
    • Southern school whiting, Sillago bassensis (Cuvier, 1829)
    • Boutan's whiting, Sillago boutani (Pellegrin, 1905)
    • Western trumpeter whiting, Sillago burrus (Richardson, 1842)
    • Club-foot whiting, Sillago chondropus (Bleeker, 1849)
    • Sand whiting, Sillago ciliata (Cuvier, 1829)
    • Eastern school whiting, Sillago flindersi (McKay, 1985)
    • Indian whiting, Sillago indica (McKay, Dutt & Sujatha, 1985)
    • Bay whiting, Sillago ingenuua (McKay, 1985)
    • Thai whiting, Sillago intermedius (Wongratana, 1977)
    • Japanese whiting, Sillago japonica (Temminck & Schlegel, 1843)
    • Mud whiting, Sillago lutea (McKay, 1985)
    • Large-scale whiting, Sillago macrolepis (Bleeker, 1859)
    • Trumpeter whiting, Sillago maculata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824)
    • Large-headed whiting, Sillago megacephalus (Lin, 1933)
    • Small-eyed whiting, Sillago microps (McKay, 1985)
    • Rough whiting, Sillago nierstraszi (Hardenberg, 1941)
    • Small-scale whiting, Sillago parvisquamis (Gill, 1861)
    • Stout whiting, Sillago robusta (Stead, 1908)
    • Yellowfin whiting, Sillago schomburgkii (Peters, 1864)
    • Northern whiting, Sillago sihama (Forsskål, 1775)
    • Soringa whiting, Sillago soringa (Dutt and Sujatha, 1982)
    • Estuarine whiting, Sillago vincenti (McKay, 1980)
    • Western school whiting, Sillago vittata (McKay, 1985)

Evolution

A number of sillaginids have been identified from the fossil record, with the lower Eocene marking the first appearance of the family. Sillago is one of three genera in the family Sillaginidae containing the smelt-whitings and contains 29 Species, making Sillago the The oriental trumpeter whiting, Sillago aeolus, is a widely distributed species of benthic inshore fish in the smelt-whiting family David Starr Jordan PhD LLD ( January 19, 1851 &ndash September 19, 1931) was a leading eugenicist, Ichthyologist Barton Warren Evermann ( October 24, 1853 &ndash September 27, 1932) was an American ichthyologist. The golden lined whiting, Sillago analis (also known as the Tin Can Bay whiting or rough-scale whiting) is a Species of Inshore Gilbert Percy Whitley ( 9 June 1903 – 18 July 1975) was a British-born Australian ichthyologist who was effectively Curator The shortnose whiting, Sillago arabica, is a recently described and poorly known Species of Inshore marine Fish of the smelt whiting The silver-banded whiting, Sillago argentifasciata, is a narrowly distributed Species of Inshore marine Fish of the smelt whiting The Asian whiting, Sillago asiatica, is a Species Inshore marine Fish in the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae, distributed The Slender whiting, Sillago attenuata, is a poorly known Species of Inshore marine Fish of the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae The southern school whiting, Sillago bassensis, (also known as the silver whiting or trawl whiting) is a common Species of coastal marine fish Boutan's whiting, Sillago boutani, is a poorly understood Species of coastal marine fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae that inhabits Jacques Pellegrin ( 12 June 1873 - 12 August 1944) was a French zoologist. The western trumpeter whiting, Sillago burrus, is a species of marine Fish of the smelt whiting family Sillaginidae that is commonly found along The club-foot whiting, Sillago chondropus, (also known as the Horrelvoet sillago) is a Coastal marine Fish of the smelt whiting family The sand whiting, Sillago ciliata, (also known as the summer whiting or blue-nose whiting) is a common species of coastal marine Fish The eastern school whiting, Sillago flindersi (also known as the redspot whiting and the Bass Strait whiting) is a Species of Benthic The Indian whiting, Sillago indica, is a poorly known Species of Coastal marine Fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae The bay whiting, Sillago ingenuua, is a species of Coastal marine Fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The Thai whiting, Sillago intermedius, is a species of Coastal marine Fish of the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The Japanese whiting, Sillago japonica, (also known as the Japanese sillago or Shiro-gisu) is a common species of Coastal marine The mud whiting, Sillago lutea, is a species of Coastal marine Fish in the smelt-whiting family Sillaginidae. The large-scale whiting, Sillago macrolepis, is a poorly understood species of Coastal marine Fish of the smelt- whiting family Sillaginidae The trumpeter whiting, Sillago maculata, (also known as the winter whiting or diver whiting) is a common species of Coastal marine The large-headed whiting, Sillago megacephalus, is a dubious Species of coastal marine fish in the smelt-whiting family that has only been recorded The small-eyed whiting, Sillago microps, is a poorly known Species of Coastal marine Fish of the smelt-whiting family The rough whiting, Sillago nierstraszi, is a dubious Species of Coastal marine Fish in the smelt-whiting family The small-scale whiting, Sillago parvisquamis (also known as the blue whiting) is a species of Inshore marine Fish of the smelt-whiting The northern whiting, Sillago sihama (also known as the silver whiting and sand smelt) is a marine Fish, the most widespread and The Soringa whiting, Sillago soringa (also known simply as Soringa or Soringa sillago) is a poorly known Species of Coastal The estuarine whiting, Sillago vincenti (also known as Vincent's whiting) is a Species of Benthic Inshore marine The western school whiting, Sillago vittata (also known as the banded whiting, golden whiting and bastard whiting) is a Species FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. The Eocene epoch (558 ± 02 - 339 ± 01 Ma) is a major division of the Geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in The family is thought to have evolved in the Tethys Sea of central Australia, before colonizing southern Australia during the upper Eocene after a seaway broke through south of Tasmania. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 The Tethys Ocean was a Mesozoic era Ocean that existed between the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia before the opening of the Indian ^[5] During the Oligocene, the family spread to the north and south, occupying a much more extensive range than their current Indo-Pacific distribution. Fossils suggest the sillaginids ranged as far north as Poland and Germany, and as far south as New Zealand,^[9] found in shallow water sedimentary deposits along with other species of extant genera. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock types (the others being igneous and Metamorphic rock) ^[10]

There have been at least eight fossil sillaginid species found, all of which are believed to be of the genus Sillago based on the only remains found; otoliths. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. An otolith, (οτο- oto-, ear + λιθος lithos, a stone also called statoconium or otoconium is a structure in the Saccule Only one species of extant sillaginid, Sillago maculata, has been found in the fossil record, and this was in very recent Pleistocene sediments. The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of ^[11]

• Sillago campbellensis (Schwarzhans, 1985) Australia, Miocene^[12]
• Sillago hassovicus (Koken, 1891) Poland, Middle Miocene^[10]
• Sillago maculata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) New Zealand, Middle Pleistocene^[11]
• Sillago mckayi (Schwarzhans, 1985) Australia, Oligocene^[12]
• Sillago pliocaenica (Stinton, 1952) Australia, Pliocene^[13]
• Sillago recta (Schwarzhans, 1980) New Zealand, Upper Miocene^[9]
• Sillago schwarzhansi (Steurbaut, 1984) France, Lower Miocene^[14]
• Sillago ventriosus (Steurbaut, 1984) France, Upper Oligocene^[14]

Phylogeny

Sillaginidae   Sillago  Sillago Parasillago Sillaginopodys Sillaginodes Sillaginopsis Phylogeny of the Sillaginidae, illustrating the three subgenra of Sillago proposed by McKay. Sillago is one of three genera in the family Sillaginidae containing the smelt-whitings and contains 29 Species, making Sillago the The King George whiting, Sillaginodes punctatus (also known as the spotted whiting or spotted sillago) is a Coastal marine The Gangetic whiting, Sillaginopsis panijus (also known as the flathead sillago) is a Species of Inshore Marine and Estuarine [4]

The relationships of the Sillaginidae are poorly known, with very similar morphological characteristics and a lack of genetic studies restricting the ability to perform cladistic analyses on the family. The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry Being the fossil sillaginids are based on the comparison of fossil otoliths, with no other type of remains found thus far, this also prevents the reconstruction of the evolution of the family through fossil species. While the position of the Sillaginidae in the order Perciformes is firmly established due to a number of synapomorphies shared with other members of the order, no sister group has been established for the family. In Evolutionary biology, a synapomorphy is a derived Character state shared by two or more terminal groups ( taxa included in a Cladistic analysis Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry ^[15] The current taxonomic status of the family is thought to represent a basic picture of the group's phylogeny, with McKay further dividing the genus Sillago into three subgenera based on shared morphological characters of the swimbladder. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos In Biology, a subgenus is a Taxonomic rank directly below Genus. The genera Sillaginodes and Sillaginopsis have the most plesiomorphic characteristics; being monotypic, and distinct from Sillago. Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry Sillago is further divided into three subgenera based primarily on swim bladder morphology; Sillago, Parasillago and Sillaginopodys, which also represent evolutionary relationships. ^[5] Whilst genetic studies have not been done on the family, they have been used to establish the relationship of what were thought to be various subspecies of school whiting, S. bassensis and S. flindersi. ^[16] Furthermore, morphological data suggests a number of Australian species diverged very recently during the last glacial maximum, which caused land bridges to isolate populations of fish. An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets A land bridge, in Biogeography, is an Isthmus or other land connection between otherwise separate areas which allows Animals and Plants In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology The two aforementioned species of school whiting, S. maculata and S. burrus, and S. ciliata and S. analis are all thought to be products of such a process, although only the school whiting have anything other than similar morphology as evidence of this process. ^[4]

Morphology

The Sillaginidae are medium sized fishes which grow to an average of around 20 cm and around 100 g,^[17] although the largest member of the family, the King George whiting is known to reach 72 cm and 4. 8 kg in weight. In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object The body shape and fin placement of the family is quite similar to most of the members of the order Perciformes. ^[18] Their bodies are elongate, slightly compressed, with a head that tapers toward a terminal mouth. The mouth, buccal cavity, or oral cavity is the first portion of the Alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up The mouth has a band of brush-like teeth with canine teeth present only in the upper jaw of Sillaginopsis. "Cuspid" redirects here For the heart valves see Bicuspid valve and Tricuspid valve. The jaw is either of the two opposable structures forming or near the entrance to the Mouth. The cranial sensory system of the family is well developed above and laterally, with the lower jaw having a pair of small pores behind which is a median pit containing a pore on each side. In Fish, the lateral line is a Sense organ used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water On each side of the elongate head the operculum has a short sharp spine. The operculum of a bony fish is the hard bony flap covering and protecting the Gills In most fish the rear edge of the operculum roughly marks the division between They have two true dorsal fins; the anterior one supported by 10 to 13 spines while the long rear one is held up by a single leading spine followed by 16 to 27 soft rays. A dorsal fin is a Fin located on the backs of some Fishes Whales Dolphins and Porpoises as well as the (extinct In fields of Anatomy, anatomical terms of location are descriptive terms to help identify relative positions or directions within a species The Anatomy of Fish is primarily governed by the physical characteristics of Water, which is much denser than air holds a relatively small amount of dissolved The anal fin is similar to the second dorsal fin, having two small slender spines followed by 14 to 26 soft rays. The Anatomy of Fish is primarily governed by the physical characteristics of Water, which is much denser than air holds a relatively small amount of dissolved ^[18] Their bodies are covered in ctenoid scales, with the exception of the cheek which may have cycloid or ctenoid scales. Ctenoid means 'having the margin toothed like a comb' It is used to the scales of some fishes such as Perciforms that have such a toothed margin In most biological nomenclature a scale ( Greek lepid, Latin squama) is a small rigid plate that grows out of an Animal Cheeks ( Latin: buccae) constitute the area of the Face below the Eyes and between the Nose and the left or right Ear There is a wide variation in the amount of lateral line scales, ranging from 50 to 141. ^[15] The swimbladder in the Sillaginidae is either absent, poorly developed, or highly complex with anterior and lateral extensions that project well into the caudal region. gas bladder (also fish maw, less accurately swim bladder or air bladder) is an internal organ that contributes to the ability of a Fish In fields of Anatomy, anatomical terms of location are descriptive terms to help identify relative positions or directions within a species A unique duct-like process is present from the ventral surface of the swimbladder to just before the urogenital opening in most species. The urogenital opening is where Waste products of the body and reproductive fluids are expelled to the environment outside of the Body cavity. The presence and morphology of each species' swim bladder is often their major diagnostic feature, with McKay's three proposed subgenera based on swimbladder morphology alone. ^[4] The sillaginids have only a small range of body colourings and frequently the only colour characteristics to identify between species are the arrangements of spots and bars on their upper bodies. Most of the family are a pale brown - creamy white colour, while a few species are silver all over. The undersides of the fish are usually lighter than the upper side, and the fins range from yellow to transparent, often marked by bars and spots. ^[4]

Distribution and habitat

The Sillaginidae are distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region, ranging from the west coast of Africa to Japan and Taiwan in the east, as well occupying as a number of small islands including New Caledonia in the Pacific Ocean. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions ^[15] While they have a fairly wide distribution, the highest species densities occur along the coasts of India, China, Taiwan, South East Asia, the Indonesian Archipelago and northern Australia. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Indonesia comprises 17508 Islands (based from " Seminar Nasional Penetapan Nama Pulau-pulau Kecil Dalam Presektif Sejarah or "National Seminary The term northern Australia is generally considered to include the States and territories of Australia of Queensland and the Northern Territory. ^[5] One species of sillaginid, Sillago sihama, has been declared an invasive species to the Mediterranean, passing through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea since 1977 as part of the Lessepsian migration, becoming widespread. Introduced species|Weed Invasive species is a phrase with several definitions The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. Lessepsian migration (also called Erythrean invasion) is the ongoing migration of marine species across the Suez Canal, usually from the Red Sea to the ^[19]

Sillaginids are primarily inshore marine fishes inhabiting stretches of coastal waters, although a few species move offshore in their adult stages to deep sand banks or reefs to a maximum known depth of 180 m. ^[20] All species primarily occupy sandy, silty or muddy substrates, often using seagrass or reef as cover. Sand is a naturally occurring Granular material composed of finely divided rock and Mineral particles Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay In computer gaming, a MUD ( Multi-User Dungeon, Domain or Dimension) is a multi-player computer game that combines elements of Seagrasses (or sea-grasses in British English) are Flowering plants from one of four plant families ( Posidoniaceae, Zosteraceae, They commonly inhabit tidal flats, beach zones, broken bottoms and large areas of uniform substrate. Although the family is marine, many species inhabit estuarine environments, with some such as Sillaginopsis panijus also found in the upper reaches of the estuary. An estuary is a semi-enclosed Coastal body of Water with one or more Rivers or Streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open The Gangetic whiting, Sillaginopsis panijus (also known as the flathead sillago) is a Species of Inshore Marine and Estuarine ^[21] Each species often occupies a specific niche to avoid competition with co-occurring sillaginids, often inhabiting a specific substrate type, depth, or making use of surf zones and estuaries. In Ecology, a niche (pronounced nich nēsh or nish A shorthand definition of niche is how an organism makes a living Interspecific competition, in Ecology, is a form of competition in which individuals of different Species vie for the same resource in an ecosystem ^[22] The juveniles often show distinct changes in habitat preference as they mature, often moving to deeper waters. A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. ^[20] No members of the family are known to undergo migratory movements, and have been shown to be relatively weak swimmers, relying on currents to disperse juveniles.

Biology

Diet and feeding

The smelt-whitings are benthic carnivores, with all of the species whose diets have been studied showing similar prey preferences. A carnivore (ˈkɑrnɪvɔər meaning 'meat eater' ( Latin carne meaning 'flesh' and vorare meaning 'to devour' is any animal with a diet consisting This article is primarily about the human diet For a discussion of animal diets see List of feeding behaviours. Studies from the waters of Thailand, Philippines and Australia have shown that polychaetes, a variety of crustaceans, molluscs and to a lesser extent echinoderms and fish are the predominant prey items of the family. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP The Polychaeta or polychaetes are a class of Annelid worms generally marine ^[23][24][25] Commonly taken crustaceans include carids, decapods, copepods and isopods, while the predominant molluscs taken are various species of bivalves, especially the unprotected siphon filters that protrude from the shells. Caridae is a small Gondwanan family of Weevils They are considered part of the primitive weevil group because they have straight rather than elbowed antennae Copepods are a group of small Crustaceans found in the sea and nearly every freshwater habitat and they constitute the biggest source of protein in the oceans Isopods are one of the most diverse orders of Crustaceans with many species living in all environments but are most common in shallow marine waters Bivalves are Molluscs belonging to the class Bivalvia. They have two-part shells and typically both valves are symmetrical along the hinge line In all species studied, some form of diet shift occurs as the fishes mature, often associated with a movement to deeper waters and thus to new potential prey. The juveniles often prey on planktonic prey, with small copepods, isopods and other small crustaceans often taken. Plankton consist of any drifting Organisms ( Animals Plants Archaea, or Bacteria) that inhabit the Pelagic zone of ^[26] Whilst many species have a change in niche to reduce intraspecific competition, there are often many species of sillaginid inhabiting a geographical area. Intraspecific competition is a particular form of competition in which members of the same Species vie for the same resource in an Ecosystem Where this occurs, there is often definite diet differences between species, often associated with a niche specialization. ^[25] The sillaginid's distinctive body shape and mouth placement is an adaptation to bottom feeding, which is the predominant method of feeding for all whiting species. All larger whiting feed by using their protrusile jaws and tube-like mouths to suck up various types of prey from in, on or above the ocean substrate,^[22] as well as using their nose as a 'plough' to dig through the substrate. The plough ( American spelling plow; both plaʊ is a Tool used in Farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed ^[5] There is a large body of evidence that shows whiting do not rely on visual cues when feeding, instead using a system based on the vibrations emitted by their prey. The visual system is the part of the Nervous system which allows organisms to see. ^[27]

Predators

Smelt-whitings are a major link in the food chain of most systems, and frequently fall prey to a variety of aquatic and aerial predators. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. An aquatic animal is an Animal which lives in water for most or all of the time Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. Their main aquatic predators are a wide variety of larger fish, including both teleosts and a variety of sharks and rays. Teleostei is one of three infraclasses in class Actinopterygii, the ray-finned fishes Sharks ( Superorder Selachimorpha) are a type of Fish with a full cartilaginous Skeleton and a highly streamlined body Dasyatidae is a family of rays, cartilaginous marine Fishes related to Skates and Sharks Dasyatids are common in tropical ^[28] Marine mammals including seals^[29] and dolphins^[30] have been reported to have taken sillaginids as a main food source. Marine mammals are a diverse group of roughly 120 species of Mammal that are primarily Ocean -dwelling or depend on the ocean for food Pinnipeds ("fin-feet" lit "winged feet" or fin-footed mammals are a widely distributed and diverse group of semi-aquatic marine Mammals comprising Dolphins are Marine mammals that are closely related to Whales and Porpoises There are almost forty species of dolphin in seventeen genera. Seabirds are also another major predator of the family, with diving species such as Cormorants taking older fish in deeper waters while juvenile fish in shallow water fall prey to wading birds. Seabirds are Birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment The Bird family Phalacrocoracidae is represented by some 40 Species of cormorants and shags. Waders, called shorebirds in North America (where "wader" is used to refer to long-legged wading Birds such as Storks and ^[31] Sillaginids are often called 'sandborers' due to their habit of burying themselves in the substrate to avoid predators, much in the same way as they forage, by ploughing their nose into the substrate. This defense is even used against human fishermen, who frequently wade barefoot to feel for buried fish. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus ^[5] The Sillaginidae are also host to a variety of well studied internal and external parasites, which are represented prominently by the groups Digenea, Monogenea and Myxosporea , Copepoda and Nematoda. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Digenea (Gr Dis - double Genos - race is a subclass within the Platyhelminthes consisting of Parasitic Flatworms with Monogenea (adj monogenean are a group of largely ectoparasitic members of the flatworm phylum Platyhelminthes, class Monogenea. The Myxosporea are a class of microscopic Parasites belonging to the Myxozoa. Copepods are a group of small Crustaceans found in the sea and nearly every freshwater habitat and they constitute the biggest source of protein in the oceans The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common ^[32][33]

Reproduction

The Sillaginidae are an oviparous, non guarding family,^[8] whose species tend to show similar reproductive patterns to one another. Oviparous animals are animals that lay eggs, with little or no other Embryonic development within the mother Each species reaches sexual maturity at a slightly different age, with each sex often showing a disparity in time of maturation. Sexual maturity is the age or stage when an Organism can reproduce. ^[34][20] Each species also spawns over a different season and the spawning season often differs within a species, usually as a function of latitude; a feature not unique to sillaginids. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the ^[35] The proximity to shore of spawning is also different between species, as each species usually does not migrate inshore to spawn, even if the juveniles require shallow water for protection, instead relying on currents. A juvenile is an individual Organism that has not yet reached its Adult form Sexual maturity or size ^[36] The fecundity of sillaginids is variable, with a normal range between 50 000 - 100 000. The eggs are small (0. In most Birds and Reptiles an egg ( Latin ovum) is the Zygote, resulting from Fertilization of the Ovum. 6 to 0. 8 mm), spherical and pelagic, hatching around 20 days after fertilisation. "Globose" redirects here See also Globose nucleus. A sphere (from Greek σφαίρα - sphaira, "globe Any water in the sea that is not close to the bottom is in the pelagic zone. For soil improvement see Fertilization (soil. ^[37] The larvae are quite similar, requiring a trained developmental biologist to identify between species. In Roman mythology, the larvae or lemures (singular lemur) were the spectres or spirits of the dead they were the malignant version of the Developmental Biology is the official journal of the Society for Developmental Biology. ^[38] The larvae and juveniles are at the mercy of the ocean currents, being too weaker swimmers to actively seek out coastlines. An ocean current is continuous directed movement of Ocean water. Currents are thought to have been responsible for the distribution of mainland species to offshore islands as well as the current widespread distribution of Sillago sihama. Mainland is usually the Continental part of a region as opposed to the Islands nearby An island (ˈaɪlənd or isle (/ˈaɪl/ is any piece of land that is completely surrounded by water in two dimensions above high tide and isolated from other significant ^[32] In all studied species, juveniles inhabit shallow waters in protected embayments, estuaries, tidal creeks and lagoons as well as exposed surf zones, usually over tidal flats and seagrass beds. Headlands and bays are two related features of the coastal environment A tidal creek is the portion of a Stream that is affected by ebb and flow of ocean Tides in the case that the subject stream discharges to an ocean sea or strait A lagoon is a body of comparatively shallow salt or Brackish water separated from the deeper Sea by a shallow or exposed sandbank, coral As the fish mature, they generally move to deeper waters, showing a change in diet. ^[25]

Relationship to humans

The sillaginids are some of the most important commercial fishes in the Indo-Pacific region, with a few species making up the bulk of whiting catches. For the fishing industry and the practice of fishing see Fishing. Their high numbers, coupled with their highly regarded flesh are the reason for this, and their inshore nature also has made them popular targets for recreational fishermen in a number of countries. Angling is a method of Fishing by means of an "angle" ( hook) ^[5] With overfishing rife in some areas, sustainable aquaculture has allowed the commercial farming of a number of sillaginid species, as well as the use of farmed fish to restock depleted estuaries. Overfishing occurs when Fishing activities reduce fish stocks below an acceptable level Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including Molluscs Crustaceans and aquatic plants At least one species, the Gangetic whiting, has occasionally been used in brackish water aquaria. ^[39]

Commercial fisheries

A small number of sillaginids have large enough populations to allow an entire fishery to be based around them, with King George whiting,^[18] northern whiting, Japanese whiting,^[40] sand whiting and school whiting the major species. There have been no reliable estimates of catches for the entire family, as catch statistics generally include only those species taken in large numbers, but there are some species which make up significant numbers of the bycatch. Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data. To add to this problem, many of the lesser known species are taken by subsistence fisheries and not reported. From estimates by the FAO, however, it is evident that the family is one of the most important in the Indo-Pacific region, having an estimated catch of 22 718 tonnes in 1990 alone. This article is about the tonne or metric ton For other tons see Ton. ^[5] In this same report, it was shown that the greatest three utilizers of sillaginids were the Philippines, Western Australia and Thailand respectively. The records also suggested that the catch increased from 1983 when it was 17 570 t, up to the last estimate in 1990 of 22 718 t. No such estimates have been carried out since. Modern records for Australia show that this trend has reversed, with all catches from Australia totaling 4 372 t in 2006 compared with 1990's 6000 t haul. ^[41] Statistics from other countries are unavailable for such comparison.

Sillaginids are taken by a variety of fishing methods, with inshore catches predominantly taken using beach seine nets and cast nets. Due to the alert nature of sillaginids, skill is required on creeping up quietly enough to be able to net fish with a cast net, with experienced fishers often paddling into the sun toward a school and drifting slowly upon it before casting the net. ^[5] In deeper waters, trawlers and longliners take the most fish, with a number of sillaginids taken in prawn trawls as bycatch. The fish are normally marketed fresh locally under various names, with "Ashuos" commonly used in many countries for various sillaginids. ^[8] At least one export fishery exists in Australia whereby S. flindersi is exported to Thailand where the fish are repackaged and sent to Japan frozen. ^[42]

Recreational fisheries

In Australia and Japan, members of the family are highly sought after by anglers for their sporting and eating qualities, with anglers often taking more than commercial fishermen in some areas. ^[43] The fishing techniques for all sillaginids are quite similar, with the shallow habitats often requiring light line and quiet movements. Whiting are also popular in part due to their accessibility, with tidal flats around beaches, estuaries and jetties common habitats from where many whiting species are caught without need for a boat. ^[44] Tidal movements also affect catches, as do lunar phases, causing whiting to 'bite' when the tide is changing. Characteristics A tide is a repeated cycle of sea level changes in the following stages Over several hours the water rises or advances up a beach in the flood Lunar phase (or Moon phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer usually on Earth Tackle used is kept light to avoid spooking the fish, and often requires only a simple setup, with a hook and light sinker tied directly to the mainline usually effective. A fish hook is a device for catching Fish either by impaling them in the mouth or more rarely by snagging the body of the fish In deeper water fished from boats or where currents are strong, more complex rigs are used, often with hooks tied to dropper loops on the trace. ^[44] in Australia, some specialist whiting fishermen who target the fish in the surf or on shallow banks use red beads or tubing to attract the fish, claiming the method produces more fish. A bead is a small decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing ^[45] The bait used is normally anything from the surrounding environment which the whiting naturally prey on, with polychaetes, bivalves, crustaceans such as prawns and crabs, cephalopods and small fish effective for most species. As with most species, live bait is known to produce better catches. Lure fishing for whiting is not normally practiced, but saltwater flies have been used to good effect, as have small soft plastic lures. Fly fishing is a distinct and ancient Angling method most renowned as a method for catching Trout and Salmon, but employed today for a wide variety of ^[45] In some areas, restrictions to the amount and size of fish are in place and enforced by fishery authorities. ^[46]

Aquaculture

A number of sillaginid species have been the subject of brackish water aquaculture in Asia and India,^[5] with species including S. japonica commonly bred for consumption. In Australia, research has been undertaken in the breeding of sand whiting and King George whiting, and so far only sand whiting shows promise for commercial viability. ^[47] King Geroge whiting have been found to take too long to develop to be sustainable, but the use of growth hormones is being investigated. Growth hormone ( GH) is a Peptide hormone that stimulates growth and cell reproduction in humans and other animals ^[48] In Australia, aquaculturally bred sand whiting have also been used to stock depleted estuaries.

References

External links

• Fishbase page for Sillaginidae
• Colour photographs of many Sillaginid species

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