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Shtokavian or Štokavian is the dialect existing in the Bosnian language, Croatian language and Serbian language. Bosnian language (Bosnian bosanski jezik) sometimes referred as Bosniak language or Bosniac language is a South Slavic language native Croatian language ( hrvatski jezik) is a South Slavic language which is used primarily in Croatia, by Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in neighbouring Serbian (sr-Cyrl српски језик sr-Latn ''srpski jezik'' is a South Slavic language,
The Štokavian dialect is spoken in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the southern part of Austria’s Burgenland, and in part of Croatia. Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Montenegro ( British English) Montenegrin / Serbian: PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE LANGUAGES WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE! Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Burgenland ( Croatian Gradišće, Slovenian Gradiščansko, Hungarian Várvidék, Őrvidék or Felsőőrvidék Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between The Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian standard languages are all based on the Neo-Štokavian dialect. A standard language (also standard dialect, standardized dialect, or standardised dialect) is a particular variety of a Language that Its name comes from the form for the interrogatory pronoun "what," which is što or šta in the Štokavian dialect.
The primary subdivisions of Štokavian are based on 2 principles: one is whether the subdialect is Old-Štokavian or Neo-Štokavian, and the different ways the old Slavic phoneme jat has been changed. italics. IPA is used to make sure that old Cyrillic is displayed properly Generally, modern dialectology recognizes 7 Štokavian subdialects (there are opinions that one or two subdialects more exist, but this is not universally accepted).
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Early history of Štokavian
The Proto-Štokavian idiom had appeared in the 12th century. In the following century or two, Štokavian was divided into two zones: western, which covered the major part of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slavonia in Croatia, and eastern, dominant in the easternmost Bosnia and Herzegovina and greater parts of Montenegro and Serbia. Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan Not to be confused with Slovenia, a nearby country Slavonia ( Croatian, Serbian: Slavonija, Cyrillic script Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan Montenegro ( British English) Montenegrin / Serbian: PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE LANGUAGES WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE! Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country The western Štokavian was characterized by 3-accents speech, while eastern štokavian was marked by 2-accents. According to the research of historical linguistics, the old-štokavian was well established by the mid-1400s. In this period it had been still mixed with Church Slavonic in various degrees, as well as with Chakavian dialect in Croatia and many parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Chakavian dialect ( Čakavian; Croatian: čakavski, proper name čakavica or čakavština) is a dialect of the Croatian language Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan
Štokavian subdialects
The Štokavian dialect is divided into Old-Shtokavian and Neo-Shtokavian subdialects.
Old-Shtokavian
Timok-Prizren (Torlakian)
The oldest dialects stretch southeast from Timok near the Bulgarian border to Prizren. Torlak ( Cyrillic: Торлачки говор Торлашки говор Latinic: Torlački govor) or simply Torlakian, is the name used The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian Prizren ( Albanian: Prizren or Prizreni, Serbian Cyrillic: Призрен is a historical city located in southern Kosovo. There is disagreement among linguists whether these dialects belong to Štokavian area, as there are many other morphological characteristics apart from rendering of što which would place them into a "transitional" group between Štokavian and Eastern South Slavic languages (Bulgarian and Macedonian). Bulgarian (български език IPA: ɛzˈik is an Indo-European language, a member of the Slavic linguistic group Macedonian () is the official Language of the Republic of Macedonia and is a part of the Eastern group of South Slavic languages. These dialects split from the rest of the group at the onset of the Turkish conquest in the fourteenth century. The Timok-Prizren group falls to the Balkan linguistic union: declension has all but disappeared, the infinitive has yielded to subjunctives da-constructions, and adjectives are compared exclusively with suffixes. The Balkan Sprachbund or linguistic area is the ensemble of Areal features —similarity in grammar syntax vocabulary and phonology—among languages of In Grammar, infinitive is the name for certain verb forms that exist in many languages In Grammar, the subjunctive mood (sometimes referred to as the conjunctive mood) is a Verb mood that exists in many languages The accent in the dialect group is a stress accent, and it falls on any syllable in the word. The old semi-vowel has been retained throughout. The vocalic l has been retained (vlk = vuk), and some dialects don't distinguish ć/č and đ/dž by preferring the latter, postalveolar variants. Some subdialects preserve l at the end of words (where otherwise it has developed into a short o) – došl, znal, etc. (cf. Kajkavian and Bulgarian); in others, this l has become the syllable ja. Croatian Kajkavian dialect ( Croatian: kajkavski, proper name kajkavica or kajkavština) is one of the three main dialects of the Croatian Bulgarian (български език IPA: ɛzˈik is an Indo-European language, a member of the Slavic linguistic group
These speeches are dominant in Metohija,around Prizren,Gnjilane and Štrpce especially,in Southern Serbia around Bujanovac,Vranje,Leskovac,Niš,Aleksinac,in the part of Toplica Valley around Prokuplje, in Eastern Serbia around Pirot, Svrljig, Soko Banja,Boljevac,Knjaževac ending up with the area around Zaječar, where Kosovo-Resava dialect becomes more dominant. Metohija (Rrafshi i Dukagjinit Serbian: sr-Cyrl Метохија transliterated sr-Latn ''Metohija'' or infrequently sr-Latn ''Metohia'' is a large Prizren ( Albanian: Prizren or Prizreni, Serbian Cyrillic: Призрен is a historical city located in southern Kosovo. Gnjilane or Gjilan ( Albanian: Gjilani or Gjilan, Serbian: Гњилане Gnjilane) is a city and municipality Štrpce or Shtërpcë ( Serbian: Štrpce or Штрпце; Albanian: Shtërpcë or Shtërpca) is a town and municipality Bujanovac ( Serbian Cyrillic: Бујановац Albanian: Bujanoci) is a town and municipality in Pčinja District of Serbia Vranje ( Serbian Cyrillic: Врање Bulgarian: Враня Vranya; Turkish: Vranya) is a town and municipality located in Leskovac ( Serbian Cyrillic: Лесковац Leskofça is a city and municipality located in southern Serbia at 43 Aleksinac (Алексинац is a town which is center of Municipality of Aleksinac, located in the Nišava District of Serbia. Prokuplje ( Serbian Прокупље is a town and municipality located in Serbia at 43 Political status The region of Central Serbia is not an administrative division of Serbia as such it is under the direct jurisdiction of the republic authorities Pirot ( Serbian Cyrillic: Пирот is a town and municipality located in Serbia at. Svrljig (Сврљиг is a Town and municipality located in the Nišava District of Serbia. Sokobanja ( Serbian Cyrillic: Сокобања) is a well-known Spa town and municipality situated in eastern Serbia. Boljevac (Бољевац is a town and municipality located in the Zaječar District of Serbia. Knjaževac ( Serbian Cyrillic: Књажевац is a town and municipality situated in the eastern part of Serbia bordering the Zaječar ( Serbian Cyrillic: Зајечар Bulgarian: Зайчар- Zaychar, Romanian: Zaiciar is a City and municipality in
Slavonian
Also called the Šokački or Archaic Šćakavian dialect, it is spoken by Šokci that live in some parts of Slavonia, Bačka, Baranja, Syrmia, in Croatia and Vojvodina, as well as in northern Bosnia. The Šokac language ( Šokački jezik) was a language listed in Austro-Hungarian censuses Šokci, ( Croatian, Bosnian Šokci, singular Šokac, Serbian Cyrillic: Шокци in Hungarian: Sokácok Not to be confused with Slovenia, a nearby country Slavonia ( Croatian, Serbian: Slavonija, Cyrillic script Bačka ( Serbian: Бачка or Bačka, Hungarian: Bácska, Croatian: Bačka, Slovak: Báčka, "Baranja" redirects here For other meanings of "Baranya" and "Baranja" see Baranya. The Slavonian dialect has mixed ikavian and ekavian pronunciation. Ikavian is predominant in the Posavina, Baranja, Bačka, and in the Slavonian sub-dialect enclave of Derventa, while ekavian is predominant in Podravina. Derventa ( Cyrillic: Дервента is a town and municipality in the northern part of entity Republika Srpska which is part of Bosnia and Herzegovina Podravina (in Croatian) or Podravje (in Slovenian) is a Slavic name for the Drava river basin in Croatia and Slovenia. There are also enclaves of one of both variants in the main territory of other and vice-versa, as well as mixed ekavian-ikavian and jekavian-ikavian areas. In some villages in Hungary the original yat is preserved. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Local variants can widely differ in the degree of neo-shtokavian accent influences. In two villages in Posavina, Siče and Magića Male the l, as in the verb nosil, has been retained in place of the modern nosio. Posavina ( Serbian, Croatian and Slovenian Posavina, Serbian Cyrillic Посавина is a Slavic name for the Sava river In some villages in the Podravina čr instead of the usual cr is preserved, for example in črn instead of crn. Both forms are usual in Kajkavian but very rare in Shtokavian.
East-Bosnian
Also called jekavian šćakavian, it has jekavian pronunciation in the vast majority of local forms and it is spoken by the majority of Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) living in area that include bigger Bosnian cities Sarajevo, Tuzla and Zenica, and by most of Croats and Serbs that live in that area. TemplateInfobox City for more fields--> Sarajevo is the Capital city and largest urban center of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Tuzla is a city and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the time of the 1991 census it had 131000 inhabitants Zenica ( Cyrillic: Зеница is an industrial city in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Together with basic jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations exist in Tešanj and Maglaj dete-djeteta (ekavian-jekavian) and around Žepče and Jablanica djete-diteta (jekavian-ikavian). Tešanj is a city and municipality in the northern part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, located near Teslić, Doboj and Zavidovići. Maglaj is a town and municipality in Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated in the northern part of Bosnia-Herzegovina, in the Zenica-Doboj canton Žepče is a town and municipality in central Bosnia and Herzegovina, located between Doboj and Zenica. Jablanica is a town and municipality of the same name in central Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the central area of the subdialect, the diphthong uo exists in some words instead of the archaic l and more common u like vuok or stuop, instead of the standard modern vuk and stup. In Phonetics, a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (from Greek grc δίφθογγος "diphthongos" literally "with two sounds" or "with
Zeta-South Sandžak
Also known as Old Ijekavian. It is spoken in eastern Montenegro, in Podgorica and Cetinje, around the city of Novi Pazar in eastern Sandžak in Serbia, and in the village of Peroj in Istria. Podgorica ( Montenegrin / Serbian: Подгорица Podgorica ˈpɔdgɔˌriʦa is the Capital and largest city of Montenegro Cetinje ( Montenegrin: Цетиње Cetinje, Serbian: Цетиње Cetinje, Croatian: Cetinje, Bosnian: For the town in Bulgaria see Novi Pazar Bulgaria. Novi Pazar ( Serbian: Нови Пазар Sandžak ( Serbian: Санџак Sandžak or Рашка Raška; Bosnian: Sandžak; Albanian: Sanxhak or Peroj is a village in the Vodnjan municipality on the south-western coast of Istria, currently inhabited by ~400 inhabitants dating back to the Copper age This article is about a geographical region bordering the Adriatic Sea Together with the dominant jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations like djete-deteta (jekavian-ekavian) around Novi Pazar and Bijelo Polje, dite-đeteta (ikavian-jekavian) around Podgorica and dete-đeteta (ekavian-jekavian) in the village of Mrkojevići in southern Montenegro. Bijelo Polje ( Serbian Cyrillic: Бијело Поље is a town in northern Montenegro. Mrkovići are also characterised by remainings of čr instead of cr as in the previously mentioned villages in Podravina.
Some vernaculars have a special reflex of ь/ъ in some cases (between a and e) which is very rare in stokavian and chakavian vernaculars (sän and dän instead of san and dan). Other special phonetic features include sounds like ʝ in iʝesti instead of izjesti, ç as in śjekira instead of sjekira. However these sounds are known also to many East-Herzegovina like those in Konavle[1], and are not "Montenegrin" specificum. Konavle (Canali or Valle dei Canali is a small region and municipality located southeast of Dubrovnik, Croatia. The loss of distinction between /lj/ and /l/ in some vernaculars is based on Albanian adstrate. Word pļesma is a hypercorrection (instead of pjesma) since many vernaculars know lj>j.
All verbs in infinitive finish with "t" (example: pjevat). These future have also most respective vernaculars of East-Herzegovinian, and actually almost all Serbian and Croatian vernaculars. The group a + o gave a ("ka" instead "kao", reka for rekao), like in other Serbian and Croatian seaside vernaculars. Otherwise, more common is ao>o.
Currently there is an attempt by Montenegrin nationalists to create a separate Montenegrin language from the Serbian language standard based on the Zeta subdialect. Montenegrin language ( Cyrillic script: Црногорски језик, Latin: Crnogorski jezik) is the name given to the Ijekavian- Shtokavian Serbian (sr-Cyrl српски језик sr-Latn ''srpski jezik'' is a South Slavic language,
Kosovo-Resava
Also called Older Ijekavian, spoken mostly in western and northeastern Kosovo ( Kosovo Valley with Kosovska Mitrovica and also around Peć ),in Ibar Valley with Kraljevo,around Kruševac,Trstenik and in Župa,in the part of Toplica Valley ( Kuršumlija ) in Morava Valley (Jagodina,Ćuprija,Paraćin),in Resava Valley (Svilajnac,Despotovac) and northeastern Serbia ( Smederevo,Požarevac,Bor,Majdanpek,Negotin ) with one part of Banat (around Kovin, Bela Crkva and Vršac). Peć is a city and municipality in north-western Kosovo. It is also the administrative centre of the homonymous district. Kraljevo ( Serbian Cyrillic: Краљево) is a city and municipality located in Serbia at, built beside the Kruševac ( Serbian Cyrillic: Крушевац) is a city and a municipality located in Serbia at 43 Trstenik (Трстеник is a town and municipality located in the Rasina District of Serbia. Župa, zhupa, żupa ( Cyrillic: Жупа is a Slavic term notably among the Southern and Western branches of the Kuršumlija ( Serbian Cyrillic: Куршумлија is a town and municipality located in the south of Serbia, nearby the rivers Toplica, Kosanica Jagodina ( Serbian Cyrillic: Јагодина, Romanian: Iagodină is a town and municipality located in central Serbia at 43 Ćuprija ( Serbian Cyrillic: Ћуприја Romanian: Ciupria or Podu Nou) is a town and administrative district in Serbia, at Paraćin ( Serbian: Параћин Romanian: Paraţin or Paracin) is a town and municipality in Serbia, located in the valley Svilajnac ( Serbian Cyrillic: Свилајнац Romanian: Svilaina) is a town and Despotovac ( Serbian: Деспотовац Romanian: Despotova) is a town and municipality located in Serbia, around 130 kilometers southeast Smederevo (Смедерево is a city and municipality in Serbia on the Danube at 44 Požarevac ( Serbian Cyrillic: Пожаревац is a city located in Serbia at. Majdanpek ( Serbian Cyrillic: Мајданпек Romanian: Maidan is a town and municipality in Bor District of Serbia. Negotin ( Serbian Cyrillic: Неготин) is a town and municipality in the Bor District of north-eastern Central Serbia. The Banat is a geographical and historical region in Central Europe currently divided between three countries the eastern part lies in Romania (the counties Kovin (Ковин is a town and municipality in South Banat District of Vojvodina, Serbia. Vršac ( Вршац) is a town and municipality located in Serbia.
Substitution of jat is dominantly ekavian even on the end of datives (žene instead of ženi), in pronouns (teh instead of tih), in comparatives (dobrej instead of dobriji) and in the negative of biti (nesam instead of nisam) and in Smederevo-Vršac speeches ikavian forms can be found (di si instead of gde si?. Smederevo (Смедерево is a city and municipality in Serbia on the Danube at 44 Vršac ( Вршац) is a town and municipality located in Serbia. ). However, Smederevo-Vršac speeches (spoken in northeastern Serbia and Banat) are considered to be part of a separate dialect,as they represent mixed speeches of Šumadija-Vojvodina and Kosovo-Resava speeches.
Neo-Shtokavian
Western Ikavian
Also called Bosnian-Dalmatian, Younger Ikavian is spoken mostly by Croats that live in Lika, Kvarner, Dalmatia, Herzegovina and Bačka. Croats (Hrvati are a South Slavic people mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries Lika is a mountainous region in central Croatia, roughly bound by the Velebit mountain from the southwest and the Plješevica mountain from the northeast The Kvarner Gulf ( Croatian: Kvarnerski zaljev, Italian: Golfo del Quarnero/Quarnaro/Carnaro; sometimes also Kvarner Bay) is a Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern Herzegovina ( Bosnian, Croatian: Hercegovina, Serbian: Херцеговина) is a traditionally Bačka ( Serbian: Бачка or Bačka, Hungarian: Bácska, Croatian: Bačka, Slovak: Báčka, Bosniaks in western Bosnia mostly around city of Bihać (Turkish Croatia) and in central Bosnia (Travnik, Jajce, Bugojno,. The Bosniaks or Bosniacs (Bošnjak pl Bošnjaci bɔ'ʃɲaːt͡si are a South Slavic people living mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina ("Bosnia" Bihać is a town and municipality on the Una River in the north-western part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, center of the Una-Sana Canton of the Turkish Croatia was the name used between the 16th and 19th centuries for the northwest territory of Bosnia, today known as Bosanska Krajina (Bosnian Frontier Travnik ( Cyrillic: Травник is a city and municipality in central Bosnia and Herzegovina, 90 km west of Sarajevo. Jajce is a town and municipality located in the central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bugojno (Cyrillic Бугојно is a town and municipality of the same name in central Bosnia and Herzegovina on the river Vrbas. . ) used to speak this dialect. Exclusively ikavian, Bosnian and Herzegovinian forms use o in verb participle, while those in Dalmatia and Lika use -ija or ia like in vidija/vidia. Local form of Bačka was proposed as base of new Bunjevac language proposed standard by some Bunjevci in Vojvodina. Bačka ( Serbian: Бачка or Bačka, Hungarian: Bácska, Croatian: Bačka, Slovak: Báčka, Bunjevci ( Bunjevac, Croatian and Serbian: Bunjevci / Буњевци singular Bunjevac / Буњевац (pronounced 'boo-nyev-tsi
Šumadija-Vojvodina
Also called Younger Ekavian, is spoken across most of Vojvodina, north-west Serbia,around Kragujevac and Valjevo in Šumadija,in Mačva but only around Šabac and Bogatić excluding Loznica and Podrinje,in Belgrade and in eastern Croatia around the town of Vukovar. Kragujevac ( Serbian Cyrillic: Крагујевац) is a city in Serbia, the largest city of the Šumadija Valjevo ( Serbian Cyrillic: Ваљево is a city located in Serbia at 44 Šumadija (Шумадија is a geographical region in Serbia. Šabac (Шабац Hungarian: Szabács, Turkish: Böğürdelen is a city and municipality located in Serbia at 44 Bogatić ( Serbian Cyrillic: Богатић is a little For the town in Bulgaria see Loznitsa. For the river in Slovenia see Ložnica Loznica ( Serbian Cyrillic: Лозница Podrinje ( Cyrillic: Подриње is the name of the Drina river basin located in Serbia ( Central Serbia) and Bosnia and Herzegovina Vukovar is a city and municipality in eastern Croatia, and the biggest River Port in Croatia located at the confluence of the Vuka It is dominately ekavian (ikavian forms are of morphophonological origin). In some parts of Vojvodina old declination is preserved. Most Vojvodina dialects and some dialects in Sumadija have an opened e and o. However the vernaculars of western Serbia, and in past to them connected vernaculars of (old) Belgrade and southwestern Banat (Borča, Pančevo, Bavanište) are close to standard as a vernacular can be. Pančevo ( Serbian: Панчево is a city and municipality located in Serbia at 44 The dialect presents a base for the Serbian Ekavian standard.
East Herzegovinian
Also called East Herzegovina-Krajina and Younger Ijekavian. Bosanska Krajina or Bosnian Frontier ( Serbian, Bosnian, and Croatian: Bosanska Krajina or Босанска Крајина Turkish It is the biggest Shtokavian and Serbo-Croatian dialect. It is spoken in western Montenegro (region called Old Herzegowina), by most Bosnian Serbs, Croatian Serbs as well in western Serbia and by very few Croats in Slavonia, Banija, Kordun where Serbs used to be majority and as well in east of Neretva around city of Dubrovnik, and is the basis of the Serbian standard, while Croatian standard is based on the historical mixture of few dialects, including non-shtokavian. Montenegro ( British English) Montenegrin / Serbian: PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE LANGUAGES WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE! Serbs are one of the three constitutive nations of Bosnia-Herzegovina, predominantly concentrated in the Republic of Srpska Serbs are the largest National minority in the Republic of Croatia. Croats (Hrvati are a South Slavic people mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries Not to be confused with Slovenia, a nearby country Slavonia ( Croatian, Serbian: Slavonija, Cyrillic script Banovina, (formerly known as Banska krajina) is a geographical region in central Croatia, between the rivers of the Sava, Una, and The Kordun region is a part of central Croatia from the bottom of the Petrova Gora (Peter's mountain mountain range which extends along the river Korana Neretva is a river in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. The total length is 225 km of which 203 km are in Herzegovina, while the final 22 km are in the ||-||-||-||-||-||-||} Dubrovnik (ˈdǔbro̞ːʋniːk Dalmatian: Ragusa; Latin: Ragusium, also Rhausium, Rhaugia; Its south-eastern form is characterised by the total lack of /x/ sound that is sometimes not only left out or replaced by more common /j/ or /v/ but is replaced as well by less common /k/ and /g/ (bijak, bijaku imperfect of verb biti). Local forms in the Žumberak enclave and around Dubrovnik have some special features, influenced from Chakavian and the western subdialect. Žumberak (in Croatian) or Gorjanci (in Slovenian) is a range of Mountains or hills between Croatia and Slovenia. Chakavian dialect ( Čakavian; Croatian: čakavski, proper name čakavica or čakavština) is a dialect of the Croatian language
The yat reflexes
The Proto-Slavic vowel jat has changed over time and is now being rendered in three different ways or reflexes:
- In Ekavian (ekavski), jat has morphed into the vowel e
- in Ikavian (ikavski), the vowel i
- in Ijekavian or Jekavian (ijekavski or jekavski), the diphthong ije or je depending on whether the vowel was long or short. italics. IPA is used to make sure that old Cyrillic is displayed properly
Historically, the yat reflexes had been inscribed in Church Slavic texts before the significant development of štokavian dialect, reflecting the beginnings of the formative period of the vernacular. In early documents it is still either almost exclusively or predominantly Church Slavic of Serbian or Croatian variant (technical term is recension). First undoubtedly ekavian "yat reflex" had been inscribed in a document in Serbia ("beše"/it was), dated 1289, ikavian in Bosnia in 1331 ("svidoci"/witnesses), and first ijekavian in Croatia in 1399 ("želijemo"/we wish, a "hyperijekavism"). Partial inscriptions can be found in earlier texts (for instance, ikavian form is written in a few Bosnian documents in the latter half of the 13th century), but philologists generally accept the aforementioned data for yat reflexes. In second half of 20th century, many vernaculars with unsubstituted yat are found. [2] The intrusion of the vernacular into Church Slavic grew in time, to be finally replaced by the vernacular idiom. This process has taken place for Croats, Serbs and Bosniaks independently and without mutual interference until the mid-19th century. The Bosniaks or Bosniacs (Bošnjak pl Bošnjaci bɔ'ʃɲaːt͡si are a South Slavic people living mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina ("Bosnia" The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar Historical linguistics, textual analysis and dialectology have dispelled myths about allegedly "unspoilt" vernacular speech of rural areas: for instance, it is established that Bosniaks have retained phoneme "h" in numerous words (unlike Serbs and Croats), due to elementary religious education based on the Koran, where this phoneme is the carrier of specific semantic value.
Ekavian, sometimes called eastern, is spoken primarily in Serbia, and very limited area in eastern Croatia. Ikavian, sometimes called western, is spoken in western and central Bosnia, western Herzegovina, in Slavonia and the major part of Dalmatia in Croatia. Ijekavian, sometimes called southern, is spoken in many parts of Croatia including southern Dalmatia, most of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro. The following are some generic examples:
| English | Predecessor | Ekavian | Ikavian | Ijekavian |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| time | vrěme | vreme | vrime | vrijeme |
| beautiful | lěp | lep | lip | lijep |
| girl | děvojka | devojka | divojka | djevojka |
| true | věran | veran | viran | vjeran |
| to sit | sědĕti | sedeti (sèdeti) | siditi (sìdeti) | sjediti |
| to grow gray hairs | sědeti | sedeti (sédeti) | siditi (sídeti) | sijediti |
| to heat | grějati | grejati | grijati | grijati |
Long ije is diphthongal among the majority of Ijekavian speakers; some Croatian authors recognize it as 31st phoneme of Croatian. In Phonetics, a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (from Greek grc δίφθογγος "diphthongos" literally "with two sounds" or "with The phoneME project is Sun Microsystems reference implementation of Java virtual machine and associated libraries of Java ME with source licensed under the GNU In Zeta dialect and most of East Herzegovina dialect, it represents two syllables though. A syllable ( Greek:) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds Serbian phonologists do not recognize it as separate phoneme (possibly as a heritage that East Herzegoviniana was the native dialect of Vuk Karadžić, the reformer of Serbian language). Vuk Stefanović Karadžić ( Serbian Cyrillic: Вук Стефановић Караџић ( November 7, 1787 - February 7, 1864 The distinction can be clearly heard in first verses of national anthems of Croatia and Montenegro—they're sung as "Lije-pa na-ša do-mo-vi-no" and "Oj svi-je-tla maj-ska zo-ro" respectively. Lijepa naša domovino ("Our Beautiful Homeland" is the National anthem of Croatia. Oj svijetla majska zoro (Ој свијетла мајска зоро ("Oh Bright Dawn of May" is the official state Anthem of Montenegro.
Ethnic affiliation of native speakers of štokavian dialect
During the 1st half of the 19th century, protagonists of nascent Slavic philology were, as far as South Slavic dialects were concerned, embroiled in frequently bitter polemic about "ethnic affiliation" of native speakers of various dialects. This, from contemporary point of view, rather bizarre obsession was motivated primarily by political and national interests that prompted philologists-turned-ideologues to express their views on the subject. The most prominent contenders in the squabble, with conflicting agenda, were Czech philologist Josef Dobrovský, Slovak Pavel Šafárik, Slovene Jernej Kopitar and Franc Miklošič, Serb Vuk Karadžić and Croatian Bogoslav Šulek and Vatroslav Jagić. Josef Dobrovský ( August 17, 1753 – January 6, 1829) was a Bohemian Philologist and Historian, one of the most Pavel Jozef Šafárik ( Safáry / Schaffáry / Schafary / Saf(farik / Šafarík / Szafarzik, Czech Pavel Josef Šafařík Jernej Kopitar (born 21 August 1780 - 11 August 1844) was a Slovene linguist. Fran Miklošič (also known in German as Franz von Miklosich) ( November 29, 1813 – March 7, 1891) was a Slovene Vuk Stefanović Karadžić ( Serbian Cyrillic: Вук Стефановић Караџић ( November 7, 1787 - February 7, 1864 Bogoslav Šulek, born Bohuslav Šulek ( April 20, 1816 - November 30, 1895) was a Croatian Philologist, Vatroslav Jagić ( July 6, 1838 - August 5, 1923) was a Croatian language researcher and a famous expert in the area of Slavic
Essentially, the dispute was about who can, philologically, be labelled as "Slovene", "Croat" and "Serb" with the very mundane aim of expanding one's national territory and influence. Born in the climate of romanticism and national awakening, these polemical "battles" only succeeded in poisoning relations between the aforementioned nations, especially because the štokavian dialect cannot be split along ethnic lines. Like many other dialects (for instance, Plattdeutsch), it is "multiethnic" by its very nature. Low German or Low Saxon (in Germany: Plattdüütsch or Nedderdüütsch; in Netherlands: Nedersaksisch or Nederduuts
However, contemporary native speakers, after process of national crystallization and identification had been completed, can be roughly identified as predominant speakers of various štokavian subdialects. Since standard languages propagated through media have strongly influenced and altered the situation in the 19th century, the following attribution must be treated with necessary caution.
The distribution of old-štokavian speakers along ethnic lines in present times is as follows:
- Kosovo-Resava (Ekavian) dialect: vastly Serbian
- Zeta-South Sanjak dialect (Ijekavian): Montenegrin, Bosniak and Serbian.
- Slavonian dialect (fluctuating "yat": mainly Ikavian, also Ijekavian and Ekavian): vastly Croatian
- Eastern-Bosnian dialect(Ijekavian): vastly Bosniak and Croatian
Generally, the neo-štokavian dialect is divided as follows with regard to the ethnicity of its native speakers:
- Šumadija-Vojvodina dialect (Ekavian): vastly Serbian
- Dalmatian-Bosnian dialect (Ikavian): vastly Croatian and Bosniak
- Eastern-Herzegovinian (Ijekavian): Serbian, Montenegrin, Croatian and Bosniak
| Group | Sub-Dialect | Serbian | Croatian | Bosnian | Montenegrin |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| old-štokavian | Kosovo-Resava | x | |||
| Zeta-South Sanjak | x | x | x | ||
| Slavonian | x | ||||
| Eastern Bosnian | x | x | |||
| neo-štokavian | Šumadija-Vojvodina | x | |||
| Dalmatian-Bosnian | x | x | |||
| Eastern Herzgovinian | x | x | x | x |
Earliest texts of štokavian dialect
Proto-štokavian, or Church Slavic with ingredients of nascent štokavian, were recorded in legal documents like the charter of ban Kulin, regulating the commerce between Bosnia and Dubrovnik in Croatia, dated 1189, and in liturgical texts like Gršković’s and Mihanović’s fragments, ca. Ban Kulin (1163 &ndash 1204 was a powerful Bosnian Ban who ruled from 1180 to 1204 first as a Vassal 1150, in southern Bosnia or Herzegovina. Experts's opinions are divided with regard to the extent these texts, especially the Kulin ban parchment, contain contemporary štokavian vernacular. Mainly štokavian, with ingredients of Church Slavic, are numerous legal and commercial documents from pre-Ottoman Bosnia, Hum, Serbia, Zeta, and southern Dalmatia, especially Dubrovnik. Historically and geographically the Region known as Bosnia (natively Bosna; Cyrillic: Босна lies mainly in the Dinaric Alps, ranging Zachlumia ( Croatian: Zahumlje Serbian: Захумље also known as the Land of the Hum and Chelm, was a Medieval Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Zeta (Serbian Cyrillic Зета, Latin Zenta) was a principality whose territory was mostly Serbian territories that approximately encompass present-day Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern ||-||-||-||-||-||-||} Dubrovnik (ˈdǔbro̞ːʋniːk Dalmatian: Ragusa; Latin: Ragusium, also Rhausium, Rhaugia; First comprehensive vernacular štokavian text is the Vatican Croatian Prayer Book, written a decade or two before 1400 in Dubrovnik. Vatican Croatian Prayer Book is the oldest Croatian vernacular prayer book and the finest example of early štokavian vernacular literary idiom ||-||-||-||-||-||-||} Dubrovnik (ˈdǔbro̞ːʋniːk Dalmatian: Ragusa; Latin: Ragusium, also Rhausium, Rhaugia; In next two centuries štokavian vernacular texts had been written mainly in Dubrovnik, other Adria cities and islands influenced by Dubrovnik, as well as in Bosnia, by Bosnian Franciscans and Bosniak Muslim vernacular alhamiado literature — the first example being "Chirwat turkisi" or "Croatian song", dated 1589. Aljamiado texts are manuscripts which utilize the Arabic alphabet for transcribing Romance languages such as Mozarabic or Ladino.
Standard languages
Standard languages Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian are all based on neo-štokavian dialect. Bosnian language (Bosnian bosanski jezik) sometimes referred as Bosniak language or Bosniac language is a South Slavic language native Croatian language ( hrvatski jezik) is a South Slavic language which is used primarily in Croatia, by Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in neighbouring Serbian (sr-Cyrl српски језик sr-Latn ''srpski jezik'' is a South Slavic language,
However, it must be stressed that standard languages, irrespectively of their mutual differences, have been stylised in such manners that parts of the neo-štokavian dialect have been retained—for instance, declension —but other features were purposely omitted or altered—for instance, the phoneme "h" was re-instated in standard languages.
The Croatian language has had a long tradition of štokavian vernacular literacy and literature. It took almost four and half centuries for štokavian to prevail as the dialectal basis for Croatian standard. In other periods, čakavian and kajkavian dialects, as well as hybrid čakavian–kajkavian–štokavian interdialect "contended" for the Croatian national koine — but eventually lost, mainly due to historical and political reasons. By 1650s it was fairly obvious that štokavian would become the dialectal basis for the Croatian standard, but this process was finally completed in 1850s, when neo-štokavian Ijekavian, based mainly on Ragusan (Dubrovnik), Dalmatian, Bosnian and Slavonian literary heritage became national standard language. Events and Trends Industry Production of Steel revolutionized by invention of the Bessemer process Benjamin Silliman
Serbian language was much faster in standardisation. Although vernacular literature was present in the 18th century, it was Vuk Karadžić who, between 1818 and 1851, made a radical break with the past and established Serbian neo-štokavian folklore idiom as the basis of standard Serbian (until then, educated Serbs had been using Serbian Slavic, Russian Slavic and hybrid Russian-Serbian language). Vernacular literature is Literature written in the Vernacular - the speech of the "common people" The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system Year 1818 ( MDCCCXVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common 1851 ( MDCCCLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year Although he wrote in Serbian Ijekavian, the majority of Serbs have adopted Ekavian, which is dominant in Serbia. Serbs in Croatia and Bosnia, as well as Montenegrins, use Ijekavian variant of standard Serbian language.
Bosnian language is only currently beginning to take shape. Bosniaks idiom can be seen as a transition between Serbian Ijekavian and Croatian languages, with some specific traits. After the collapse of Yugoslavia, Bosniaks affirmed their wish to stylise their own standard language, based on neo-štokavian dialect, but reflecting their characteristics—from phonetics to semantics.
Also, contemporary situation is unstable with regard to the accentuation, since phoneticians have observed that 4-accents speech has, in all likelihood, shown to be increasingly unstable, which resulted in proposals that 3-accents norm be prescribed. This is particularly true for Croatian, where, contrary to all expectations, the influence of čakavian and kajkavian dialects on the standard language has been waxing, not waning, in the past 50–70 years. Croatian language ( hrvatski jezik) is a South Slavic language which is used primarily in Croatia, by Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in neighbouring Chakavian dialect ( Čakavian; Croatian: čakavski, proper name čakavica or čakavština) is a dialect of the Croatian language Croatian Kajkavian dialect ( Croatian: kajkavski, proper name kajkavica or kajkavština) is one of the three main dialects of the Croatian
Croatian, Serbian and Bosnian standard languages, although all based on neo-štokavian dialect (or, more precisely, various subdialects) and mutually intelligible, are recognizably different in their prescribed forms as standard or literary languages. Their structures are almost identical in basic grammar, but have differences in other fields—from phonetics, phonology and morphology to syntax, semantics and pragmatics. For other traits, see Differences in official languages in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia.
Example: Što jest, jest; tako je uv(ij)ek bilo, što će biti, ( biće / bit će ), a nekako već će biti!
(The first option in the middle of the sentence is a difference between Ekavian and Ijekavian. The second option in the middle is difference between Serbian and Croatian norms, respectively. )
Another "classic" example is:
- English: Cooking salt is a compound of sodium and chlorine. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States
- Croatian: Kuhinjska sol je spoj natrija i klora. Croatian language ( hrvatski jezik) is a South Slavic language which is used primarily in Croatia, by Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in neighbouring
- Serbian: Kuhinjska so je jedinjenje natrijuma i hlora. Serbian (sr-Cyrl српски језик sr-Latn ''srpski jezik'' is a South Slavic language,
- Bosnian: Kuhinjska so je spoj natrija i hlora. Bosnian language (Bosnian bosanski jezik) sometimes referred as Bosniak language or Bosniac language is a South Slavic language native
References
External links
- Map of Serbo-Croatian dialects according to Brabec, Kraste, and Živković
- Map of štokavian dialects according to Dalibor Brozović
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