The Silk Road, or Silk Route, is a series of trade and cultural transmission routes that were central to cultural interaction through regions of the Asian continent connecting East and West Asia by linking traders, merchants, pilgrims, monks, soldiers, nomads and urban dwellers from China to the Mediterranean Sea during various periods of time. A pilgrim is one who undertakes a Pilgrimage, literally 'far afield' MONK is a Monte Carlo software package for simulating nuclear processes particularly for the purpose of determining the neutron multiplication factor or k-effective Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The trade route was initiated around 114 BC by the Han Dynasty,^[1] largely through the missions and explorations of Zhang Qian^[2] although earlier trade across the continents had already existed. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Zhang Qian ( 張[[wikt 騫|騫]] Wade-Giles Chang Ch'ien was an imperial envoy to the outside world in the 2nd century BC during the time of the Han Dynasty

Geographically, the Silk Road or Silk Route is an interconnected series of ancient trade routes connecting Chang'an (today's Xi'an)It was used to transport silk to the world plus to be a great source of information with people getting transported to different parts of the country in China, with Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, extending over 8,000 km (5,000 miles) on land and sea. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. UserEl_C --> Xi'an ( Postal map spelling: Sian is the Capital of the Shaanxi province in the China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, Japan, Egypt, Persia, Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The first person who used the terms "Seidenstraße" and "Seidenstraßen" or "Silk Road(s)" and "Silk Route(s)", was the German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Ferdinand Freiherr von Richthofen ( May 5, 1833 &ndash October 6, 1905) was a German traveller Geographer and ^[3][4]

Contents 1 Routes taken 1.1 Railway 1.2 Sea 2 Prehistory 2.1 Cross-continental journeys 2.2 Evidence for ancient transport and trade routes 2.3 Egyptian maritime trade 2.4 Iranian and Scythian connections 2.5 Chinese and Central Asian contacts 2.6 Persian Royal Road 3 History 3.1 Hellenistic era 3.2 Chinese exploration of Central Asia 3.3 The Roman Empire 3.4 Medieval era 3.5 Mongol era 3.6 Disintegration 3.7 The great explorers: Europe reaching for Asia 4 Cultural exchanges on the Silk Road 4.1 Artistic transmission 4.1.1 Buddhist deities 4.1.2 Wind god 4.1.3 Floral scroll pattern 4.2 Technological transfer 5 See also 6 Line notes 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

Routes taken

For more details on this topic, see Cities along the Silk Road. Along the continental Silk Road From Istanbul Turkey to Yazd Iran Constantinople (now Istanbul) Turkey Bursa

As it extends westwards from the commercial centers of North China, the continental Silk Road divides into north and south routes to avoid the Tibetan Plateau. Alternative meaning In Geology, North China (continent and South China (continent were two ancient landmasses that correspond to modern northern The Tibetan Plateau, also known as the Qinghai-Tibetan (Qingzang Plateau is a vast elevated Plateau in Central Asia covering most of the Tibet Autonomous

The northern route travels northwest through the Chinese province of Gansu, and splits into three further routes, two of them passing north and south of the Taklamakan Desert (through modern day Kyrgyzstan and Xinjiang) to rejoin at Kashgar; and the other going north of the Tien Shan mountains through Turfan, Talgar and Almaty (in what is now southeast Kazakhstan). ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. The Taklamakan Desert (Takelamagan Shamo 塔克拉玛干沙漠 also known as Taklimakan, is a Desert in Central Asia, in the Xinjiang Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk Kashgar or Kashi (officially transliterated as Kaxgar in Uyghur; قەشقەر/K̡ǝxk̡ǝr, is an Oasis The Tian Shan (天山 Pinyin: Tiān Shān "celestial mountains" also commonly spelled Tien Shan, is a Mountain range located in Central Turfan or Tulufan (تۇرپان|Turpan|Turpan Modern Chinese: 吐魯番, Pinyin: Tǔlǔfān is an Oasis city in the Talgar ( Талғар /tɑlˈɣɑr/; Талгар) is a town in Almaty Province, southeastern Kazakhstan. Almaty ( Алматы; formerly known as Alma-Ata ( Алма-Ата) also Verniy, (Верный is the largest city in Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the

All routes join up at Kokand in the Fergana Valley, and the roads continue west across the Karakum Desert towards Merv, joining the southern route briefly. Kokand (alternative spellings Khokand, Khoqand; Uzbek: Quqon; Russian: Коканд:Куканд/کوکند; Chagatai The Fergana Valley or Farghana Valley (Farg‘ona vodiysi Kyrgyz: Фергана өрөөнү Tajik: водии Фaрғонa Ферганская долина The Karakum Desert, also spelled Kara-Kum and Gara Gum (“Black Sand” ( Turkmen: Garagum, Russian: Каракумы) Merv ( Russian: Мерв from Persian: مرو Marv, sometimes transliterated Marw or Mary; cf

One of these routes turns northwest along the Amu Darya (river) including Bukhara and Samarkand the center of Silk Road trade to the Aral Sea, through ancient civilizations under the present site of Astrakhan, and on to the Crimean peninsula. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. Bukhara (Buxoro Бухоро بُخارا Бухара also spelled as Bukhoro and Bokhara, from the Soghdian βuxārak ("lucky Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of The Aral Sea ( Kazakh: Арал Теңізі Aral Tengizi, Orol dengizi Russian: Аральскοе мοре Tajik / Persian: Daryocha-i Astrakhan (А́страхань Ästerxan Persian: حاجی‌ترخان Haji-Tarkhan) is a major city in southern European Russia and Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым From there it crosses the Black Sea, Marmara Sea and the Balkans to Venice; another crosses the Caspian Sea and across the Caucasus to the Black Sea in Georgia, thence to Constantinople. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey The Sea of Marmara ( Turkish: Marmara Denizi, Greek: Θάλασσα του Μαρμαρά or Προποντίς, Bulgarian Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS

The southern route is mainly a single route running through northern India, then the Turkestan–Khorasan region into Mesopotamia and Anatolia; having southward spurs enabling the journey to be completed by sea from various points. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Turkestan (literally meaning "Land of the Turks" is a region in Central Asia, which today is largely inhabited by Turkic peoples. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black It runs south through the Sichuan Basin in China and crosses the high mountains into northeast India, probably via the Ancient tea route. The Sichuan basin ( Chinese: 四川盆地 is a lowland region in southwestern China. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Ancient Tea Route ( Simplified Chinese: 茶马古道 Traditional Chinese: 茶馬古道 was a network of mule caravan paths winding through the mountains of It then travels west along the Brahmaputra and Ganges river plains, possibly joining the Grand Trunk Road west of Varanasi. The Brahmaputra, also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra is a Trans-boundary river and one of the major Rivers of Asia. The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent The Grand Trunk Road (commonly abbreviated to GT Road is one of South Asia 's oldest and longest major roads Varanasi ( Sanskrit: वाराणसी Vārāṇasī, pronunciation) also commonly known as Benares ( or Banaras (बनारस It runs through northern Pakistan and over the Hindu Kush mountains to rejoin the northern route briefly near Merv. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Merv ( Russian: Мерв from Persian: مرو Marv, sometimes transliterated Marw or Mary; cf

It then follows a nearly straight line west through mountainous northern Iran and the northern tip of the Syrian Desert to the Levant. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Syrian Desert (بادية الشام badiyah ash sham also known as the Syro-Arabian desert is a combination of Steppe and true Desert that is located in parts See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the From there, Mediterranean trading ships plied regular routes to Italy, and land routes went either north through Anatolia or south to North Africa. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan

Another branch road travels from Herat through Susa to Charax Spasinu at the head of the Persian Gulf and across to Petra and Alexandria, from whence ships carried the cargoes to Rome and other Mediterranean ports. area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) Charax Spasinu, or Charax Pasinu, Charax Spasinou (Χάρακα του Σπασίνου Alexandria (Greek Αλεξανδρία and Antiochia in Petra (from "petra" rock in Greek; Arabic: البتراء Al-Batrāʾ) is an archaeological site in the Arabah Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια ^[5]

Part of a series on Trade routes
Amber Road · Hærvejen . A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo The Amber Road was an ancient Trade route for the transfer of Amber. Hærvejen ( Danish, literally the army road, German: Ochsenweg, literally oxroad) is the name given to an Ancient trackway Incense Route
Kamboja-Dvaravati Route . The Incense Route or the Incense Road was a series of major ancient trading routes stretching across Egypt to India through Arabia. Kamboja-Dvaravati Route was the name of an ancient high road running from the port of Dvaraka in Anarta ( Gujarat) in western India to Kamboja King's Highway
Roman-India routes . The King’s Highway was a Trade route of vital importance to the ancient Middle East. Roman trade with India through the overland caravan routes via Anatolia and Persia though at a relative trickle comparative to later times antedated the southern trade route via the Red Royal Road
Silk Road · Spice Route . The Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius I of Achaemenid Empire in the 5th Century BC Spice trade is a commercial activity of ancient origin which involves the merchandising of Spices and Herbs. Tea route
Varangians to the Greeks · Via Maris
Triangular trade . The Ancient Tea Route ( Simplified Chinese: 茶马古道 Traditional Chinese: 茶馬古道 was a network of mule caravan paths winding through the mountains of The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks (Путь «из варяг в греки» Put iz varyag v greki) was a Trade route, which connected Scandinavia Via Maris is the modern name for an ancient Trade route, dating from the early Bronze Age, linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Triangular trade is a historical term indicating Trade between three ports or regions Volga trade route
Trans-Saharan trade . In the Middle Ages, the Volga trade route connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Russia with the Caspian Sea, via the Volga River Trans-Saharan trade is trade across the Sahara between Mediterranean countries and West Africa. Salt Route
Hanseatic League . The Old Salt Route (German Alte Salzstraße) was a medieval trade route in northern Germany for the transport of salt. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade Grand Trunk Road

Railway

The last available link on the Silk Road was completed in 1994, when the international railway between Almaty in Kazakhstan and Urumqi in Xinjiang opened. The Grand Trunk Road (commonly abbreviated to GT Road is one of South Asia 's oldest and longest major roads Almaty ( Алматы; formerly known as Alma-Ata ( Алма-Ата) also Verniy, (Верный is the largest city in Kazakhstan Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Ürümchi or Ürümqi, sometimes spelled Wulumuqi (English uːˈruːmtʃi ئۈرۈمچی|Ürümchi) is the capital of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk

Sea

As much as fourteen hundred years ago, during China's Eastern Han Dynasty, the sea route led from the mouth of the Red River near modern Hanoi, through the Malacca Straits to Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka and India, and then on to the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. There are also other rivers named Red River. The Red River, also known as the Hong - Red Song Cai, Song Ca Hanoi ( Vietnamese: Hà Nội Hán Tự: 河[[wikt 内|内]], estimated population 3398889 (2007, is the Capital of Vietnam The Strait of Malacca is a narrow 805 km (500 mile stretch of water between Peninsular Malaysia (West Malaysia) and the Indonesian island of Sumatra From ports on the Red Sea goods, including silks, were transported overland to the Nile and then to Alexandria from where they were shipped to Rome and other Mediterranean ports. ^[6] Another branch of these sea routes led down the East African coast (called "Azania" by the Greeks and Romans and "Zesan" by the Chinese) at least as far as the port known to the Romans as "Rhapta," which was probably located in the delta of the Rufiji River in modern Tanzania. The Rufiji River lies entirely within the African nation of Tanzania. Tanzania ˌtænzəˈniːə officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya ^[7][8]

The Silk Road on the Sea extends from southern China to present day Brunei, Thailand, Malacca, Ceylon, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Iran. Alternative meaning In Geology, North China (continent and South China (continent were two ancient landmasses that correspond to modern northern Brunei Darussalam, (bruːˈnaɪ in English officially the State of Brunei Abode of Peace (Negara Brunei Darussalam Jawi: برني دارالسلام The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. In Europe it extends from Israel, Lebanon, Egypt, and Italy in the Mediterranean Sea to Portugal and Sweden. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation.

Prehistory

Cross-continental journeys

As the domestication of pack animals and the development of shipping technology both increased the capacity for prehistoric peoples to carry heavier loads over greater distances, cultural exchanges and trade developed rapidly. Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a Population of Animals A pack animal is a Beast of burden used by Humans as means of Transporting materials by attaching them so their weight bears on the Animal Shipping is physical process of Transporting goods and Cargo. Stone Age Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens, Early human migrations "Paleolithic" Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce.

In addition, grassland provides fertile grazing, water, and easy passage for caravans. A caravan ( Persian: کاروان is a group of people traveling together often on a trade expedition The vast grassland steppes of Asia enable merchants to travel immense distances, from the shores of the Pacific to Africa and deep into Europe, without trespassing on agricultural lands and arousing hostility. In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced Merchants function as professionals who deal with Trade, dealing in commodities that they do not produce themselves in order to produce Profit. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions

Evidence for ancient transport and trade routes

The ancient peoples of the Sahara imported domesticated animals from Asia between 6000 BC and 4000 BC. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest

Foreign artifacts dating to the 5th millennium BC in the Badarian culture of Egypt indicate contact with distant Syria. A cultural artifact is a human-made object which gives information about the Culture of its creator and users The Badarian culture provides the earliest direct evidence of agriculture in Upper Egypt. The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية ^[9]

In predynastic Egypt, by the 4th millennium BC shipping was well established, and the donkey and possibly the dromedary had been domesticated. The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Shipping is physical process of Transporting goods and Cargo. The donkey or ass, Equus asinus, is a member of the Equidae or horse family and an odd-toed ungulate. The Dromedary camel ( Camelus dromedarius) is a large Even-toed ungulate. Domestication of the Bactrian camel and use of the horse for transport then followed. The Bactrian Camel ( Camelus bactrianus) is a large Even-toed ungulate native to the Steppes of north eastern Asia. The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another ^[10]

Also by the beginning of the 4th millennium BC, ancient Egyptians in Maadi were importing pottery^[11] as well as construction ideas from Canaan. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Maadi (معادي el-Ma‛adi) is a wealthy Suburb south of Cairo, Egypt. Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure Canaanites redirects here For the 1940s social and political movement in Israel, see Canaanites (movement.

By the second half of the 4th millennium BC, the gemstone lapis lazuli was being traded from its only known source in the ancient world — Badakshan, in what is now northeastern Afghanistan — as far as Mesopotamia and Egypt. Badakhshan ( Tajik: Бадахшон is a region comprising parts of northeastern Afghanistan and southeastern Tajikistan. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. By the 3rd millennium BC, the lapis lazuli trade was extended to Harappa and Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley Civilization of modern day Pakistan and northwestern India. Harappa ( Urdu:, Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a City in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles southwest Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Indus Valley was also known as Meluhha, the earliest maritime trading partner of the Sumerians and Akkadians in Mesopotamia. Meluhha refers to one of ancient Sumer 's prominent trading partners but precisely which one remains an open question Indian maritime history begins during the 3rd millennium BCE when the inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiate trading with Mesopotamia. Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar

Routes along the Persian Royal Road, constructed in the 5th century BC by Darius I of Persia, may have been in use as early as 3500 BC. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius I of Achaemenid Empire in the 5th Century BC Darius I the Great (c 549 BC&ndash486 BC 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavahuš: "Possessing goodness" Having ascended to power amidst controversy and bloodshed Charcoal samples found in the tombs of Nekhen, which were dated to the Naqada I and II periods, have been identified as cedar from Lebanon. Hieraconpolis redirects here for the ancient fortress in Egypt called Hieracon see Hieracon Nekhen, ( Greek:, Strabo xvii This article is about the Egyptian village See also Naqahdah for the fictional element from the Stargate setting Cedar ( Cedrus) is a genus of Coniferous Trees in the Plant family Pinaceae. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية ^[12]

In 1994 excavators discovered an incised ceramic shard with the serekh sign of Narmer, dating to circa 3000 BC. In Archaeology, a sherd is commonly a historic or prehistoric fragment of Pottery, although the term is occasionally used to refer to fragments The serekh (ser-ik is a stylised rectangle which contained the Horus name of ancient Egyptian Pharaohs (they had five regal names each) Narmer was an Egyptian Pharaoh who ruled in the 31st century BC. Mineralogical studies reveal the shard to be a fragment of a wine jar exported from the Nile valley to Israel. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. ^[13]

The ancient harbor constructed in Lothal, India, around 2400 BC may be the oldest seafaring harbour known. Lothal ( Gujarātī: લોથલ ˈloːtʰəl Eng Mound of the Dead was one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country See also Shipbuilding (song. Shipbuilding is the construction of Ships It normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a

Egyptian maritime trade

The Palermo stone mentions King Sneferu of the 4th Dynasty sending ship to import high-quality cedar from Lebanon (see Sneferu). The Palermo Stone is a large fragment of a stela called the Royal Annals of the Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. Sneferu, also spelled as Snefru or Snofru (in Greek known as Soris) was the founder of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt, reigning The fourth dynasty of Ancient Egypt is characterized as a Golden age of the Old Kingdom. Cedar ( Cedrus) is a genus of Coniferous Trees in the Plant family Pinaceae. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Sneferu, also spelled as Snefru or Snofru (in Greek known as Soris) was the founder of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt, reigning In one scene in the pyramid of Pharaoh Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty, Egyptians are returning with huge cedar trees. Sahure was the second king of Ancient Egypt 's 5th Dynasty. He was a son of queen Khentkaus I, who in her tomb at Giza, is said to have been The Third Fourth Fifth and Sixth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title Old Kingdom. Cedar ( Cedrus) is a genus of Coniferous Trees in the Plant family Pinaceae. Sahure's name is found stamped on a thin piece of gold on a Lebanon chair, and 5th dynasty cartouches were found in Lebanon stone vessels. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية In Egyptian hieroglyphs a cartouche is an oblong enclosure with a horizontal line at one end indicating that the text enclosed is a royal name coming into use during Other scenes in his temple depict Syrian bears. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The Palermo stone also mentions expeditions to Sinai as well as to the diorite quarries northwest of Abu Simbel. The Palermo Stone is a large fragment of a stela called the Royal Annals of the Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt. The Sinai Peninsula or Sinai ( Coptic: sina; Egyptian Arabic: sina سينا Arabic, sina'a سيناء Diorite (ˈdaɪəraɪt is a grey to dark grey intermediate intrusive Igneous rock composed principally of Plagioclase Feldspar (typically Abu Simbel ( أبو سنبل or ar '''أبو سمبل''' is an Archaeological site comprising two massive rock Temples in southern Egypt

The oldest known expedition to the Land of Punt was organized by Sahure, which apparently yielded a quantity of myrrh,along with malachite and electrum. See also Puntland The Land of Punt, also called "Pwenet" by the Ancient Egyptians at times synonymous with Ta netjer, the 'land of Myrrh is a reddish-brown Resinous material the dried sap of the tree Commiphora myrrha, native to Yemen, Somalia Malachite is a carbonate mineral normally known as "copper carbonate" with the formula Cu 2 CO3[[hydroxide Electrum is a naturally occurring Alloy of Gold and Silver, with trace amounts of Copper and other metals The 12th-Dynasty Pharaoh Senusret III had a "Suez" canal constructed linking the Nile River with the Red Sea for direct trade with Punt. The Eleventh (all of Egypt Twelfth, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title Middle Kingdom. Pharaoh is the title given in modern parlance to the ancient Egyptian kings of all periods Khakhaure Senusret III (also written as Senwosret III or Sesostris III) was a Pharaoh of Egypt. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. Around 1950 BC, in the reign of Mentuhotep III, an officer named Hennu made one or more voyages to Punt. Sankhkare Mentuhotep III of the Eleventh dynasty was Pharaoh of Egypt during the Middle Kingdom. In Egyptian mythology, the hennu boat (alt henu) was a symbol of the god Seker of Memphis. In the 15th century BC, Nehsi conducted a very famous expedition for Queen Hatshepsut to obtain myrrh; a report of that voyage survives on a relief in Hatshepsut's funerary temple at Deir el-Bahri. Nehsi was an official at the court of the ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Hatshepsut. Hatshepsut (or Hatchepsut, hætˈʃɛpsʊt meaning Foremost of Noble Ladies, was the fifth Pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty of Myrrh is a reddish-brown Resinous material the dried sap of the tree Commiphora myrrha, native to Yemen, Somalia A relief is a Sculptured Artwork where a modeled form is raised (or alternatively lowered from a flattened background without being disconnected from it Deir el-Bahri (Arabic دير البحري dayr al-baḥrī, literally meaning "The Northern Monastery " is a complex of Mortuary temples and tombs Several of her successors, including Thutmoses III, also organized expeditions to Punt. Thutmose III (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis III and meaning Thoth is Born) was the sixth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth

Iranian and Scythian connections

The expansion of Scythian Iranian cultures stretching from the Hungarian plain and the Carpathians to the Chinese Kansu Corridor and linking Iran, and the Middle East with Northern India and the Punjab, undoubtedly played an important role in the development of the Silk Road. The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians (Carpaţi Czech, Polish and Slovak: Karpaty; Ukrainian: Карпати ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Scythians accompanied the Assyrian Esarhaddon on his invasion of Egypt, and their distinctive triangular arrowheads have been found as far south as Aswan. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Esarhaddon (Greek and Biblical form Akkadian Aššur-ahhe-iddina " Ashur has given a brother to me" was a king of Assyria who reigned Aswan (formerly spelled Assuan (in standard أسوان Aswān) Egyptian: Swenet ( trade) Coptic: Swān; Greek These nomadic peoples were dependent upon neighbouring settled populations for a number of important technologies, and in addition to raiding vulnerable settlements for these commodities, also encouraged long distance merchants as a source of income through the enforced payment of tariffs. Soghdian Scythian merchants were in later periods to play a vital role in the development of the Silk Road. History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great ^[14]

Chinese and Central Asian contacts

From the 2nd millennium BC nephrite jade was being traded from mines in the region of Yarkand and Khotan to China. Nephrite is a variety of the calcium and magnesium rich Amphibole mineral Actinolite (aggregates of which also make up one form of Asbestos) Jade is an Ornamental stone. The term jade is applied to two different rocks that are made up of different Silicate minerals. Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Yarkent (Yarkand County ( Chinese 莎車县 Pinyin: Shāchē; يەكەن|Yerkent|Yərkənt; Turkish: Yerkent which means 'ground city' also China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Significantly, these mines were not very far from the lapis lazuli and spinel ("Balas Ruby") mines in Badakhshan and, although separated by the formidable Pamir Mountains, routes across them were, apparently, in use from very early times. The spinels are any of a class of Minerals of general formulation XY2 O 4 which Crystallize in the cubic (isometric Badakhshan ( Tajik: Бадахшон is a region comprising parts of northeastern Afghanistan and southeastern Tajikistan. The Pamir Mountains are located in Central Asia and are formed by the junction or Knot of the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, and

The Tarim mummies, Chinese mummies of non-Mongoloid, apparently Caucasoid, individuals, have been found in the Tarim Basin, such as in the area of Loulan located along the Silk Road 200 km east of Yingpan, dating to as early as 1600 BC and suggesting very ancient contacts between East and West. The Tarim mummies are a series of Caucasoid Mummies discovered in the Tarim Basin in present-day Xinjiang, China, which date from The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² Loulan or Kroran ( Uyghur Language Kroran } is an ancient Oasis town founded in the second century on the north-eastern edge of the Lop Desert The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand It has been suggested that these mummified remains may have been of people related to the Tocharians whose Indo-European language remained in use in the Tarim Basin (modern day Xinjiang) of China until the 8th century. The Tocharians were the Tocharian -speaking inhabitants of the Tarim basin, making them the easternmost speakers of an Indo-European language in antiquity The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National

Some remnants of what was probably Chinese silk have been found in Ancient Egypt from 1070 BC. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now ^[15] Though the originating source seems sufficiently reliable, silk unfortunately degrades very rapidly and we cannot double-check for accuracy whether it was actually cultivated silk (which would almost certainly have come from China) that was discovered or a type of "wild silk," which might have come from the Mediterranean region or the Middle East. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East.

Following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western border territories in the 8th century BC, gold was introduced from Central Asia, and Chinese jade carvers began to make imitation designs of the steppes, adopting the Scythian-style animal art of the steppes (descriptions of animals locked in combat). Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Jade is an Ornamental stone. The term jade is applied to two different rocks that are made up of different Silicate minerals. In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic This style is particularly reflected in the rectangular belt plaques made of gold and bronze with alternate versions in jade and steatite. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Bronze is any of a broad range of Copper alloys, usually with Tin as the main additive but sometimes with other elements such as Phosphorus Jade is an Ornamental stone. The term jade is applied to two different rocks that are made up of different Silicate minerals. Soapstone (also known as steatite or soaprock) is a Metamorphic rock, a talc- Schist.

Persian Royal Road

By the time of Herodotus (c. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash 475 BC) the Persian Royal Road ran some 2,857 km from the city of Susa on the lower Tigris to the port of Smyrna (modern İzmir in Turkey) on the Aegean Sea. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius I of Achaemenid Empire in the 5th Century BC Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern İzmir, historically Smyrna, is the third most populous city of Turkey and the country's largest port after İstanbul. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Etymology In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. ^[16] It was maintained and protected by the Achaemenid Empire (c. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of 500–330 BC) and had postal stations and relays at regular intervals. By having fresh horses and riders ready at each relay, royal couriers could carry messages the entire distance in 9 days, though normal travellers took about three months. This Royal Road linked into many other routes. The Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius I of Achaemenid Empire in the 5th Century BC Some of these, such as the routes to India and Central Asia, were also protected by the Achaemenids, encouraging regular contact between India, Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of There are accounts in Esther of dispatches being sent from Susa to provinces as far out as India and Cush during the reign of Xerxes (485–465 BC). Esther ( born Hadassah, is a queen of Persian Empire in the Hebrew Bible, the queen of Ahasuerus (traditionally identified with Artaxerxes Kush civilization centered in the confluence of the Blue Nile and the White Nile, and the confluence of the River Atbara and Nile in what

History

Hellenistic era

Coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus (230–200 BC)

Probable Greek soldier in the [[Sampul tapestry, woollen wall hanging, 3rd–2nd century BC, Sampul, Urumqi Xinjiang Museum. The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 Ürümchi or Ürümqi, sometimes spelled Wulumuqi (English uːˈruːmtʃi ئۈرۈمچی|Ürümchi) is the capital of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk

The first major step in opening the Silk Road between the East and the West came with the expansion of Alexander the Great's empire into Central Asia. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south In August 329 BC, at the mouth of the Fergana Valley in Tajikistan he founded the city of Alexandria Eschate or "Alexandria The Furthest". The Fergana Valley or Farghana Valley (Farg‘ona vodiysi Kyrgyz: Фергана өрөөнү Tajik: водии Фaрғонa Ферганская долина Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Alexandria Eschate ( Greek, Latin Alexandria Ultima English meaning "Alexandria the Furthest" was founded by Alexander the Great in August 329 BCE ^[17] This later became a major staging point on the northern Silk Route.

In 323 BC, Alexander the Great’s successors, the Ptolemies, took control of Egypt. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' The Ptolemaic dynasty (sometimes also known as the Lagids, from the name of Ptolemy I's father Lagus) was a Hellenistic Macedonian royal family They actively promoted trade with Mesopotamia, India, and East Africa through their Red Sea ports and over land. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country East Africa is the Easternmost Region of the African Continent. The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. This was assisted by a number of intermediaries, especially the Nabataeans and other Arabs. The Nabataeans ( Arabic: الأنباط, Al-Anbāṭ) were an ancient Semitic people Arabs of southern Jordan, Canaan The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding

The Greeks remained in Central Asia for the next three centuries, first through the administration of the Seleucid Empire, and then with the establishment of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Bactria. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. They continued to expand eastward, especially during the reign of Euthydemus (230–200 BC) who extended his control beyond Alexandria Eschate to Sogdiana. Alexandria Eschate ( Greek, Latin Alexandria Ultima English meaning "Alexandria the Furthest" was founded by Alexander the Great in August 329 BCE History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great There are indications that he may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar in Chinese Turkestan, leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 200 BC. Kashgar or Kashi (officially transliterated as Kaxgar in Uyghur; قەشقەر/K̡ǝxk̡ǝr, is an Oasis Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk The Greek historian Strabo writes "they extended their empire even as far as the Seres (China) and the Phryni. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Seres (Gr Σῆρες, Lat Sērēs) was the ancient Greek and Roman name for the inhabitants of the northwestern part of modern China " ^[18]

Chinese exploration of Central Asia

Main article: Sino-Roman relations

Zhang Qian leaving emperor Han Wudi, for his expedition to Central Asia from 138 to 126 BC, Mogao Caves mural, Dunhuang, 618–712. Sino-Roman relations started first on an indirect basis during the 2nd century BC. Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines, Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Mogao Caves, or Mogao Grottoes ( (also known as the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas and Dunhuang Caves) form a system of 492 temples 25km (15 Dunhuang ( also written as 燉煌 till early Qing Dynasty; is a City (pop

Trade on the Silk Road (Dunhuang, China)

The next step came around 130 BC, with the embassies of the Han Dynasty to Central Asia, following the reports of the ambassador Zhang Qian^[19] (who was originally sent to obtain an alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu). Dunhuang ( also written as 燉煌 till early Qing Dynasty; is a City (pop China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Zhang Qian ( 張[[wikt 騫|騫]] Wade-Giles Chang Ch'ien was an imperial envoy to the outside world in the 2nd century BC during the time of the Han Dynasty The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The Chinese Emperor Wu Di became interested in developing commercial relationship with the sophisticated urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria and Parthia: "The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Ferghana (Dayuan) and the possessions of Bactria (Ta-Hsia) and Parthia (Anxi) are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China" (Hou Hanshu, Later Han History). Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines, Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана The Dayuan or Ta-Yuan ( lit “Great Yuan” were a people of Ferghana in Central Asia, described in the Chinese historical works of "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. Daxia, Ta-Hsia, or Ta-Hia ( Chinese: 大夏 Pinyin: Dàxià is the name given in antiquity by the Chinese to the territory of Bactria Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using

The Chinese were also strongly attracted by the tall and powerful horses in the possession of the Dayuan (named "Heavenly horses"), which were of capital importance in fighting the nomadic Xiongnu. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Dayuan or Ta-Yuan ( lit “Great Yuan” were a people of Ferghana in Central Asia, described in the Chinese historical works of The Chinese subsequently sent numerous embassies, around ten every year, to these countries and as far as Seleucid Syria. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i "Thus more embassies were dispatched to Anxi [Parthia], Yancai [who later joined the Alans ], Lijian [Syria under the Seleucids], Tiaozhi [Chaldea], and Tianzhu [northwestern India]… As a rule, rather more than ten such missions went forward in the course of a year, and at the least five or six. The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people Tiānzhú (in Chinese) Tenjiku (in Japanese) Cheonchuk (in Korean) Thiên Trúc (in Vietnamese) are " (Hou Hanshu, Later Han History). The Chinese campaigned in Central Asia on several occasions, and direct encounters between Han troops and Roman legionaries (probably captured or recruited as mercenaries by the Xiong Nu) are recorded, particularly in the 36 BC battle of Sogdiana (Joseph Needham, Sidney Shapiro). History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great It has been suggested that the Chinese crossbow was transmitted to the Roman world on such occasions, although the Greek gastraphetes provides an alternative origin. A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts The gastraphetes (from Ancient Greek γαστραφέτης, English translation: "belly-bow" was a hand-held Crossbow used by the R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy suggest that in 36 B. C. , a "Han expedition into central Asia, west of Jaxartes River, apparently encountered and defeated a contingent of Roman legionaries. The Romans may have been part of Antony's army invading Parthia. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Sogdiana (modern Bukhara), east of the Oxus River, on the Polytimetus River, was apparently the most easterly penetration ever made by Roman forces in Asia. History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great Bukhara (Buxoro Бухоро بُخارا Бухара also spelled as Bukhoro and Bokhara, from the Soghdian βuxārak ("lucky Zeravshan River (also Zarafshan or Zarafshon, Дарёи Зарафшон Zarafshon from the Persian word زر افشان zar afshān, meaning The margin of Chinese victory appears to have been their crossbows, whose bolts and darts seem easily to have penetrated Roman shields and armor. "^[20]

The Roman historian Florus also describes the visit of numerous envoys, included Seres (Chinese), to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned between 27 BC and 14:

"Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Florus, Roman Historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian. Seres (Gr Σῆρες, Lat Sērēs) was the ancient Greek and Roman name for the inhabitants of the northwestern part of modern China Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες Nay, the Seres came likewise, and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. Seres (Gr Σῆρες, Lat Sērēs) was the ancient Greek and Roman name for the inhabitants of the northwestern part of modern China India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours. " ("Cathay and the way thither", Henry Yule). Sir Henry Yule ( May 1, 1820 - December 30, 1889) was a Scottish Orientalist.

The "Silk Road" essentially came into being from the 1st century BC, following these efforts by China to consolidate a road to the Western world and India, both through direct settlements in the area of the Tarim Basin and diplomatic relations with the countries of the Dayuan, Parthians and Bactrians further west. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. The Han Dynasty Chinese army regularly policed the trade route against nomadic bandit forces generally identified as the Xiongnu/Huns. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes Han general Ban Chao led an army of 70,000 mounted infantry and light cavalry troops in the 1st century AD to secure the trade routes, reaching far west across central Asia to the doorstep of Europe, and setting up base on the shores of the Caspian Sea in cooperation with the Parthian Kingdom under Pacorus II of Parthia. Control of the Tarim Basin Ban Chao like his predecessors Huo Qubing and Wei Qing from the earlier-half of the Han Dynasty before him is said to Mounted infantry were Soldiers who rode Horses instead of marching but actually fought on foot in the modern era with Muskets or Rifles but before Light cavalry refers to lightly-armed and armored troops mounted on Horses, as opposed to Heavy cavalry, where the riders (and sometimes the horses are heavily armored Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. Pacorus II of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from about 78 to 105

A maritime "Silk Route" opened up between Chinese-controlled Jiaozhi (centred in modern Vietnam [see map above], near Hanoi) probably by the 1st century. See also History of Vietnam Annam ( 安[[wiktionary 南|南]] pinyin Ānnán or Jiaozhi ( 交趾; pinyin Jiāozhǐ Vietnamese Giao Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Hanoi ( Vietnamese: Hà Nội Hán Tự: 河[[wikt 内|内]], estimated population 3398889 (2007, is the Capital of Vietnam The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. It extended, via ports on the coasts of India and Sri Lanka, all the way to Roman-controlled ports in Egypt and the Nabataean territories on the northeastern coast of the Red Sea. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Nabataeans ( Arabic: الأنباط, Al-Anbāṭ) were an ancient Semitic people Arabs of southern Jordan, Canaan The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia.

The Roman Empire

Maenad in silk dress, Naples National Museum. Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the

Sassanid silk twill textile of a Senmerv in a beaded surround, 6–7th century

Soon after the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC, regular communications and trade between India, Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, China, the Middle East, Africa and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Simurgh or Simorgh (سیمرغ sometimes spelled Simurg or Simoorg, also known as Angha (عنقا is the modern Persian name for Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The party of Maës Titianus became the travellers who penetrated farthest east along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world, probably with the aim of regularizing contacts and reducing the role of middlemen, during one of the lulls in Rome's intermittent wars with Parthia, which repeatedly obstructed movement along the Silk Road. Maës Titianus was an ancient traveller of Hellenistic culture who is recorded as having travelled farthest along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Land and maritime routes were closely linked, and novel products, technologies and ideas began to spread across the continents of Europe, Asia and Africa. Intercontinental trade and communication became regular, organized, and protected by the 'Great Powers. ' Intense trade with the Roman Empire followed soon, confirmed by the Roman craze for Chinese silk (supplied through the Parthians), even though the Romans thought silk was obtained from trees. Roman Trade was the engine that drove the economy of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Younger in his Phaedra and by Virgil in his Georgics. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c Phaedra, sometimes known as Hippolytus is a play by Seneca the Younger, telling the story of Phaedra and her taboo love for her stepson Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or The Georgics, published in 29 BCE, is the second major work by the Latin poet Virgil. Notably, Pliny the Elder knew better. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth, he wrote in his Natural Histories "They weave webs, like spiders, that become a luxurious clothing material for women, called silk. Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. "^[21]

The Senate issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds: the importation of Chinese silk caused a huge outflow of gold, and silk clothes were considered to be decadent and immoral:

"I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes… Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body" (Seneca the Younger (c. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c 3 BC–65, Declamations Vol. I).

The Hou Hanshu records that the first Roman envoy arrived in China by this maritime route in 166, initiating a series of Roman embassies to China. The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using Sino-Roman relations started first on an indirect basis during the 2nd century BC.

Medieval era

1342 tomb of Katarina Vilioni, member of an Italian trading family in Yangzhou. Katarina Vilioni was an Italian woman member of a trader family in Yangzhou, China, during the 14th century Administration The Prefecture-level city of Yangzhou administers 7 county-level divisions.

A foreign merchant, 7th century, Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by

The main traders during Antiquity were the Indian and Bactrian Traders, then from the fifth to the eighth c. the Sogdian traders, then the Persian traders.

The unification of Central Asia and Northern India within Kushan empire in the first to third centuries reinforced the role of the powerful merchants from Bactria and Taxila ^[22]. The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. For the Genus of metalmark butterflies, see Taxila (butterfly. They fostered multi-cultural interaction as indicated by their 2nd century treasure hoards filled with products from the Greco-Roman world, China and India, such as in the archeological site of Begram. Bagram or Bagrām (ancient Alexandria of the Caucasus, medieval Kapisa) was an ancient city located at the junction of the Ghorband

The heyday of the Silk Road corresponds to that of the Byzantine Empire in its west end, Sassanid Empire Period to Il Khanate Period in the Nile-Oxus section and Three Kingdoms to Yuan Dynasty in the Sinitic zone in its east end. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Trade between East and West also developed on the sea, between Alexandria in Egypt and Guangzhou in China, fostering across the Indian Ocean. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Guangzhou ( Jyutping: Gwong²zau¹; Yale: Gwóngjàu) is the Capital and a Sub-provincial city The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The Silk Road represents an early phenomenon of political and cultural integration due to inter-regional trade. In its heyday, the Silk Road sustained an international culture that strung together groups as diverse as the Magyars, Armenians, and Chinese. Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National
Under its strong integrating dynamics on the one hand and the impacts of change it transmitted on the other, tribal societies previously living in isolation along the Silk Road or pastoralists who were of barbarian cultural development were drawn to the riches and opportunities of the civilizations connected by the Silk Road, taking on the trades of marauders or mercenaries. Many barbarian tribes became skilled warriors able to conquer rich cities and fertile lands, and forge strong military empires.

The Sogdians dominated the East-West trade after the 4th century AD up to the 8th century AD, with Suyab and Talas ranking among their main centeres in the north. Suyab ( also known as Ordukent, modern-day Ak-Beshim) was an ancient Silk Road city located some 60 km north east from Bishkek, and 6 km southeast Taraz ( Тараз) formerly Talas, Zhambyl (Kazakh Жамбы́л and Aulie-Ata (Kazakh Әулие́-Ата Chagatai: اولياه They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia. Their commercial interests were protected by the resurgent military power of the Göktürks, whose empire has been described as "the joint enterprise of the Ashina clan and the Soghdians" ^{[23] [22]}. Göktürks ( Turkish: Gök Türkler) were a Turkic people of ancient Central Asia. Ashina ( Asen, Asena, etc was a tribe and the ruling dynasty of the ancient Turks who rose to prominence in the mid- 6th century when their leader Their trades with some interruptions continued in 9th century. It is occurred in 10th century within the framework of the Uighur Empire, which until 840 extended all over northern Central Asia and obtained from China enormous deliveries of silk in exchange for horses. The Uyghur At this time caravans of Sogdians traveling to Upper Mongolia are mentioned in Chinese sources. They played an equally important religious and cultural role. Part of the data about eastern Asia provided by Muslim geographers of the 10th century actually goes back to Sogdian data of the period 750-840 and thus shows the survival of links between east and west. However, after the end of the Uighur Empire, Sogdian trade went through a crisis. What mainly issued from Muslim Central Asia was the trade of the Samanids, which resumed the northwestern road leading to the Khazars and the Urals and the northeastern one toward the nearby Turkic tribes ^[22]. The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman

The Silk Road gave rise to the clusters of military states of nomadic origins in North China, invited the Nestorian, Manichaean, Buddhist, and later Islamic religions into Central Asia and China, created the influential Khazar Federation and at the end of its glory, brought about the largest continental empire ever: the Mongol Empire, with its political centers strung along the Silk Road (Beijing in North China, Karakorum in central Mongolia, Sarmakhand in Transoxiana, Tabriz in Northern Iran, Astrakhan in lower Volga, Solkhat in Crimea, Kazan in Central Russia, Erzurum in eastern Anatolia), realizing the political unification of zones previously loosely and intermittently connected by material and cultural goods. Nestorius Nestorius (c  386 &ndashc  451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south "Kazar" redirects here for the Marvel Comics character see Ka-Zar; for the village in Azerbaijan see Xəzər. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian Khara-khorin, Classical Mongolian Qara Qorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود Tabriz ( تبریز, تبریز) is the largest city in northwestern Iran. Astrakhan (А́страхань Ästerxan Persian: حاجی‌ترخان Haji-Tarkhan) is a major city in southern European Russia and Staryi Krym (Старий Крим Старый Крым Eski Qırım is a small historical town in the Eastern Crimea, approximately 25 km (15 mi Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым Kazan (Каза́нь Казан tt Qazan) is the capital city of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia, and one of Russia's largest cities Theodosiopolis redirects here it is also a name of the ancient city of Apros, Thrace Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black

The Roman Empire, and its demand for sophisticated Asian products, crumbled in the West around the 5th century. In Central Asia, Islam expanded from the 7th century onward, bringing a stop to Chinese westward expansion at the Battle of Talas in 751. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Battle of Talas in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control Further expansion of the Islamic Turks in Central Asia from the 10th century finished disrupting trade in that part of the world, and Buddhism almost disappeared. For much of the Middle Ages, the Islamic Caliphate often had a monopoly over much of the trade conducted across the Old World (see Muslim age of discovery for more details). A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century This is a sub-article of Islamic economic jurisprudence and Muslim world.

Mongol era

See main article, Mongol Empire: Silk Road. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire

The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1215 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-establish the Silk Road (via Karakorum). Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian Khara-khorin, Classical Mongolian Qara Qorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century The Chinese Mongol diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma visited the courts of Europe in 1287-1288 and provided a detailed written report back to the Mongols. Rabban Bar Sauma (c 1220–1294 (pronounced "ruh-BAHN BAR sah-OO-muh" also known as Rabban Ṣawma or Rabban Çauma, (Chinese拉賓掃務瑪 was a Around the same time, the Venetian explorer Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel the Silk Road to China, and his tales, documented in Il Milione, opened Western eyes to some of the customs of the Far East. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Travels of Marco Polo is the usual English title of Marco Polo 's travel book nicknamed Il Milione ( The Million He was not the first to bring back stories, but he was one of the widest-read. He had been preceded by numerous Christian missionaries to the East, such as William of Rubruck, Benedykt Polak, Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, and Andrew of Longjumeau. William of Rubruck (c 1220 in Rubrouck Flanders - c 1293 was a Flemish Franciscan missionary and explorer Benedykt Polak ( Benedictus Polonus, ang Benedict the Pole or Benedict of Poland) (c Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, or John of Plano Carpini or John of Pian de Carpine or Joannes de Plano (c Andrew of Longjumeau (Original French name André de Longjumeau) was a 13th century Dominican missionary and diplomat and one of the most active Occidental diplomats Later envoys included Odoric of Pordenone, Giovanni de' Marignolli, John of Montecorvino, Niccolò Da Conti, or Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan Muslim traveller, who passed through the present-day Middle East and across the Silk Road from Tabriz, between 1325-1354. Odoric of Pordenone (real name Odoric Mattiussi or Mattiuzzi) ( c. Giovanni de' Marignolli, a notable traveller to the Far East in the 14th century born probably before 1290 and sprung from a noble family in Florence. John of Montecorvino, or Giovanni Da/di Montecorvino in Italian also spelled Monte Corvino (1246 Montecorvino, Southern Italy - 1328 Niccolò Da Conti (also Nicolò de' Conti) (1395&ndash1469 was a Venetian merchant and explorer born in Chioggia, who traveled to India and Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Tabriz ( تبریز, تبریز) is the largest city in northwestern Iran. ^[24]

The 13th century also saw attempts at a Franco-Mongol alliance, with exchange of ambassadors and (failed) attempts at military collaboration in the Holy Land during the later Crusades, though eventually the Mongols in the Ilkhanate, after they had destroyed the Abbasid and Ayyubid dynasties, eventually themselves converted to Islam, and signed the 1323 Treaty of Aleppo with the surviving Muslim power, the Egyptian Mamluks. Many attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the mid-13th and early 14th centuries starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade. The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in The Ayyubid or Ayyoubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for The Treaty of Aleppo was a peace treaty between the Mongol Il-Khanate of Persia and the Mamluks of Egypt.

Disintegration

However, with the disintegration of the Mongol Empire also came discontinuation of the Silk Road's political, cultural and economic unity. Turkmeni marching lords seized the western part of the Silk Road — the decaying Byzantine Empire. After the Mongol Empire, the great political powers along the Silk Road became economically and culturally separated. Accompanying the crystallization of regional states was the decline of nomad power, partly due to the devastation of the Black Death and partly due to the encroachment of sedentary civilizations equipped with gunpowder. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes

The effect of gunpowder and early modernity on Europe was the integration of territorial states and increasing mercantilism; whereas on the Silk Road, gunpowder and early modernity had the opposite impact: the level of integration of the Mongol Empire could not be maintained, and trade declined (though partly due to an increase in European maritime exchanges). Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Modernity is a term that refers to the Modern era. It is distinct from Modernism, and in different contexts refers to cultural and intellectual movements of the Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices

The Silk Road stopped serving as a shipping route for silk around 1400.

For more information on Disintegration see Silk Road

The great explorers: Europe reaching for Asia

The disappearance of the Silk Road following the end of the Mongols was one of the main factors that stimulated the Europeans to reach the prosperous Chinese empire through another route, especially by the sea. Tremendous profits were to be obtained for anyone who could achieve a direct trade connection with Asia.

When he went West in 1492, Christopher Columbus reportedly wished to create yet another Silk Route to China. Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer It was initially a great disappointment to have found a continent "in-between" before recognizing the potential of a "New World. "

In 1594 Willem Barents left Amsterdam with two ships to search for the Northeast passage north of Siberia, on to eastern Asia. Willem Barentsz (anglicized as William Barents or Barentz) (born c Amsterdam (pronounced) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west The Northern Sea Route (Се́верный морско́й путь Severniy morskoy put’) is a Shipping lane from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific He reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, and followed it northward, being finally forced to turn back when confronted with its northern extremity. Novaya Zemlya (Но́вая Земля́ also spelled Novaja Zemlja, lit By the end of the 17th century, the Russians reestablished a land trade route between Europe and China under the name of the Great Siberian Road. The Siberian Route ( Sibirsky trakt, Сибирский тракт also known as the Moscow Route (ru ''Moskovsky trakt'' Московский тракт and

The wish to trade directly with China was also the main drive behind the expansion of the Portuguese beyond Africa after 1480, followed by the powers of the Netherlands and Great Britain from the 17th century. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Leibniz, echoing the prevailing perception in Europe until the Industrial Revolution, wrote in the 17th century: "Everything exquisite and admirable comes from the East Indies… Learned people have remarked that in the whole world there is no commerce comparable to that of China. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the "

In the 18th century, Adam Smith, declared that China had been one of the most prosperous nations in the world, but that it had remained stagnant for a long time and its wages always were low and the lower classes were particularly poor ^[25]

"China has been long one of the richest, that is, one of the most fertile, best cultivated, most industrious, and most populous countries in the world. Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. It seems, however, to have been long stationary. Marco Polo, who visited it more than five hundred years ago, describes its cultivation, industry, and populousness, almost in the same terms as travellers in the present time describe them. It had perhaps, even long before his time, acquired that full complement of riches which the nature of its laws and institutions permits it to acquire. " (Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776). Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the Magnum opus of the Scottish economist Adam Smith.

In effect, the spirit of the Silk Road and the will to foster exchange between the East and West, and the lure of the huge profits attached to it, has affected much of the history of the world during these last three millennia.

Cultural exchanges on the Silk Road

See also: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism

Notably, the Buddhist faith and the Greco-Buddhist culture started to travel eastward along the Silk Road, penetrating in China from around the 1st century BC. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China started in the 1st century CE with a semi-legendary or quasi-historical account of an embassy sent to the West by the Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Greco-Buddhism, sometimes spelt Graeco-Buddhism, refers to the cultural Syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, which developed

The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China started in the 1st century CE with a semi-legendary account of an embassy sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor Ming (58 – 75 CE). China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Family background Then-Liu Yang was born in 28 to Emperor Guangwu and his first love Consort Yin Lihua. Extensive contacts however started in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, with the missionnary efforts of a great number of Central Asian Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian or Kuchean. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Tocharian or Tokharian is one of the branches of the Indo-European language family.

From the 4th century onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel to India, the origin of Buddhism, by themselves in order to get improved access to the original scriptures, with Fa-hsien's pilgrimage to India (395–414), and later Xuan Zang (629–644). India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Faxian ( Traditional Chinese:法顯 Simplified Chinese:法显 Pinyin ：Fǎxiǎn also romanized as Fa-Hien or Fa-hsien) (ca See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century with the rise of Islam in Central Asia.

Artistic transmission

Main article: Silk Road transmission of art

Many artistic influences transited along the Silk Road, especially through the Central Asia, where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influence were able to intermix. Many artistic influences transited along the Silk Road, especially through the Central Asia, where Hellenistic, Iranian Indian and Chinese Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National In particular Greco-Buddhist art represent one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural Syncretism between the Classical Greek culture and Buddhism

Buddhist deities

The image of the Buddha, originating during the 1st century in northern India (areas of Gandhara and Mathura) was transmitted progressively through Central Asia and China until it reached Korea in the 4th century and Japan in the 6th century. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient Mathura ( IAST mathurā)( Hindi: मथुरा is a holy City in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. However the transmission of many iconographical details are clear, such as the Hercules inspiration behind the Nio guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples, and also representations of the Buddha reminiscent of Greek art such as the Buddha in Kamakura. Hercules is the Roman name for the Mythical Greek hero Heracles, son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmena. Kongōrikishi (金剛力士 or Niō (仁王 are two wrath-filled and muscular guardians of the Buddha, standing today at the entrance of many Buddhist temples in is a city located in Kanagawa, Japan, about 50 km south-south-west of Tokyo.

Another Buddhist deity, Shukongoshin, is also an interesting case of transmission of the image of the famous Greek god Herakles to the Far-East along the Silk Road. Kongōrikishi (金剛力士 or Niō (仁王 are two wrath-filled and muscular guardians of the Buddha, standing today at the entrance of many Buddhist temples in In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or Herakles was used in Greco-Buddhist art to represent Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha, and his representation was then used in China, Korea, and Japan to depict the protector gods of Buddhist temples. In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or Vajrapāṇi (from Sanskrit Vajra, "thunderbolt" or "diamond" and pāṇi, lit

Wind god

The name of the west wind in Latin is Zephyr. Various other artistic influences from the Silk Road can be found in Asia, one of the most striking being that of the Greek Wind God Boreas, transiting through Central Asia and China to become the Japanese Shinto wind god Fujin. In Greek Mythology, the Anemoi (in Greek, Άνεμοι &mdash " winds " were Wind gods who were each ascribed is the native religion of Japan and was once its State religion.

Floral scroll pattern

Finally the Greek artistic motif of the floral scroll was transmitted from the Hellenistic world to the area of the Tarim Basin around the 2nd century, as seen in Serindian art and wooden architectural remains. The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² The 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Serindian art is the art that developed from the 2nd through the 11th century A It then was adopted by China between the 4th and 6th century and displayed on tiles and ceramics; then it transmitted to Japan in the form of roof tile decorations of Japanese Buddhist temples circa 7th century, particularly in Nara temple building tiles, some of them exactly depicting vines and grapes . is the capital city of Nara Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan. A vine is any plant of Genus Vitis (the Grape plants or by extension any similar climbing or trailing plant For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is

Technological transfer

Main article: Medieval technology

The period of the High Middle Ages in Europe and East Asia saw major technological advances, including the diffusion through the Silk Road of the precursor to movable type printing, gunpowder, the astrolabe, and the compass. Medieval technology refers to the technology used in medieval Europe, which generally does not include the parts of Europe under Arab rule, such as Islamic The High Middle Ages was the period of European history in the 11th 12th and 13th centuries (AD 1000&ndash1299 Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists

Korean maps such as the Kangnido and Islamic mapmaking seem to have influenced the emergence of the first practical world maps, such as those of De Virga or Fra Mauro. The Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Jido ("Map of Integrated Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals" short name Gangnido (Kangnido) is a map of the world The De Virga world map was made by Albertinus de Virga between 1411 and 1415. The Fra Mauro map, "considered the greatest memorial of medieval cartography" according to Roberto Almagià is a map made around 1450 by the Venetian monk Ramusio, a contemporary, states that Fra Mauro's map is "an improved copy of the one brought from Cathay by Marco Polo".

Large Chinese junks were also observed by these travelers and may have provided impetus to develop larger ships in Europe. -HK CityHall Seaview 51217 5png|thumb|300px|A modern junk in Hong Kong]]A junk is a Chinese sailing vessel.

"The ships, called junks, that navigate these seas carry four masts or more, some of which can be raised or lowered, and have 40 to 60 cabins for the merchants and only one tiller. " (Text from the Fra Mauro map, 09-P25)

"A ship carries a complement of a thousand men, six hundred of whom are sailors and four hundred men-at-arms, including archers, men with shields and crossbows, who throw naphtha… These vessels are built in the towns of Zaytun (a. The Fra Mauro map, "considered the greatest memorial of medieval cartography" according to Roberto Almagià is a map made around 1450 by the Venetian monk A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts Naphtha normally refers to a number of different flammable liquid mixtures of hydrocarbons i k. a Zaitun, today's Quanzhou; 刺桐) and Sin-Kalan. "Zaytun" redirects here For the South Korean military division in Iraq see Zaytun Division. The vessel has four decks and contains rooms, cabins, and saloons for merchants; a cabin has chambers and a lavatory, and can be locked by its occupants. " (Ibn Battuta). Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February

See also

• Karakoram Highway
• Cities along the Silk Road
• Incense Road
• History of silk
• Hippie trail Modern revival: In the 1960s and 1970s a substantial number of people traveled the hippie trail, from Turkey to Nepal, along the contours of the original route. The Karakoram Highway (KKH is the highest paved international road in the world Along the continental Silk Road From Istanbul Turkey to Yazd Iran Constantinople (now Istanbul) Turkey Bursa The Incense Route or the Incense Road was a series of major ancient trading routes stretching across Egypt to India through Arabia. According to Chinese tradition the history of silk begins in the 27th century BCE The hippie trail is a term used to describe the journeys taken by Hippies and others in the 1960s and 1970s from Europe, overland to and from eastern Asia The hippie trail is a term used to describe the journeys taken by Hippies and others in the 1960s and 1970s from Europe, overland to and from eastern Asia Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. Modern tours also often follow its contours.
• Mount Imeon

Line notes

References

Further reading

• Il Milione by Marco Polo
• Kuzmina, E. E. The Prehistory of the Silk Road. (2008) Edited by Victor H. Mair. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. ISBN 978-0-8122-4041-2.
• Liu, Xinru, and Shaffer, Lynda Norene. 2007. Connections Across Eurasia: Transportation, Communication, and Cultural Exchange on the Silk Roads. McGraw Hill, New York. ISBN 978-0-07-284351-4.
• Miller, Roy Andrew (1959): Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty. University of California Press.
• Hallikainen, Saana : Connections from Europe to Asia and how the trading was affected by the cultural exchange (2002)
• Thubron, C. , The Silk Road to China (Hamlyn, 1989)

External links

• China National Tourist Office
• Silk Road Atlas (University of Washington)
• The history of the Silk Road by Oliver Wild
• Old World Traditional Trade Routes Project
• Travel report incl. photos along the Silk Road
• Silkroad Foundation
• Silk Road Project
• Silk Road Society
• Miami University Silk Road Project
• Destruction of Silk Road(Phase 3)
• The Great Handclasp -- The Han Empire and the Roman Empire

Part of a series on Trade routes
Amber Road | Hærvejen | Incense Route | Kamboja-Dvaravati Route | King's Highway | Roman-India routes | Royal Road | Salt Road | Siberian Route | Silk Road | Spice Route | Tea route | Varangians to the Greeks | Via Maris | Triangular trade | Volga trade route | Trans-Saharan trade | Old Salt Route | Hanseatic League | Grand Trunk Road

A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo The Amber Road was an ancient Trade route for the transfer of Amber. Hærvejen ( Danish, literally the army road, German: Ochsenweg, literally oxroad) is the name given to an Ancient trackway The Incense Route or the Incense Road was a series of major ancient trading routes stretching across Egypt to India through Arabia. Kamboja-Dvaravati Route was the name of an ancient high road running from the port of Dvaraka in Anarta ( Gujarat) in western India to Kamboja The King’s Highway was a Trade route of vital importance to the ancient Middle East. Roman trade with India through the overland caravan routes via Anatolia and Persia though at a relative trickle comparative to later times antedated the southern trade route via the Red The Persian Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius I of Achaemenid Empire in the 5th Century BC A Salt Road (Route du Sel is any of the prehistoric and historical Trade routes by which essential Salt has been transported to regions that The Siberian Route ( Sibirsky trakt, Сибирский тракт also known as the Moscow Route (ru ''Moskovsky trakt'' Московский тракт and Spice trade is a commercial activity of ancient origin which involves the merchandising of Spices and Herbs. The Ancient Tea Route ( Simplified Chinese: 茶马古道 Traditional Chinese: 茶馬古道 was a network of mule caravan paths winding through the mountains of The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks (Путь «из варяг в греки» Put iz varyag v greki) was a Trade route, which connected Scandinavia Via Maris is the modern name for an ancient Trade route, dating from the early Bronze Age, linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Triangular trade is a historical term indicating Trade between three ports or regions In the Middle Ages, the Volga trade route connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Russia with the Caspian Sea, via the Volga River Trans-Saharan trade is trade across the Sahara between Mediterranean countries and West Africa. The Old Salt Route (German Alte Salzstraße) was a medieval trade route in northern Germany for the transport of salt. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade The Grand Trunk Road (commonly abbreviated to GT Road is one of South Asia 's oldest and longest major roads

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