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See Shiksha (NGO) for the Indian non-governmental organization. Shiksha is an NGO devoted to improving the standards of education in New Delhi, India and its neighbouring regions
See Shiksa for the Yiddish slang word. Shiksa ( Yiddish: yi שיקסע or shikse, is a Yiddish word that has moved into English usage mostly in North Yiddish (yi [[wiktייִדיש ייִדיש]] yidish or yi [[wiktאידיש אידיש]] idish, literally "Jewish" is a nonterritorial High
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Shiksha (IAST śikṣā) is one of the six Vedangas, treating the traditional Hindu science of phonetics and phonology of Sanskrit. Literature regarded as central to the Hindu literary tradition was predominantly composed in Sanskrit, Indeed much of the morphology and linguistic "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit यजुर्वेदः, a Tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula' + veda The Samaveda ( Sanskrit: सामवेद sāmaveda, from sāman "melody" + veda "knowledge") is third (in the usual The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi The oral tradition of the Vedas ( Śrauta) consists of several pathas, "recitations" or ways of chanting the Vedic Mantras Such traditions The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक āraṇyaka) are part of the Hindu śruti, the four Vedas these religious texts were composed in The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings The Aitareya Upanishad is one of the older "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad ( Sanskrit: बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद् is one of the older "primary" ( Mukhya The Isha Upanishad ( īśa upaniṣad, otherwise Ishopanishad īśopaniṣad or īśāvāsya upaniṣad) is one of the shortest of the Upanishads The Taittiriya Upanishad is one of the older " primary " Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the "primary" ( Mukhya) Upanishads Together with the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana and the Brihadaranyaka The Kena Upanishad (kenopaniṣad is one of the older "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Muṇḍaka Upanishad is one of the older "primary" ( Mukhya) Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. Māndūkya Upanishad is the shortest Upanishads - the scriptures of Hindu Vedanta. The Kaṭha Upanishad is one of the older Mukhya "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. Prashna Upanishad ( IAST praṣnopaniṣad is one of the older "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad (Sanskrit Śvetāśvatara) (400 - 200 BCE is one of the older "primary" Upanishads It is associated with the Black The Vedanga ( vedāṅga, "member of the Veda" are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas. The main principle of Vedic meter is measurement by the number of syllables The Sanskrit grammatical tradition of vyākaraṇa is one of the six Vedanga disciplines Nirukta ("explanation etymological interpretation" is one of the six {{IAST|Vedānga}} disciplines of Hinduism, treating Etymology, particularly Jyotiṣa ( Sanskrit jyotiṣa, from jyótis- "light heavenly body" also spelled Jyotish and Jyotisha in English Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual. Indian epic poetry is the Epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent. The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki The following is a bibliography of Hindu scriptures and texts. Smriti (Sanskrit स्मृति " that which is remembered " refers to a specific body of Hindu religious Scripture If you are looking for the singer see Shruti Haasan. For other meanings see Śruti (disambiguation. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" Darśana ( Darshan, दर्शन is a Sanskrit term meaning "sight" (in the sense of an instance of seeing or beholding from a root Pāñcarātra are Vaishnavite devotional texts dedicated to a single deity Sriman Narayana who manifests in different forms Tantras (" Looms " or " Weavings " refers to numerous and varied scriptures pertaining to any of several esoteric traditions In Hinduism a Stotra is a hymn of praise These hymns praise aspects of the divine such as Devi, Siva, or Vishnu. Dharmaśāstra is a genre of Sanskrit texts and refers to the śāstra, or Indic branch of learning pertaining to Hindu Dharma, religious The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira Divya Prabhandham) is a collection of 4000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand' composed before 8th century The Tevaram ( Tamil: தேவாரம் Teva means "God" aram means "garland") denotes the first seven volumes of the Śrī Rāmacaritamānas ( Devanāgarī: hi श्री राम चरित मानस ( Hindi / Avadhi) is an Epic poem composed by the The Shikshapatri ( Devanagari: शिक्षापत्री is a text of two hundred and twelve verses written in Sanskrit by Bhagwan Swaminarayan The Vachanamrut of Bhagwan Swaminarayan is the most sacred and foundational scripture of the Swaminarayan faith. Ananda Sutram is the basic scripture of modern Yoga composed in Sanskrit by Shrii Shrii Anandamurti (1921-1990 in the year 1961 The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration ( IAST) is a popular Transliteration scheme that allows a lossless Romanization of Indic The Vedanga ( vedāṅga, "member of the Veda" are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή ( phonê) "sound" or "voice" is the study of the physical sounds of human speech Phonology ( Greek φωνή (phōnē voice sound + λόγος (lógos word speech subject of discussion is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical

Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and mantras. "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. A mantra ( Devanāgarī मन्त्र (or mantram is a religious or mystical syllable or poem typically from the Sanskrit language The oldest phonetics textbooks are the Pratishakyas (prātiśākhya, a vrddhi abstract from Sanskrit pratiśākhā "side branch", "offshoot"), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of sandhi, specific to individual schools or Shakhas. Vrddhi (वृद्धि) is a Sanskrit word meaning "growth" (from) Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Sandhi ( Sanskrit saṃdhi sa संधि "joining" is a cover term for a wide variety of phonological processes that occur at Morpheme A shakha ( Sanskrit IAST śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb" is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning

Contents

Pratishakhyas

Five Pratishakhyas are preserved:

In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi Some of these surviving texts are 1. English translation of Paniniya Siksa. pdf

Although many of these Shiksha texts an attached to specific Vedic schools, others are late texts.

Syllabicity

Traditionally syllables (not letters) in Sanskrit are called Aksharam, meaning "imperishable entity", as it were "atoms" of speech. A syllable ( Greek:) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds These aksharas are basically classified mainly into two types,[1]

Svara aksharas are also known as Prāna akshara i. The Shiva Sutras ( Sanskrit: Maheśvara sūtra sa महेश्वर सूत्र contain the system of phonemic notation which was used to organize In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract In Articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a Speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper Vocal tract, the upper vocal e. they are main sounds in speech without which speech is not possible. So, they are considered as life letters. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil vowels calling them as Uyir ezhutthu. Tamil (ta தமிழ்; t̪əmɨɻ is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. Panini referred the svara by Ach Pratyahāra. Pāṇini ( IAST: Pāṇini Dēvanāgarī: sa पाणिनि a Patronymic meaning "descendant of {{IAST|Paṇi}} " was an ancient So aftermath him, they are referred as Ach Aksharam.

Vyanjana means embellishment. i. e. , Consonants are treated as embellishment for the vowels to make a language sonorant. In Phonetics and Phonology, a sonorant is a Speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the Vocal tract. They are also known as Prāni akshara i. e. , they are like a body in which life (Svara) will be present. We find same notation used for referring the Tamil Consonants calling them as Mey ezhutthu. Tamil (ta தமிழ்; t̪əmɨɻ is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. Panini referred the vyanjana by Hal Pratyahāra. Pāṇini ( IAST: Pāṇini Dēvanāgarī: sa पाणिनि a Patronymic meaning "descendant of {{IAST|Paṇi}} " was an ancient So after him, they are referred as Hal Aksharam.

Again Vyanjana aksharas are divided into three types,

Sparśa aksharas include syllables from Ka to Ma they are 25 in number. A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Approximants are speech sounds ( Phonemes) that could be regarded as intermediate between Vowels and typical Consonants In the articulation of approximants A sibilant is a type of Fricative or Affricate Consonant, made by directing a jet of air through a narrow channel in the Vocal tract towards Antastha aksharas include syllables ya, ra, la and va. Ūshman aksharas include śa, sha, sa and ha.

It was told that a vowel can be pronounced in 18 ways (3x2x3) in Sanskrit language based on timing, manner, and accent of pronunciation. Language timing is the rhythmic quality of a particular type of speech in particular how Syllables are distributed across time In Linguistics ( Articulatory phonetics) manner of articulation describes how the tongue lips and other speech organs are involved in making a sound make In Linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain Syllables in a word

Morae

Each vowel can be classified into three types based on the time of pronunciation (morae). Mora (plural moras or morae) is a unit of sound used in Phonology that determines Syllable weight (which in turn determines stress The unit of time is mātra (approx. 0. 4 second). They are,

So each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to timespan of articulation. In Linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a Vowel sound In Linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a Vowel sound Pluti is the term for overlong vowels in Sanskrit. Pluti vowels are usually noted with a numeral "3" (indicating length of three morae) ā3 ī3 ū3 ṛぃ

Nasality

Each vowel can be classified into two types based on the manner of pronunciation. They are

Mukha : Oral
Nāsika : Nasal (all vowels are considered phonemically oral)

Pitch accent

Main article: Vedic accent

Each vowel can be classified into three types based on accent of articulation. A nasal vowel is a Vowel that is produced with a lowering of the velum so that air escapes both through Nose as well as the Mouth. A nasal vowel is a Vowel that is produced with a lowering of the velum so that air escapes both through Nose as well as the Mouth. The Pitch accent of Vedic Sanskrit, or Vedic accent for brevity is traditionally divided by Sanskrit grammarians into three qualities udātta This was lost in Classical Sanskrit, but used in chanting Vedic & Upanishadic hymns and mantras. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities A mantra ( Devanāgarī मन्त्र (or mantram is a religious or mystical syllable or poem typically from the Sanskrit language

Udātta : high pitch
Anudātta : low pitch
Svarita : falling pitch

so each vowel can be pronounced in three ways according to the accent of pronunciation.

Traditional articulatory phonetics

According to the Indian linguistic tradition, articulation is analysed by different parameters and features. [2]

Places of Articulation

Generally, in articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a consonant is the point of contact, where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an active (moving) articulator (typically some part of the tongue) and a passive (stationary) articulator (typically some part of the roof of the mouth). The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of Phonetics. In Articulatory phonetics, the place of articulation (also point of articulation) of a Consonant is the point of contact where an Obstruction

According to Indian linguistic tradition, the places of articulation (passive) are classified as five. They are:-

Kanthyam : Velar
Tālavyam : Palatal
Mūrdhanyam : Retroflex
Dantyam : Dental
Ōshtyam : Labial

Apart from that, other places are combinations of the above five places. Palatal consonants are Consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the Hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth In Phonetics, retroflex consonants are Consonant sounds used in some Languages (They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants In Linguistics, a dental consonant or dental is a Consonant that is articulated with the tongue against the upper teeth such as /t/ /d/ /n/ and Labials are consonants articulated either with both lips ( bilabial articulation or with the lower lip and the upper teeth ( labiodental articulation They are:-

Dantōsthyam : Labio-dental (Eg: v)
Kantatālavyam : Eg: Diphthong e
Kantōsthyam : labial-velar (Eg: Diphthong o)

The places of articulation (active) are classified as three, they are

Jihvā Mūlam : tongue root, for velar
Jihvā Madhyam : tongue body, for palatal
Jihvāgram : tip of tongue, for cerebral and dental
Adhōstam : lower lip, for labial

Efforts of Articulation

Effort of articulation (Ucchārana Prayatna) is of two types for consonants,

Bāhya Prayatna : External effort
Spristam : Plosive
Īshat Spristam : Approximant
Īshat Samvritam : Fricative
Abhyantara Prayatna : Internal effort
Alpaprānam : Unaspirated
Mahāprānam : Aspirated
Śvāsam : Unvoiced
Nādam : Voiced

Articulation of Consonants

Articulation of consonants will be a logical combination of components in the two prayatnas. In Phonetics, labiodentals are Consonants articulated with the lower Lip and the upper Teeth. In Phonetics, a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (from Greek grc δίφθογγος "diphthongos" literally "with two sounds" or "with Labial-velar consonants are doubly articulated at the velum and the Lips They are sometimes called " Labiovelar consonants quot a term which can also Radical consonants are those consonants articulated with the root (base of the Tongue in the Throat. A laminal consonant is a Phone produced by obstructing the air passage with the blade of the tongue which is the flat top front surface just behind the tip of the Palatal consonants are Consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the Hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth The lower lip (also called underlip) covers the anterior Body of the mandible. A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Approximants are speech sounds ( Phonemes) that could be regarded as intermediate between Vowels and typical Consonants In the articulation of approximants Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless The below table gives a view upon articulation of consonants.

Samskrita Vyanjana Ucchārana Pattika[3]
Prayatna Niyamāvalī Kanthya
(jihvā Mūlam)		 Tālavya
(jihvā Madhyam)		 Mūrdhanya
(jihvāgram)		 Dantya
(jihvāgram)		 Dantōshtya Ōshtya
(adhōstam)
Sparśam, Śvāsam, Alpaprānam ka ca ṭa ta — pa
Sparśam, Śvāsam,Mahāprānam kha cha ṭha tha — pha
Sparśam, Nādam, Alpaprānam ga ja ḍa da — ba
Sparśam, Nādam, Mahāprānam gha jha ḍha dha — bha
Sparśam, Nādam, Alpaprānam,
Anunāsikam, Dravam, Avyāhatam		 ṅa ña ṇa na — ma
Antastham, Nādam, Alpaprānam,
Dravam, Avyāhatam		 — ya ra
(Lunthitam)		 la
(Pārśvikam)		 va —
Ūshman, Śvāsam,Mahāprānam, Avyāhatam Visarga śa ṣa sa — —
Ūshman, Nādam,Mahāprānam, Avyāhatam ha — — — — —

See also

References

  1. ^ "Siddhanta Kaumudi" by Bhattoji Diksita and "Laghu Siddhanta Kaumudi", by Varadaraja. Palatal consonants are Consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the Hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth In Phonetics, retroflex consonants are Consonant sounds used in some Languages (They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants In Linguistics, a dental consonant or dental is a Consonant that is articulated with the tongue against the upper teeth such as /t/ /d/ /n/ and In Phonetics, labiodentals are Consonants articulated with the lower Lip and the upper Teeth. Labials are consonants articulated either with both lips ( bilabial articulation or with the lower lip and the upper teeth ( labiodental articulation A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed A nasal consonant (also called nasal stop or nasal continuant) is produced with a lowered velum in the mouth allowing air to escape freely through the Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together Rhotic consonants, or "R"-like sounds are non-lateral Liquid consonants This class of sounds is difficult to characterise phonetically though most of them share A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together Visarga ( visarga) is a Sanskrit word meaning "sending forth discharge" A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Voice or voicing is a term used in Phonetics and Phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described as either voiceless Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the Vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together The Shiva Sutras ( Sanskrit: Maheśvara sūtra sa महेश्वर सूत्र contain the system of phonemic notation which was used to organize
  2. ^ "Siddhanta Kaumudi" by Bhattoji Diksita and "Laghu Siddhanta Kaumudi", by Varadaraja.
  3. ^ "Telugulo Chandovisheshaalu", Page 127 (In Telugu).
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