14 aluminium ← silicon → phosphorus C ↑ Si ↓ Ge Periodic table - Extended periodic table
General
Name, symbol, number	silicon, Si, 14
Chemical series	metalloids
Group, period, block	14, 3, p
Appearance	As broken ingot: crystalline with dark reflective bluish-tinged faces
Standard atomic weight	28.0855(3) g·mol−1
Electron configuration	[Ne] 3s2 3p2
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 4
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Density (near r.t.)	2. WikipediaNaming Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Germanium (dʒɚˈmeɪniəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Ge and Atomic number 32 This is a typical display of the periodic table of the elements and contains the symbol and Atomic number of each element Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of Chemical elements, sorted by name Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of chemical elements by symbol, including the A table of Chemical elements ordered by Atomic number and color coded according to type of element In Chemistry a group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the Periodic table of the Chemical elements There are 18 groups in Metalloid is a term used in Chemistry when classifying the Chemical elements On the basis of their general physical and chemical properties nearly every element In Chemistry a group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the Periodic table of the Chemical elements There are 18 groups in In the Periodic table of the elements, a period is a horizontal row of the table A block of the Periodic table of elements is a set of adjacent groups The respective highest-energy electrons in each element in a block belong to the same Atomic History Carbon, Tin, and Lead, are a few of the elements well known in the ancient world - together with Sulfur, Iron, A period 3 element is one of the Chemical elements in the third row (or period) of the periodic table of the elements. See also Electron configuration The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various Mass levels between 10&minus36&thinsp kg and 1053&thinspkg Molar mass, symbol M, is the Mass of one mole of a substance ( Chemical element or Chemical compound) In Atomic physics and Quantum chemistry, electron configuration is the arrangement of Electrons in an Atom, Molecule, or other Neon (ˈniːɒn is the Chemical element that has the symbol Ne and Atomic number 10 The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J An electron shell may be crudely thought of as an Orbit followed by Electrons around an Atom nucleus. In the Physical sciences a phase is a Set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different Room temperature (also referred to as ambient temperature) is a common term to denote a certain Temperature within enclosed space at which humans are accustomed 33 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p.	2. Kilogram per cubic metre is the SI measure of Density and is represented as kg/m³ where kg stands for Kilogram and m³ stands for Cubic metre The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. 57 g·cm−3
Melting point	1687 K (1420 °C, 2577 °F)
Boiling point	3538 K (2355 °C, 5909 °F)
Heat of fusion	50. The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 The standard Enthalpy of fusion (symbol \Delta{}H_{fus} also known as the heat of fusion or specific melting heat, is the amount of 21 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization	359 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity	(25 °C) 19. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material The enthalpy of vaporization, (symbol \Delta{}_{v}H also known as the heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the Energy required The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material Specific heat capacity, also known simply as specific heat, is the measure of the heat energy required to increase the Temperature of a unit quantity 789 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T/K 1908 2102 2339 2636 3021 3537
Atomic properties
Crystal structure	Diamond cubic
Oxidation states	4, 3 [1], 2 [2], 1 [3] (amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity	1. Vapor pressure (also known as equilibrium vapor pressure or saturation vapor pressure) is the Pressure of a Vapor in equilibrium In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. The diamond cubic Crystal structure is a repeating pattern that atoms may adopt as certain Materials solidify The oxidation number of a central atom in a coordination compound is the charge that it would have if all the Ligands were removed along with the Electron pairs " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons 90 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies (more)	1st: 786. The ionization potential, ionization energy or EI of an Atom or Molecule is the Energy required to remove an Electron These tables list the Ionization energy in kJ/mol necessary to remove one mole of Electrons from one mole of neutral gaseous Atoms (first energy respectively 5 kJ·mol−1
	2nd: 1577. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material 1 kJ·mol−1
	3rd: 3231. 6 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius	117.6 pm
Atomic radius (calc. Atomic radius, and more generally the size of an atom, is not a precisely defined Physical quantity, nor is it constant in all circumstances A picometre ( American spelling: picometer, symbol pm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one trillionth )	111 pm
Covalent radius	111 pm
Van der Waals radius	210 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering	nonmagnetic
Thermal conductivity	(300 K) 149 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion	(25 °C) 2. The covalent radius, r cov is a measure of the size of Atom which forms part of a Covalent bond. Van der Waals Volume The van der Waals volume, V, also called the atomic volume or molecular volume, is the atomic property most directly In Physics, magnetism is one of the Phenomena by which Materials exert attractive or repulsive Forces on other Materials. In Physics, thermal conductivity, k is the property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct Heat. When the Temperature of a substance changes the energy that is stored in the Intermolecular bonds between atoms changes 6 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod)	(20 °C) 8433 m/s
Young's modulus	150 GPa
Bulk modulus	100 GPa
Mohs hardness	7
CAS registry number	7440-21-3
Band gap energy at 300 K	1. Sound is a vibration that travels through an elastic medium as a Wave. In Solid mechanics, Young's modulus (E is a measure of the Stiffness of an isotropic elastic material The Mohs scale of mineral hardness characterizes the scratch resistance of various Minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer material CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for Chemical compounds Polymers biological sequences mixtures and Alloys They are also referred to In Solid state physics and related applied fields a band gap, also called an energy gap or bandgap, is an energy range in a solid where no electron states 12 eV
Selected isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of silicon iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP 28Si 92. Silicon ( Si) has numerous known Isotopes with Mass numbers ranging from 22 to 44 Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides In Chemistry, natural abundance (NA refers to the abundance Isotopes of a Chemical element as naturally found on a planet Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. The decay energy is the Energy released by a Nuclear decay. The energy difference of the Reactants is often written as Q: where Q In Nuclear physics, a decay product, also known as a daughter product, daughter isotope or daughter nuclide, is a Nuclide 23% 28Si is stable with 14 neutrons 29Si 4. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. 67% 29Si is stable with 15 neutrons 30Si 3. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. 1% 30Si is stable with 16 neutrons 32Si syn 170 y β- 13. Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that are not Radioactive (to current knowledge This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. A synthetic radioisotope is a Radionuclide that is not found in nature no natural process or mechanism exists which produces it or it is so unstable that it decays away in To help compare Orders of magnitude of different times this page lists times between 109 Seconds (a gigasecond) and 1010 seconds (31 In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted 020 32P
References
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Silicon (pronounced /ˈsɪlɪkən/ or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/, Latin: silicium) is the chemical element that has the symbol Si and atomic number 14. Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Recommended values for many properties of the elements together with various references are collected on these data pages Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus. See also List of elements by atomic number In Chemistry and Physics, the atomic number (also known as the proton A tetravalent metalloid, silicon is less reactive than its chemical analog carbon. In Chemistry, a tetravalence is the state of an Atom with four Electrons available for covalent chemical bonding in its valence Metalloid is a term used in Chemistry when classifying the Chemical elements On the basis of their general physical and chemical properties nearly every element Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 As the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, silicon occasionally occurs as the pure free element in nature, but is more widely distributed in dusts, planetoids and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide For the Artificial intelligence Androids of the 1990s Science fiction series Space Above and Beyond, see Silicate (AI On Earth, silicon is the second most abundant element (after oxygen) in the crust,^[1] making up 25. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the 7% of the crust by mass.

Silicon has many industrial uses. Elemental silicon is the principal component of most semiconductor devices, most importantly integrated circuits or microchips. A semiconductor' is a Solid material that has Electrical conductivity in between a conductor and an insulator; it can vary over that Microchipsjpg|right|thumb|200px|Microchips ( EPROM memory with a transparent window showing the integrated circuit inside Silicon is widely used in semiconductors because it remains a semiconductor at higher temperatures than the semiconductor germanium and because its native oxide is easily grown in a furnace and forms a better semiconductor/dielectric interface than any other material. Germanium (dʒɚˈmeɪniəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Ge and Atomic number 32 Passivation is the process of making a material "passive" in relation to another material prior to using the materials together

In the form of silica and silicates, silicon forms useful glasses, cements, and ceramics. Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many In the most general sense of the word a cement is a binder a substance which sets and hardens independently and can bind other materials together The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos) It is also a constituent of silicones, a class-name for various synthetic plastic substances made of silicon, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen, often confused with silicon itself. Silicones are largely inert compounds with a wide variety of forms and uses

Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces of it appear to be required by animals. It is much more important to the metabolism of plants, particularly many grasses, and silicic acid (a type of silica) forms the basis of the striking array of protective shells of the microscopic diatoms. Silicic acid is a general name for a family of chemical compounds of the element Silicon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, with the general formula n Diatoms ( Greek: (dia = "through" + (temnein = "to cut" i

Contents 1 Notable characteristics 2 History 3 Occurrence 4 Isotopes 5 Compounds 6 Applications 6.1 Alloys 6.2 In electronic applications 6.3 Silicones 7 Production 8 Purification 8.1 Physical methods 8.2 Chemical methods 9 Crystallization 10 Different forms of silicon 11 Silicon-based life 12 In popular culture 13 See also 14 References 15 External links

Notable characteristics

The outer electron orbitals (half filled subshell holding up to eight electrons) have the same structure as in carbon and the two elements are sometimes similar chemically. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Even though it is a relatively inert element, silicon still reacts with halogens and dilute alkalis, but most acids (except for some hyper-reactive combinations of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid) do not affect it. Abundance Owing to their high Reactivity, the halogens are found in the environment only in compounds or as Ions Halide ions and oxoanions In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and Hydrofluoric acid is a Solution of Hydrogen fluoride in Water. Having four bonding electrons however gives it, like carbon, many opportunities to combine with other elements or compounds under the right circumstances.

Both silicon and carbon are semiconductors, readily either donating or sharing their four outer electrons allowing many different forms of chemical bonding. Pure silicon has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, since the number of free charge carriers increases with temperature. Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature Electrical resistance is a ratio of the degree to which an object opposes an Electric current through it measured in Ohms Its reciprocal quantity is The electrical resistance of single crystal silicon significantly changes under the application of mechanical stress due to the piezoresistive effect. A single crystal, also called monocrystal, is a Crystalline Solid in which the Crystal lattice of the entire sample is continuous and unbroken The piezoresistive effect describes the changing Electrical resistance of a material due to applied Mechanical stress.

In its crystalline form, pure silicon has a gray color and a metallic luster. In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating It is similar to glass in that it is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping.

History

Silicon was first identified by Antoine Lavoisier in 1787 as a component of the Latin silex, or silicis (meaning what were more generally termed "the flints" or "Hard Rocks" during the Early Modern era where nowadays as we would say "silica" or "silicates"), and was later mistaken by Humphry Davy in 1800 for a compound. Year 1787 ( MDCCLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Flint (or flintstone) is a hard sedimentary Cryptocrystalline form of the Mineral Quartz, categorized as a variety of Chert The early modern period is a term initially used by historians to refer mainly to the period roughly from 1500 to 1800 in Western Europe ( Early modern Europe) Sir Humphry Davy 1st Baronet FRS MRIA (17 December 1778 &ndash 29 May 1829 was a British Chemist and inventor Year -of the Julian calendar. The Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar until Friday, but 12 days ahead since Saturday. In 1811 Gay-Lussac and Thénard probably prepared impure amorphous silicon through the heating of potassium with silicon tetrafluoride. Year 1811 ( MDCCCXI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (also Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac, December 6, 1778 – May 9, 1850) was a French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard ( May 4, 1777 in the village of La Louptière, Aube - June 21, 1857 in Paris) was a Amorphous silicon (a-Si is the non-crystalline Allotropic form of Silicon. Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 Silicon tetrafluoride or Tetrafluorosilane is the Chemical compound with the formula Si[[Fluorine F]]4 It was first isolated as an element by Berzelius in 1823. Friherre Jöns Jacob Berzelius (20 August 1779 &ndash 7 August 1848 was a Swedish chemist Year 1823 ( MDCCCXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common In 1824, Berzelius prepared amorphous silicon using approximately the same method as Gay-Lussac. Year 1824 ( MDCCCXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Berzelius also purified the product by repeatedly washing it.

Occurrence

Measured by mass, silicon makes up 25. Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object 7% of the Earth's crust and is the second most abundant element on Earth, after oxygen. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Pure silicon crystals are only occasionally found in nature; they can be found as inclusions with gold and in volcanic exhalations. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Silicon is usually found in the form of silicon dioxide (also known as silica), and silicate. The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide For the Artificial intelligence Androids of the 1990s Science fiction series Space Above and Beyond, see Silicate (AI

Silica occurs in minerals consisting of (practically) pure silicon dioxide in different crystalline forms. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide Sand, amethyst, agate, quartz, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, jasper, and opal are some of the forms in which silicon dioxide appears. Sand is a naturally occurring Granular material composed of finely divided rock and Mineral particles Amethyst is a violet variety of Quartz often used as an Ornamental stone in Jewelry. Quartz (from German) is the most abundant Mineral in the Earth 's Continental crust (although Feldspar is more common in Chalcedony is a Cryptocrystalline form of Silica, composed of very fine intergrowths of the minerals Quartz and Moganite. Flint (or flintstone) is a hard sedimentary Cryptocrystalline form of the Mineral Quartz, categorized as a variety of Chert JasPer is a project to create a reference implementation of the codec specified in the JPEG-2000 Part-1 standard (ie OPAL ( Open Pool Australian Lightwater reactor) is a 20 megawatt pool-type nuclear research reactor that was officially opened in April 2007 (They are known as "lithogenic", as opposed to "biogenic", silicas. Lithogenic silica (LSi comes from the Greek words lithos, which means rock, and genesis, which means coming from. Biogenic silica (BSi is the equivalent to the terms Opal, Biogenic opal and amorphous opaline silica )

Silicon also occurs as silicates (various minerals containing silicon, oxygen and one or another metal), for example feldspar. For the Artificial intelligence Androids of the 1990s Science fiction series Space Above and Beyond, see Silicate (AI Feldspar is the name of a group of rock-forming Minerals which make up as much as 60% of the Earth 's crust. These minerals occur in clay, sand and various types of rock such as granite and sandstone. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Sand is a naturally occurring Granular material composed of finely divided rock and Mineral particles In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. Sandstone is a Sedimentary rock composed mainly of Sand -size Mineral or rock grains. Asbestos, feldspar, clay, hornblende, and mica are a few of the many silicate minerals. Asbestos is a group of Minerals with long thin fibrous Crystals The word "asbestos" (῾ἀσβεστος is derived from a Greek adjective Feldspar is the name of a group of rock-forming Minerals which make up as much as 60% of the Earth 's crust. Hornblende is a complex inosilicate series of Minerals Hornblende is not a recognized mineral in its own right but the name is used as a general or field term to The word "mica" is thought to be derived from the Latin word la micare, "glitteren" in reference to the brilliant appearance of this mineral (especially A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific

Silicon is a principal component of aerolites, which are a class of meteoroids, and also is a component of tektites, which are a natural form of glass. A meteorite is a natural object originating in Outer space that survives an impact with the Earth 's surface Tektites (from Greek tektos, molten are natural Glass objects up to a few centimeters in size which most scientists argue were formed by the impact of

See also Category:Silicate minerals

Isotopes

Main article: isotopes of silicon

Silicon has numerous known isotopes, with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 44. Silicon ( Si) has numerous known Isotopes with Mass numbers ranging from 22 to 44 Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides The mass number ( A) also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of Protons and Neutrons (together known as ²⁸Si (the most abundant isotope, at 92. 23%), ²⁹Si (4. 67%), and ³⁰Si (3. 1%) are stable; ³²Si is a radioactive isotope produced by argon decay. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. This article pertains to the chemical element For other uses see Argon (disambiguation. Its half-life has been determined to be approximately 170 years (0. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page 21 MeV), and it decays by beta - emission to ³²P (which has a 14. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 28 day half-life )^[2] and then to ³²S. Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16

Compounds

For examples of silicon compounds see silicon dioxide (SiO₂), silicic acid (H₄SiO₄), silicates, silicate minerals, silicides, silicon ceramics like silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon nitride (Si₃N₄), silicon halides like silicon tetrachloride (SiCl₄) and silicon tetrafluoride (SiF₄), trichlorosilane (HSiCl₃), silanes H₂(SiH₂)_n, organosilicons and silicones. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS is the most widely used Silicon -based organic Polymer, and is particularly known for its unusual rheological (or The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide Silicic acid is a general name for a family of chemical compounds of the element Silicon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, with the general formula n For the Artificial intelligence Androids of the 1990s Science fiction series Space Above and Beyond, see Silicate (AI The silicate minerals make up the largest and most important class of rock-forming Minerals They are classified based on the structure of their silicate Ion group A silicide is a compound that has Silicon with more Electropositive elements Silicon carbide ( is a compound of Silicon and Carbon bonded together to form Ceramics but it also occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral Silicon nitride (Si3N4 is a hard solid substance It is the main component in silicon nitride Ceramics which have relatively good shock resistance A halide is a Binary compound, of which one part is a Halogen Atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less Silicon tetrachloride is the Chemical compound with the formula SiCl4 Silicon tetrafluoride or Tetrafluorosilane is the Chemical compound with the formula Si[[Fluorine F]]4 Trichlorosilane is a Chemical compound containing Silicon, Hydrogen, and Chlorine. Silane is a Chemical compound with Chemical formula Si[[hydrogen H]]4 Organosilicon compounds are organic compounds containing Carbon Silicon bonds. Silicones are largely inert compounds with a wide variety of forms and uses

See also Category:Silicon compounds

Applications

As the second most abundant element in the earth's crust, silicon is vital to the construction industry as a principal constituent of natural stone, glass, concrete and cement. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 In Geology, a crust is the outermost solid shell of a planet or moon Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many Concrete is a construction material composed of Cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as Fly ash and Slag In the most general sense of the word a cement is a binder a substance which sets and hardens independently and can bind other materials together Silicon's greatest impact on the modern world's economy and lifestyle has resulted from silicon wafers used as substrates in the manufacture of discrete electronic devices such as power transistors, and in the development of integrated circuits such as computer chips. An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area The term lifestyle was originally coined by Austrian psychologist Alfred Adler in 1929 A wafer is a thin slice of Semiconductor material such as a Silicon crystal used in the fabrication of Integrated circuit and other microdevices Electronics refers to the flow of charge (moving Electrons through Nonmetal conductors (mainly Semiconductors, whereas electrical In Electronics, a transistor is a Semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals Microchipsjpg|right|thumb|200px|Microchips ( EPROM memory with a transparent window showing the integrated circuit inside Microchipsjpg|right|thumb|200px|Microchips ( EPROM memory with a transparent window showing the integrated circuit inside

Alloys

The largest application of pure silicon (metallurgical grade silicon), representing about 55% of the world consumption, is in the manufacture of aluminium-silicon alloys to produce cast parts, mainly for the automotive industry. WikipediaNaming An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has Silicon is an important constituent of electrical steel, modifying its resistivity and ferromagnetic properties. Electrical steel, also called lamination steel, silicon electrical steel, silicon steel or transformer steel, is specialty Steel tailored Electrical resistivity (also known as specific electrical resistance) is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of Electric current. Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as Iron) form Permanent magnets and/or exhibit strong interactions with Magnets it Silicon is added to molten cast iron as ferrosilicon or silicocalcium alloys to improve its performance in casting thin sections, and to prevent the formation of cementite at the surface. Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. Ferrosilicon, or ferrosilicium, is a Ferroalloy an alloy of Iron and Silicon with between 15 and 90% silicon Cementite or iron carbide is a Chemical compound with the formula Fe3C (or Fe2CFe and an Orthorhombic crystal structure

In electronic applications

Pure silicon is used to produce ultra-pure silicon wafers used in the semiconductor industry, in electronics and in photovoltaic applications. A wafer is a thin slice of Semiconductor material such as a Silicon crystal used in the fabrication of Integrated circuit and other microdevices A semiconductor' is a Solid material that has Electrical conductivity in between a conductor and an insulator; it can vary over that Photovoltaics ( PV) is the field of technology and research related to the application of Solar cells for Energy by converting Sunlight directly Ultra-pure silicon can be doped with other elements to adjust its electrical response by controlling the number and charge (positive or negative) of current carriers. In Semiconductor production doping is the process of intentionally introducing impurities into an extremely pure (also referred to as intrinsic) semiconductor to An electron hole is the conceptual and mathematical Opposite of an Electron, useful in the study of Physics and Chemistry. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J Such control is necessary for transistors, solar cells, integrated circuits, microprocessors, semiconductor detectors and other semiconductor devices which are used in electronics and other high-tech applications. In Electronics, a transistor is a Semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts Solar energy into Electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Microchipsjpg|right|thumb|200px|Microchips ( EPROM memory with a transparent window showing the integrated circuit inside A microprocessor incorporates most or all of the functions of a Central processing unit (CPU on a single Integrated A semiconductor detector is a device that uses a semiconductor (usually Silicon or Germanium) to detect Semiconductor devices are Electronic components that exploit the electronic properties of Semiconductor materials principally Silicon, Germanium In Photonics, silicon can be used as a continuous wave Raman laser medium to produce coherent light, though it is ineffective as a light source. Photonics is the science of generating controlling and detecting Photons particularly in the visible and near Infra-red spectrum, but The Raman laser is a byproduct of Raman scattering, discovered in 1928 by Nobel laureate Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman and Kariamanickam Srinivasa Krishnan Hydrogenated amorphous silicon is used in the production of low-cost, large-area electronics in applications such as LCDs, and of large-area, low-cost thin-film solar cells. Amorphous silicon (a-Si is the non-crystalline Allotropic form of Silicon. Roll-to-roll processing, also known as 'web' processing is the process of creating electronic devices on a roll of flexible plastic or metal foil A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts Solar energy into Electricity by the photovoltaic effect.

Silicones

The second largest application of silicon (about 40% of world consumption) is as a raw material in the production of silicones, compounds containing silicon-oxygen and silicon-carbon bonds that have the capability to acting as bonding intermediates between glass and organic compounds, and to form polymers with useful properties such as impermeability to water, flexibility and resistance to chemical attack. Silicones are largely inert compounds with a wide variety of forms and uses Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Silicones are used in waterproofing treatments, molding compounds and mold-release agents, mechanical seals, high temperature greases and waxes, caulking compounds and even in applications as diverse as breast implants, explosives and pyrotechnics. Waterproof or water-resistant describes objects unaffected by water or resisting water passage or which are covered with a material that resists or does not allow water passage Molding is the process of Manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material using a rigid frame or model called a pattern. A release agent, also known as a de-moulding agent, "form oil" parting agent or form releaser, is a substance used in moulding and A lubricant (sometimes referred to as a "Lube" is a substance (often a liquid introduced between two moving surfaces to reduce the Friction between them improving Caulking is a process used to seal the seams in Wooden Boats or ships and riveted iron or steel ships in order to make them watertight A breast implant is a Prosthesis used to enlarge the size of a woman's Breasts (known as breast augmentation, breast enlargement, mammoplasty An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied The term "pyrotechnics" can also be used for Fireworks events ^[3]

• Construction: Silicon dioxide or silica in the form of sand and clay is an important ingredient of concrete and brick and is also used to produce Portland cement. In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide Sand is a naturally occurring Granular material composed of finely divided rock and Mineral particles Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Concrete is a construction material composed of Cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as Fly ash and Slag A brick is a block of Ceramic material used in Masonry construction laid using mortar. Portland cement is the most common type of Cement in general usage in many parts of the world as it is a basic ingredient of Concrete, mortar, Stucco
• Pottery/Enamel is a refractory material used in high-temperature material production and its silicates are used in making enamels and pottery. Pottery is the Ceramic ware made by potters It also refers to a group of materials that includes Earthenware, Stoneware In a discussion of Material science, enamel (or vitreous enamel or porcelain enamel in U
• Glass: Silica from sand is a principal component of glass. Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many Glass can be made into a great variety of shapes and with many different physical properties. Silica is used as a base material to make window glass, containers, insulators, and many other useful objects. An insulator, also called a Dielectric, is a material that resists the flow of Electric current.
• Abrasives: Silicon carbide is one of the most important abrasives. An abrasive is a material often a Mineral, that is used to shape or finish a workpiece through rubbing which leads to part of the workpiece being worn away Silicon carbide ( is a compound of Silicon and Carbon bonded together to form Ceramics but it also occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral
• Silly Putty was originally made by adding boric acid to silicone oil. Silly Putty (originally called Nutty Putty, and also marketing by other companies as Thinking Putty, Bouncing Putty) is the Crayola owned trademark Boric acid, also called boracic acid or orthoboric acid or Acidum Boricum, is a mild Acid often used as an Antiseptic, Insecticide Silicone oils ( polymerized Siloxanes are Silicon analogues of Carbon based Organic compounds, and can form (relatively long and complex Now name-brand Silly Putty also contains significant amounts of elemental silicon. (Silicon binds to the silicone and allows the material to bounce 20% higher. )

See also Category:Silicon compounds

Production

Silicon is commercially prepared by the reaction of high-purity silica with wood, charcoal, and coal, in an electric arc furnace using carbon electrodes. The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide An electric arc furnace (EAF is a Furnace that heats charged material by means of an Electric arc. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 An electrode is an Electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e At temperatures over 1900 °C, the carbon reduces the silica to silicon according to the chemical equation

SiO₂ + C → Si + CO₂. A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a Chemical reaction.

SiO₂ + 2C → Si + 2CO.

Liquid silicon collects in the bottom of the furnace, and is then drained and cooled. The silicon produced via this process is called metallurgical grade silicon and is at least 98% pure. Using this method, silicon carbide, SiC, can form. However, provided the amount of SiO₂ is kept high, silicon carbide may be eliminated, as explained by this equation:

2 SiC + SiO₂ → 3 Si + 2 CO.

In 2005, metallurgical grade silicon cost about $ 0. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been 77 per pound ($1. 70/kg). ^[4]

It has been reported in recent years that, by molten salt electrolysis, pure silicon can be directly extracted from solid silica and this new electrolysis method, known as the FFC Cambridge Process, has the potential to produce directly the solar grade silicon without any CO₂ emission at much lower energy consumption. ^[5][6][7]

Purification

The use of silicon in semiconductor devices demands a much greater purity than afforded by metallurgical grade silicon. A semiconductor' is a Solid material that has Electrical conductivity in between a conductor and an insulator; it can vary over that Historically, a number of methods have been used to produce high-purity silicon.

Physical methods

Early silicon purification techniques were based on the fact that if silicon is melted and re-solidified, the last parts of the mass to solidify contain most of the impurities. The earliest method of silicon purification, first described in 1919 and used on a limited basis to make radar components during World War II, involved crushing metallurgical grade silicon and then partially dissolving the silicon powder in an acid. Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range altitude direction or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as Aircraft, ships World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are When crushed, the silicon cracked so that the weaker impurity-rich regions were on the outside of the resulting grains of silicon. As a result, the impurity-rich silicon was the first to be dissolved when treated with acid, leaving behind a more pure product.

In zone melting, also called zone refining, the first silicon purification method to be widely used industrially, rods of metallurgical grade silicon are heated to melt at one end. Zone melting is a method of separation by melting in which a molten zone traverses a long Ingot of impure metal or chemical Then, the heater is slowly moved down the length of the rod, keeping a small length of the rod molten as the silicon cools and re-solidifies behind it. Since most impurities tend to remain in the molten region rather than re-solidify, when the process is complete, most of the impurities in the rod will have been moved into the end that was the last to be melted. This end is then cut off and discarded, and the process repeated if a still higher purity is desired.

Chemical methods

Today, silicon is purified by converting it to a silicon compound that can be more easily purified than in its original state, and then converting that silicon element back into pure silicon. A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed proportion by Mass. Trichlorosilane is the silicon compound most commonly used as the intermediate, although silicon tetrachloride and silane are also used. Trichlorosilane is a Chemical compound containing Silicon, Hydrogen, and Chlorine. Silicon tetrachloride is the Chemical compound with the formula SiCl4 Silane is a Chemical compound with Chemical formula Si[[hydrogen H]]4 When these gases are blown over silicon at high temperature, they decompose to high-purity silicon.

At one time, DuPont produced ultra-pure silicon by reacting silicon tetrachloride with high-purity zinc vapors at 950 °C, producing silicon according to the chemical equation

SiCl₄ + 2 Zn → Si + 2 ZnCl₂. E I du Pont de Nemours and Company (,) is an American chemical company that was founded in July 1802 as a Gunpowder mill by Eleuthère Irénée Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30

However, this technique was plagued with practical problems (such as the zinc chloride byproduct solidifying and clogging lines) and was eventually abandoned in favor of the Siemens process. Zinc chloride is the name of Chemical compound with the formula Zn[[chlorine Cl]]2 and its hydrates

In the Siemens process, high-purity silicon rods are exposed to trichlorosilane at 1150 °C. The trichlorosilane gas decomposes and deposits additional silicon onto the rods, enlarging them according to chemical reactions like

2 HSiCl₃ → Si + 2 HCl + SiCl₄. A chemical reaction is a process that always results in the interconversion of Chemical substances The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called

Silicon produced from this and similar processes is called polycrystalline silicon. Polycrystalline silicon typically has impurity levels of less than 10⁻⁹.

In 2006 REC announced construction of a plant based on fluidized bed technology using silane. The Renewable Energy Corporation (REC is a Solar power company with headquarters in Norway. ^[8]

3SiCl₄ + Si + 2H₂ → 4HSiCl₃

4HSiCl₃ → 3SiCl₄ + SiH₄

SiH₄ → Si + 2H₂

Crystallization

Silicon, like carbon and other group IV elements form face-centered diamond cubic crystal structure. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 The diamond cubic Crystal structure is a repeating pattern that atoms may adopt as certain Materials solidify In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. Silicon, in particular, forms a face-centered cubic structure with a lattice spacing of 0. The cubic crystal system (or isometric) is a Crystal system where the Unit cell is in the shape of a Cube. 5430710 nm. ^[9]

The majority of silicon crystals grown for device production are produced by the Czochralski process, (CZ-Si) since it is the cheapest method available and it is capable of producing large size crystals. A seed crystal is a small piece of Single crystal material from which a large Crystal of the same material typically is to be grown A single crystal, also called monocrystal, is a Crystalline Solid in which the Crystal lattice of the entire sample is continuous and unbroken The Czochralski process is a method of Crystal growth used to obtain Single crystals of Semiconductors (e The Czochralski process is a method of Crystal growth used to obtain Single crystals of Semiconductors (e However, silicon single-crystals grown by the Czochralski method contain impurities since the crucible which contains the melt dissolves. A crucible is a cup-shaped piece of laboratory object Laboratory equipment used to contain Chemical compounds when heating them to very high Temperatures For certain electronic devices, particularly those required for high power applications, silicon grown by the Czochralski method is not pure enough. For these applications, float-zone silicon (FZ-Si) can be used instead. Float-zone silicon is a high-purity alternative to Silicon grown by the Czochralski process. It is worth mentioning though, in contrast with CZ-Si method in which the seed is dipped into the silicon melt and the growing crystal is pulled upward, the thin seed crystal in the FZ-Si method sustains the growing crystal as well as the polysilicon rod from the bottom. As a result, it is difficult to grow large size crystals using the float-zone method. Today, all the dislocation-free silicon crystals used in semiconductor industry with diameter 300mm or larger are grown by the Czochralski method with purity level significantly improved.

Different forms of silicon

Silicon powder	Granular silicon	Polycrystal silicon	Silicon monocrystal
Nanocrystalline silicon	Silicon Ingot

One can notice the color change in silicon nanopowder. Nanocrystalline silicon ( nc-Si)—an allotropic form of Silicon with Paracrystalline structure—is similar to Amorphous silicon This is caused by the quantum effects which occur in particles of nanometric dimensions. See also Potential well, Quantum dot, and Nanoparticle. A potential well is the region surrounding a Local minimum of Potential energy. A quantum dot is a Semiconductor whose Excitons are confined in all three Spatial dimensions. In Nanotechnology, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties

Silicon-based life

See also: Alternative biochemistry

Since silicon is similar to carbon, particularly in its valency, some people have proposed the possibility of silicon-based life. Alternative biochemistry is the speculative Biochemistry of alien Life forms that differ radically from those on Earth. One main detraction for silicon-based life is that unlike carbon, silicon does not have the tendency to form double and triple bonds.

Although there are no known forms of life that rely entirely on silicon-based chemistry, some use silica for specific functions. The polycystine radiolaria and diatoms have skeletons of opaline silicon dioxide, and the Hexactinellid sponges secrete spicules made of silicon dioxide. The polycystines are a group of Radiolarian protists They include the vast majority of the Fossil radiolaria as their skeletons are abundant in marine sediments Radiolarians (also radiolaria) are Amoeboid Protozoa that produce intricate Mineral Skeletons typically with a central capsule Diatoms ( Greek: (dia = "through" + (temnein = "to cut" i The opalines are a small group of peculiar Protists found as Endosymbionts in the gut of Frogs and Toads Each cell has two or more nuclei Hexactinellid sponges are sponges with a Skeleton made of four- and/or six-pointed silaceous Spicules, often referred to as glass sponges The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus "pore" and ferre "to bear" are Animals This article is about the skeletal structure See also Spicule (solar physics and Spicule (glass manufacture. These forms of silicon dioxide are known as biogenic silica. Biogenic silica (BSi is the equivalent to the terms Opal, Biogenic opal and amorphous opaline silica Silicate bacteria use silicates in their metabolism. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life.

Life as we know it could not have developed based on a silicon biochemistry. The main reason for this fact is that life on Earth depends on the carbon cycle: autotrophic entities use carbon dioxide to synthesize organic compounds with carbon, which is then used as food by heterotrophic entities, which produce energy and carbon dioxide from these compounds. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the Biosphere, Pedosphere, Geosphere, Hydrosphere, and An autotroph (from the Greek autos = self and trophe = nutrition is an Organism that produces complex Organic compounds from simple A heterotrophs, or chemoorganotrophy ( Greek heterone = (another and trophe = nutrition is an Organism that requires If carbon was to be replaced with silicon, there would be a need for a silicon cycle. However, silicon dioxide precipitates in aqueous systems, and cannot be transported among living beings by common biological means.

As such, another solvent would be necessary to sustain silicon-based life forms; it would be difficult (if not impossible) to find another common compound with the unusual properties of water which make it an ideal solvent for carbon-based life. Larger silicon compounds analogous to common hydrocarbon chains (silanes) are also generally unstable owing to the larger atomic radius of silicon and the correspondingly weaker silicon-silicon bond; silanes decompose readily and often violently in the presence of oxygen making them unsuitable for an oxidizing atmosphere such as our own. In Organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an Organic compound consisting entirely of Hydrogen and Carbon. Silane is a Chemical compound with Chemical formula Si[[hydrogen H]]4 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Silicon also does not readily participate in pi-bonding (the second and third bonds in triple bonds and double bonds are pi-bonds) as its p-orbital electrons experience greater shielding and are less able to take on the necessary geometry. In Chemistry, pi bonds ( π bonds) are covalent Chemical bonds where two lobes of one involved electron orbital overlap two lobes An atomic orbital is a Mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of an electron in an atom Furthermore, although some silicon rings (cyclosilanes) analogous to common the cycloalkanes formed by carbon have been synthesized, these are largely unknown. A cyclosilane is a Silane in a ring like a Cycloalkane is an Alkane in a ring Cycloalkanes (also called naphthenes, especially if from Petroleum sources are types of Alkanes which have one or more rings of Carbon Atoms Their synthesis suffers from the difficulties inherent in producing any silane compound, whereas carbon will readily form five-, six-, and seven-membered rings by a variety of pathways (the Diels-Alder reaction is one naturally-occurring example), even in the presence of oxygen. The Diels-Alder reaction is an Organic chemical reaction (specifically a Cycloaddition) between a conjugated Diene and a substituted Alkene, Silicon's inability to readily form long silane chains, multiple bonds, and rings severely limits the diversity of compounds that can be synthesized from it. Under known conditions, silicon chemistry simply cannot begin to approach the diversity of organic chemistry, a crucial factor in carbon's role in biology. Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation

However, silicon-based life could be construed as being life which exists under a computational substrate. This concept is yet to be explored in mainstream technology but receives ample coverage by sci-fi authors.

A. G. Cairns-Smith has proposed that the first living organisms to exist were forms of clay minerals—which were probably based around the silicon atom. Alexander Graham Cairns-Smith (born 1931 is an organic chemist and molecular biologist at the University of Glasgow, most famous for his controversial 1985 book Seven

In popular culture

Because silicon is an important element in semiconductors and high-tech devices, the high-tech region of Silicon Valley, California is named after this element. For the valley nicknamed "Silicone Valley" see San Fernando Valley. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Other geographic locations with connections to the industry have since characterized themselves as siliconia as well.

See also

• List of silicon producers
• silicone
• electronics

References

External links

• WebElements.com – Silicon
• Mineral.Galleries.com – Silicon
• Los Alamos National Laboratory: Silicon

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