A Shramana (Sanskrit श्रमण śramaṇa, Pāli शमण samaṇa) is a wandering monk in certain ascetic traditions of ancient India, including Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika religion (now extinct). In English translations of Buddhist literature, householder denotes a variety of terms Ājīvika (also written Ajivika or Ajivaka) was an ancient philosophical and ascetic movement of the Indian subcontinent Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Pali ( ISO 15919 / ALA-LC: Pāḷi is a Middle Indo-Aryan language or Prakrit of India. The term mendicant (Latin mendicans, begging refers to Begging or relying on charitable donations and is most widely used for religious followers or Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Ājīvika (also written Ajivika or Ajivaka) was an ancient philosophical and ascetic movement of the Indian subcontinent Famous śramaṇa include religious leaders Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Mahavira (महावीर lit Great Hero) (599 – 527 BCE is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana ( Sanskrit: वर्धमान Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder

Traditionally, a śramaṇa is one who performs acts of mortification or austerity. For the Christian metal band see Mortification (band. For the record label see Mortification Records. In Economics, austerity is when a national government reduces its spending in order to pay back Creditors Austerity is usually required when a government's fiscal According to typical śramaṇa worldviews, a śramaṇa is responsible for their own deeds. Salvation, therefore, may be achieved by anybody irrespective of caste, creed, color or culture (in contradistinction to certain historical caste-based traditions). Castes are Hereditary systems of occupation, Endogamy, social culture, Social class, and Political power. The cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra) to which every individual is subject is viewed as the cause and substratum of misery. The goal of every person is to evolve a way to escape from the cycle of rebirth, namely by discounting ritual as a means of emancipation and establishing from the misery of saṃsāra, through pious religious activities.

Etymology

The Sanskrit word śramaṇa is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root śram "to exert, effort, labor or to perform austerity". Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Śramaṇa thus means "one who strives" in Sanskrit.

A traditional Sanskrit definition is śramati tapasyatīti śramaṇaḥ ("a śramaṇa is he who exerts himself and performs religious austerities"). One of the earliest uses of the word is in Taittiriya Aranyaka (2-7-1) with the meaning of 'performer of austerities'. The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक āraṇyaka) are part of the Hindu śruti, the four Vedas these religious texts were composed in

Buddhist commentaries associate the word's etymology with the quieting (samita) of evil (pāpa) as in the following phrase from the Dhammapada, verse 265: samitattā pāpānaŋ ʻsamaṇoʼ ti pavuccati ("someone who has pacified evil is called 'samaṇa'"). The Dhammapada ( Pāli; Prakrit: Dhamapada; Sanskrit Dharmapada; sometimes translated into English as Path of the ^[1]

Various forms of the word became known throughout Central and East Asia, largely through the spread of Buddhism in that area. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices According to a still disputed etymology, the word shaman, used by the Tungus people for their religious practitioners, may be borrowed from a local variant of the word śramaṇa. The Evenks or Evenki (autonym Эвэнкил Evenkil; Эвенки Evenki; 鄂温克族 pny ''Èwēnkè Zú'' formerly known as Tungus

Śramaṇa Movement

Several śramaṇa movements are known to have existed before the 6th century BCE, where they peaked during the times of Mahavira and Buddha. The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. Śramaṇas adopted a path alternate to the Vedic rituals to achieve salvation, while renouncing household life. This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period see Hinduism and Indian religions for details In English translations of Buddhist literature, householder denotes a variety of terms They typically engaged in three types of activities: austerities, meditation, and associated theories (or views). As spiritual authorities, at times śramaṇa were at variance with traditional Brahmin authority, and they often recruited members from Brahmin communities themselves, such as Cānakya and Śāriputra^[2]. Chanakya Sanskrit: चाणक्य Cāṇakya) (c 350-283 BC was an adviser and a Prime minister to the first Maurya Emperor Śāriputra ( Sanskrit: शारिपुत्र or Sāriputta ( Pāli) was one of two principal disciples of The Buddha.

Mahāvīra, the 24th Jina, and Gautama Buddha were leaders of their śramaṇa orders. Mahavira (महावीर lit Great Hero) (599 – 527 BCE is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana ( Sanskrit: वर्धमान Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder According to Jain literature and the Buddhist Pali Canon, there were also some other śramaṇa leaders at that time^[3][4]. Thus, in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (DN 16), a śramaṇa named Subhadda mentions:

"those ascetics [samaṇa] and Brahmins who have orders and followings, who are teachers, well-known and famous as founders of schools, and popularly regarded as saints, like Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta and the Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta. For the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra see Nirvana Sutra. ---- The Mahaparinibbana Sutta is a Buddhist Sutra in the Digha Nikaya The Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya "Collection of Long Discourses" is a Buddhist scripture the first of the five Nikayas or collections . . "^[5].

Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta (Pāli; Skt. : Nirgrantha Jñātaputra) refers to Mahāvīra^[6]. Mahavira (महावीर lit Great Hero) (599 – 527 BCE is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana ( Sanskrit: वर्धमान In regard to the above other teachers identified in the Pali Canon, Jain literature mentions Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta. (The Pali Canon is the only source for Ajita Kesakambalī and Pakudha Kaccāyana. )^[7]

Gautama Buddha regarded rigorous asceticism extreme and not leading to enlightenment. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. Accordingly, he rejected ascetic methods, and adopted the "middle way. In general the Middle Way or Middle Path ( madhyamā-pratipad; ṭṭipadā) is the Buddhist practice of non-extremism " Devadatta, a cousin of Gautama, caused a split in the Buddhist saṅgha by demanding more rigorous practices. Devadatta (देवदत्‍त was a Buddhist monk as well as the cousin of Gautama Buddha, who was recorded as having created a schism in the Sangha This article concerns the concept of Sangha in Buddhism. For information on other senses see Sangha (disambiguation. Followers of Mahāvīra also continued to practice asceticism. Mahavira (महावीर lit Great Hero) (599 – 527 BCE is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana ( Sanskrit: वर्धमान

The śramaṇa idea of wandering began to change early in Buddhism: The bhikṣu started living in monasteries (Pali, Skt. A Bhikkhu ( Pāli) or Bhiksu ( Sanskrit) is a fully ordained male Buddhist Monastic. vihāra), at first during the rainy seasons, but eventually permanently. In medieval Jainism also, the tradition of wandering waned, but it got revived in the 19th century. Similar changes have regularly occurred in Buddhism.

Śramaṇa Philosophy

Indian philosophy is a confluence of Śramaṇic and Vedic streams that co-existed and influenced each other. The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent ^[1] Śramaṇas held a pessimistic world view of samsara as full of suffering. They believed in Ahimsa and rigorous ascetic practices. Ahimsa ( Devanagari: sa अहिंसा IAST ahiṃsā is a Sanskrit term meaning Non-violence (literally the avoidance of violence - They believed in Karma and Moksa and viewed re-birth as undesirable. Karma ( Sanskrit: कर्म, kárman - "act action performance" Pali: kamma) is the concept of "action" In Indian religions, Moksha ( Sanskrit: sa मोक्ष mokṣa) or Mukti ( Sanskrit: sa मुक्ति literally "release" ^[2]As opposed to Śramaṇas, Vedics held an optimistic world view of the richness in worldly life. They believed in efficacy of rituals and sacrifices, performed by a privileged group of people, who could improve their life by pleasing certain Gods. The Sramanic ideal of mendicancy and renunciation, that the worldly life was full of suffering and that emancipation required giving up of desires and withdrawal into a lonely and contemplative life, was in stark contrast with the Brahminical ideal of an active and ritually punctuated life. Traditional Vedic belief held that a man is born with an obligation to study the Vedas, to procreate and rear male offspring and perform sacrifices. Only in his later life he may meditate on the mysteries of life. The ideal of devoting whole life to mendicancy disparaged the whole process of social life and obligations. ^[3]The rejections of Vedas, resulted in Sramana philosophy as being labeled as nastika darsana or heterodox philosophy. "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation.

The following beliefs and concepts formed the common basis of all Śramaṇa philosophies:-

• Denial of creator and omnipotent God
• Rejection as Vedas as revealed texts
• Belief in Karma and rebirth, and Samsara and transmigration of Soul
• Belief in purification of soul to attain moksa through Ahimsa, renunciation and austerities
• Denial of efficacy of sacrifices and rituals for purification
• Rejection of caste system

Ultimately, the sramana philosophical concepts like – Ahimsa, Karma, re-incarnation, renunciation, samsara and moksa – were accepted and incorporated by the Brahamanas in their beliefs and practices. ^[4]. According to Gavin Flood, concepts like karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions. ^[5] according to D. R. Bhandarkar, Ahimsa dharma of sramanas were producing an impression on the followers of Brhamanism and their law books and practices. ^[6]

Following are the two main schools of Sramana Philosophy that have continued since ancient times in India:

Jain Philosophy

Main article: Jain Philosophy

Further information: Anekantavada, Syadvada, and Jainism

The Jainism derives its philosophy from the teachings and lives of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, of which, Mahavira was the last Tirthankara. Jain philosophy ( Sanskrit: Jain darsana; sa जैन दर्शन deals extensively with the problems of Metaphysics, Reality, Cosmology Anekāntavāda (Devanagari sa [[wiktअनेकान्तवाद अनेकान्तवाद]] is one of the most important and basic doctrines of Jainism. Syādvāda ( Devanagari: स्यादवाद is the Doctrine of Postulation of Jainism. Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. In Jainism, a Tirthankar (" Fordmaker " (also Tirthankara or Jina) is a Human being who achieves enlightenment (perfect Jain Acaryas - Umasvati (Umasvami), Kundakunda, Haribhadra, Yasovijaya and others – further developed and reorganized the Jain philosophy in its present form. An acharya ( acariya in Pali) is an important religious teacher ( Guru) who teaches by his own example (from Sanskrit 'achara' behavior Acharya Umaswati is the author of Tattvartha Sutra, the best known Jaina text Kundakunda (also Kundkund is a celebrated Jain Acharya, Jain scholar monk 2nd century CE composer of spiritual classics such as Samayasara, Haribhadra Suri (c700-c770 or 459-529 traditional was a Svetambara Mendicant Jain leader and author Jain philosophy ( Sanskrit: Jain darsana; sa जैन दर्शन deals extensively with the problems of Metaphysics, Reality, Cosmology The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy are its belief on independent existence of soul and matter, denial of creative and omnipotent God, eternal and uncreated universe, a strong emphasis on non-violence, accent on relativity and multiple facets of truth, and morality and ethics based on liberation of soul. Jainism does not support belief in a Creator deity. According to Jain doctrine the Universe and its constituents - soul matter space time and principles The Jain philosophy of Anekantavada and Syadvada which posits that the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth, have made most important contributions to the ancient Indian philosophy, especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity. Anekāntavāda (Devanagari sa [[wiktअनेकान्तवाद अनेकान्तवाद]] is one of the most important and basic doctrines of Jainism. Syādvāda ( Devanagari: स्यादवाद is the Doctrine of Postulation of Jainism. The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent ^[7]

Buddhist Philosophy

Main article: Buddhist philosophy

Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince later known as the Buddha. Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in Metaphysics, phenomenology, Ethics, and Epistemology. Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in Metaphysics, phenomenology, Ethics, and Epistemology. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy, one whose tenets are not especially concerned with the existence or nonexistence of a God or gods. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Nontheism is a term that covers a range of both religious and nonreligious attitudes characterized by the absence of&mdashor the rejection of&mdash Theism or any belief in a The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, though some sects (notably Tibetan Buddhism) do venerate a number of gods drawn in from local indigenous belief systems. Tibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet and certain regions of the Himalayas, including In Christianity, veneration ( Latin veneratio, Greek &delta&omicron&upsilon&lambda&iota&alpha dulia) or veneration of saints The Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical being and non-being. Disambiguation For the Wigwam album see Being (album, for spiritual or religious beingness, see Ego (spirituality A major distinguishing feature of its philosophy is the rejection of a permanent, self-existent soul (atman).

Usage of Śramaṇa in Jain Texts

In Jainism the monks and ascetics are known as Śramaṇas , while the Jain laymen are called as Sravakas. Buddhist references In Nikaya Buddhism, sāvaka ( m) or sāvikā ( f The religion or code of conduct of the monks is known as Śramaṇa Dharma. Jain canons like Ācāranga Sūtra^[8] and other later texts contain a multitude of references to Sramanas with one of the verse defining a good Sramana :

"Disregarding (all calamities) he lives together with clever monks, insensitive to pain and pleasure, not hurting the movable and immovable (beings), not killing, bearing all: so is described the great sage, a good Sramana. The Acaranga Sutra (or Acharanga is the first of the eleven Angas part of the agamas (religious textswhich were compiled based on the teachings of Lord Mahavira "

- Ācāranga Sūtra. 1097

The chapter on renunciation contains references to vow of non-possession by the Sramanas :

"I shall become a Sramana who owns no house, no property, no sons, no cattle, who eats what others give him; I shall commit no sinful action; Master, I renounce to accept anything that has not been given. ' Having taken such vows, (a mendicant) should not, on entering a village or scot-free town, take himself, or induce others to take, or allow others to take, what has not been given. "

-Ācāranga Sūtra, 799

Acaranga Sutra speaks of three names of Mahavira the twenty fourth Tirthankara , one of which was a Sramana :

"The Venerable ascetic Mahavira belonged to the Kasyapa gotra. Mahavira (महावीर lit Great Hero) (599 – 527 BCE is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana ( Sanskrit: वर्धमान In Jainism, a Tirthankar (" Fordmaker " (also Tirthankara or Jina) is a Human being who achieves enlightenment (perfect His three names have thus been recorded by tradition: by his parents he was called Vardhamana, because he is devoid of love and hate; (he is called) Sramana (i. e. ascetic), because he sustains dreadful dangers and fears, the noble nakedness, and the miseries of the world; the name Venerable Ascetic Mahavira has been given to him by the gods. "

- Ācāranga Sūtra 954

Another Jain canon, Sūtrakrtanga^[9] describes Sramana as an ascetic who has taken Mahavratas or five great vows:

"He is a Sramana for this reason that he is not hampered by any obstacles, that he is free from desires, (abstaining from) property, killing, telling lies, and sexual intercourse; (and from) wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, and hate: thus giving up every passion that involves him in sin, (such as) killing of beings. Sutrakritanga Sutra is the second agama of the 12 main agnas of the Jain canons The five Mahavratas are the five great vows Jain monks observe (Such a man) deserves the name of a Sramana, who subdues (moreover) his senses, is well qualified (for his task), and abandons his body. "

- Sūtrakrtanga, Book 1: 16. 3

In one of the disputations with other heretical teachers, prince Ardraka, who became a disciple of Mahavira, tells Makkhali Gosala the qualities of Sramanas :

"He who (teaches) the great vows (of monks) and the five small vows (of the laity 3), the five Âsravas and the stoppage of the Âsravas, and control, who avoids Karman in this blessed life of Sramanas, him I call a Sramana. "

- Sūtrakrtanga, Book 2: 6. 6

Śramaṇa in Western literature

Various references to śramaṇas, with the name more or less distorted, have been handed down in Western literature about India.

Nicolaus of Damascus (c. 10 CE)

Nicolaus of Damascus is famous for his account of an embassy sent by an Indian king "named Pandion (Pandyan kingdom?) or, according to others, Porus" to Caesar Augustus around 13 CE. Nicolaus of Damascus ( Greek, Nikolāos Damaskēnos) was a Syrian Historian and Philosopher who lived during the Augustan A diplomatic mission is a group of people from one State or an international Inter-governmental organization (such as the United Nations) present in Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation Conflict alliance and comradeship with Alexander Unlike his neighbour Ambhi (in Greek Omphis, King Porus chose to fight Alexander the Great in Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was He met with the embassy at Antioch. Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also The embassy was bearing a diplomatic letter in Greek, and one of its members was a "Sarmano" (Σαρμανο) who burnt himself alive in Athens to demonstrate his faith. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's The event made a sensation and was quoted by Strabo^[8] and Dio Cassius^[9]. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was A tomb was made to the "Sarmano", still visible in the time of Plutarch, which bore the mention "ΖΑΡΜΑΝΟΧΗΓΑΣ ΙΝΔΟΣ ΑΠΟ ΒΑΡΓΟΣΗΣ" (Zarmanochēgas indos apo Bargosēs – The sramana master from Barygaza in India). Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> History Bharuch was once but a small village on the banks of the Narmada River but that rivers inland India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

Clement of Alexandria (150-211)

Clement of Alexandria makes several mentions of the Sramanas, both in the context of the Bactrians and the Indians:

"Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans among the Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the Samanaeans among the Bactrians ("Σαμαναίοι Βάκτρων"); and the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold the Saviour's birth, and came into the land of Judaea guided by a star. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The Bactrians were an Indo-European people originally of Bactria, situated in what is now modern northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and southern Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The Magi (singular Magus, from Latin via Greek μάγος; Old English: Mage; from Persian maguš and Kurdish layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Kingdom of Judea redirects here For the 10th-6th century BCE kingdom see Kingdom of Judah Iudaea ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard The Indian gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And of these there are two classes, some of them called Sarmanae ("Σαρμάναι"), and Brahmanae ("Βραχμαναι"). Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. " Clement of Alexandria, "Exhortation to the Heathen" ^[10]

To Clement of Alexandria, "Bactrians" apparently means "Oriental Greek", as in a passage of the Stromata:

"It was after many successive periods of years that men worshipped images of human shape, this practice being introduced by Artaxerxes, the son of Darius, and father of Ochus, who first set up the image of Aphrodité Anaitis at Babylon and Susa; and Ecbatana set the example of worshipping it to the Persians; the Bactrians, to Damascus and Sardis. Artaxerxes (Latin Greek Ἀρταξέρξης is a corruption of Old Persian Artaxšacā, "whose reign is through arta (truth" Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) Ecbatana ( Old Persian: Haŋgmatana, written Agbatana in Aeschylus and Herodotus, Agámtanu by Nabonidos layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox The Bactrians were an Indo-European people originally of Bactria, situated in what is now modern northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and southern Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Sardis, also Sardes ( Lydian: Sfard, Greek: Σάρδεις, Persian: Sparda) modern Sart in " The Stromata, or Miscellanies, Book I, Clement of Alexandria. ^[11]

Porphyry (233-305)

Porphyry extensively describes the habits of the Sramanas (whom he calls Samanaeans) in his "On abstinence from animal food" Book IV ^[12]. Porphyry of Tyre ( Greek:, c AD 233&ndashc 309 was a Phoenician Neoplatonic philosopher He says his information was obtained from "the Babylonian Bardesanes, who lived in the times of our fathers, and was familiar with those Indians who, together with Damadamis, were sent to Caesar":

"For the polity of the Indians being distributed into many parts, there is one tribe among them of men divinely wise, whom the Greeks are accustomed to call Gymnosophists. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Bardaisan (ܒܪܕܝܨܢ Bardaiṣān; 154–222 also Latinized as Bardesanes) was a Syriac Gnostic, founder of the Bardaisanites India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Gymnosophists is the name (meaning "naked philosophers" given by the Greeks to certain ancient Indian philosophers who pursued Asceticism to But of these there are two sects, over one of which the Brahmins preside, but over the other the Samanaeans. Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. The race of the Brahmins, however, receive divine wisdom of this kind by succession, in the same manner as the priesthood. Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. But the Samanaeans are elected, and consist of those who wish to possess divine knowledge. " Porphyry, "On abstinence from animal food," Book IV.

"All the Brahmins originate from one stock; for all of them are derived from one father and one mother. Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. But the Samanaeans are not the offspring of one family, being, as we have said, collected from every nation of Indians. . . " Porphyry, "On abstinence from animal food," Book IV.

On entering the order:

"The Samanaeans are, as we have said, elected. When, however, any one is desirous of being enrolled in their order, he proceeds to the rulers of the city; but abandons the city or village that he inhabited, and the wealth and all the other property that he possessed. Having likewise the superfluities of his body cut off, he receives a garment, and departs to the Samanaeans, but does not return either to his wife or children, if he happens to have any, nor does he pay any attention to them, or think that they at all pertain to him. And, with respect to his children indeed, the king provides what is necessary for them, and the relatives provide for the wife. And such is the life of the Samanaeans. But they live out of the city, and spend the whole day in conversation pertaining to divinity. They have also houses and temples, built by the king". Porphyry, "On abstinence from animal food," Book IV.

On life and death:

"They are so disposed with respect to death, that they unwillingly endure the whole time of the present life, as a certain servitude to nature, and therefore they hasten to liberate their souls from the bodies [with which they are connected]. Hence, frequently, when they are seen to be well, and are neither oppressed, nor driven to desperation by any evil, they depart from life. " Porphyry, "On abstinence from animal food", Book IV.

Śramaṇa in contemporary Western culture

German novelist Hermann Hesse, long interested in Eastern, especially Indian, spirituality, wrote Siddhartha, in which the main character becomes a Samana upon leaving his home (where he was a Brahmin). Hermann Hesse (ˈhɛʀman ˈhɛsə ( 2 July, 1877 — 9 August, 1962) was a German - Swiss poet novelist and painter Siddhartha is an allegorical Novel by Hermann Hesse which deals with

Notes

1. ^ According to Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), "Samaṇa," p. 682: 'an edifying etymology of the word [is at] DhA iii. 84: "samita-pāpattā [samaṇa]," cp. Dh 265 "samitattā pāpānaŋ ʻsamaṇoʼ ti pavuccati". . . . ' The English translation of Dh 265 is based on Fronsdal (2005), p. The Dhammapada ( Pāli; Prakrit: Dhamapada; Sanskrit Dharmapada; sometimes translated into English as Path of the 69.
2. ^  Gethin (1998), pp. 10-11, 13.
3. ^  Gethin (1998), p. 11.
4. ^ In the Buddhist Pāli literature, these non-Buddhist ascetic leaders – including Mahavira – are also referred to as Titthiyas of Tīrthakas.
5. ^  Bhaskar (1972), n. 49.
6. ^ Some of terms are common between Jainism and Buddhism, including:
      • Symbols: caitya, stūpa, dharmacakra
      • Terms: arhant, nirvāṇa, saṅgha, ācārya, Jina etc. A chaitya is a Buddhist or Jain shrine including a Stupa. In modern texts on Indian architecture the term chaitya-griha is often used A stupa (from Sanskrit and Pāli: m स्तूप stūpa, literally meaning "heap" is a mound-like structure containing Buddhist The Dharmachakra ( Sanskrit) or Dhammachakka ( Pāli) Tibetan chos kyi 'khor lo, Chinese fălún 法輪 In the sramanic traditions of ancient India (most notably those of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha) arhat ( Sanskrit) or arahant In sramanic philosophy Nirvana (निर्वाण| Nirvāṇa; निब्बान Nibbāna; Prakrit: णिव्वाण This article concerns the concept of Sangha in Buddhism. For information on other senses see Sangha (disambiguation. An acharya ( acariya in Pali) is an important religious teacher ( Guru) who teaches by his own example (from Sanskrit 'achara' behavior
   The term pudgala is used by both but with completely different meanings.
7. ^  Walshe (1995), p. 268.
8. ^  Strabo, xv, 1, on the immolation of the Sramana in Athens (Paragraph 73)
9. ^  Dio Cassius, liv, 9. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was
10. ^  Clement of Alexandria "Exhortation to the Heathen"
11. ^  Clement of Alexandria "The Stromata, or Miscellanies" Book I
12. ^  Porphyry "On abstinence from animal food" Book IV, Paragraphs 17&18.

References

See also

• Samanera
• Fakir

References

• Basham, A. In Buddhist context a samanera ( Pali: sāmaṇera, Sanskrit: śrāmaṇera) can be translated as novice monk A fakir or faqir is a Sufi, especially one who Performs feats of Endurance or apparent magic. L. (1951). History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas.
• Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain (1972). Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur. Available on-line at http://jainfriends.tripod.com/books/jiblcontents.html. [Note that the on-line version is misattributed to Dr. Hiralal Jain who solely wrote this text's foreword. ]
• Fronsdal, Gil (2005). Gil Fronsdal (1954 is a Buddhist who has practiced Zen and Vipassana since the 1970s and is currently a Buddhist teacher who lives in the San Francisco The Dhammapada: A New Translation of the Buddhist Classic with Annotations. Boston: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 1-59030-380-6.
• Gethin, Rupert (1998). The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289223-1.
• Hesse, Hermann (1992). Siddhartha (Novel). Siddhartha is an allegorical Novel by Hermann Hesse which deals with
• Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu (trans. ) and Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed. Bhikkhu Bodhi (b 1944 NYC) born Jeffrey Block, is an American Buddhist monk, ordained in Sri Lanka and currently teaching in the ) (2001). The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-072-X.
• Rhys Davids, T.W. & William Stede (eds. Thomas William Rhys Davids ( May 12, 1843 - December 27, 1922) was a British scholar of the Pāli language and founder of ) (1921-5). The Pali Text Society's Pali–English Dictionary. Chipstead: Pali Text Society. A general on-line search engine for the PED is available at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/.
• Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff (1949 -) is an American Buddhist monk of the Thai forest Kammatthana tradition ) (1997). Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life (DN 2). The Digha Nikaya (dīghanikāya "Collection of Long Discourses" is a Buddhist scripture the first of the five Nikayas or collections Available on-line at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.html.
• Walshe, Maurice O'Connell (trans. ) (1995). The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Nikāya. Somerville: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-103-3.