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上海合作组织
Шанхайская организация сотрудничества
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
Logo of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
Location of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
     Member states      Observer states      Taiwan (Disputed)
SecretariatBeijing, China (PRC)
Working languagesRussian, Chinese
Membership6 member states
4 observer states
Leaders
 - Secretary GeneralBolat Nurgaliyev
 - Deputy Secretary GeneralVladimir Zakharov
Establishment15 June 2001
Website
www.sectsco.org

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is an intergovernmental mutual-security organization which was founded in 2001 by the leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The controversy regarding the political status of Taiwan hinges on whether Taiwan, including the Pescadores (Penghu should remain effectively independent as territory Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES A working language (also procedural language) is a Language that is given a unique legal status in a Supra -national company society state or other body Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Bolat Kabdylkhamitovich Nurgaliyev (Болат Қабдылхамитұлы Нұрғалиев Болат Кабдылхамитович Нургалиев 努尔加利耶夫 is a Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Except for Uzbekistan, the other countries had been members of the Shanghai Five, founded in 1996; after the inclusion of Uzbekistan in 2001, the members renamed the organization.

Contents

Official names

The official working languages of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation are Chinese and Russian. A working language (also procedural language) is a Language that is given a unique legal status in a Supra -national company society state or other body Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The official names of the organisation in the two languages, abbreviations in parentheses, are:

Chinese:

Russian:

Membership

Members

Observers

Guest Attendances



Origins

The Shanghai Five grouping was originally created April 26, 1996 with the signing of the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions in Shanghai by the heads of states of Kazakhstan, the People's Republic of China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use This transcription is known as the Palladiy system and is the official Cyrillization of Chinese in Russia. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The Cyrillic alphabet (səˈrɪlɪk also called azbuka, from the old name of the first two letters is actually a family of Alphabets, subsets of which are used by The Romanization of the Russian alphabet is the process of transliterating the Russian language from the Cyrillic alphabet and Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, commonly referred to as ASEAN, ˈɑːsiːɑːn AH-see-ahn in English (the Official language Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) Shanghai ( 上[[wikt 海|海]] is the largest city in China in terms of population and one of the largest urban areas in the world with over 20 million April 24, 1997 the same countries signed the Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border Regions in a meeting in Moscow. Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of

Subsequent annual summits of the Shanghai Five group occurred in Almaty (Kazakhstan) in 1998, in Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan) in 1999, and in Dushanbe (Tajikistan) in 2000. Almaty ( Алматы; formerly known as Alma-Ata ( Алма-Ата) also Verniy, (Верный is the largest city in Kazakhstan Dushanbe (Душанбе Dushanbe; formerly Dyushambe or Stalinabad) population 661100 people (2006 census is the Capital and largest city

In 2001, the annual summit returned to Shanghai, China. Shanghai ( 上[[wikt 海|海]] is the largest city in China in terms of population and one of the largest urban areas in the world with over 20 million China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National There the five member nations first admitted Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Five mechanism (thus transforming it into the Shanghai Six). Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Then all six heads of state signed on June 15, 2001, the Declaration of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, praising the role played thus far by the Shanghai Five mechanism and aiming to transform it to a higher level of cooperation. Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history In July 2001, Russia and the PRC, the organisation's two leading nations, signed the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation. The Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation Between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation (FCT is a twenty-year strategic

In June 2002, the heads of the SCO member states met in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River There they signed the SCO Charter which expounded on the organisation's purposes, principles, structures and form of operation, and established it officially from the point of view of international law.

Structure

Structure of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
Structure of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

The Council of Heads of State is the top decision-making body in the SCO. This council meets at the SCO summits, which are held each year in one of the member states' capital cities. The current Council of Heads of State consists of:

The Council of Heads of Government is the second-highest council in the organization. Kurmanbek Saliyevich Bakiyev ( Kyrgyz: Курманбек Сали уулу Бакиев Russian: Курманбек Салиевич Бакиев born 1 August Hu Jintao ( born 21 December 1942 is currently the Paramount Leader of the People's Republic of China, holding the titles of General Secretary of the Communist Islom Abdug‘aniyevich Karimov (in Cyrillic Uzbek: Ислом Абдуғаниевич Каримов; in Russian: Ислам Абдуганиевич Nursultan Abishuly Nazarbayev ( Kazakh: Нұрсұлтан Әбішұлы Назарбаев æbəʃʊˈlɯ nɑzɑrˈbɑjəf Russian: Нурсултан Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev ( Dmitrij Anatol′evič Medvedev;; born 14 September 1965 is currently President of Russia, inaugurated on 7 May 2008 Emomalii Rahmon ( Tajik: Эмомалии Раҳмон or امامعلی رحمان (formerly Emomali Sharifovich Rahmonov, Эмомалӣ This council also holds annual summits, at which time members discuss issues of multilateral cooperation. The council also approves the organization's budget.

The council of Foreign Ministers also hold regular meetings, where they discuss the current international situation and the SCO's interaction with other international organizations. [1]

As the name suggests, the Council of National Coordinators coordinates the multilateral cooperation of member states within the framework of the SCO's charter.

The Secretariat of the SCO is the primary executive body of the organization. It serves to implement organizational decisions and decrees, drafts proposed documents (such as declarations and agendas), function as a document depository for the organization, arranges specific activities within the SCO framework, and promotes and disseminates information about the SCO. It is located in Beijing. The current SCO Secretary-General is Bolat Nurgaliyev of Kazakhstan. Bolat Kabdylkhamitovich Nurgaliyev (Болат Қабдылхамитұлы Нұрғалиев Болат Кабдылхамитович Нургалиев 努尔加利耶夫 is a [2]

The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), headquartered in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, is a permanent organ of the SCO which serves to promote cooperation of member states against the three evils of terrorism, separatism and extremism. The Three Evils are " Terrorism, Separatism and Religious extremism. Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion Separatism refers to the advocacy of a state of cultural ethnic tribal religious racial or gender separation from the larger group often with demands for greater political autonomy Extremism is a term used to describe the actions or ideologies of individuals or groups outside the perceived political center of a society or otherwise claimed to violate The Head of RATS is elected to a three-year term. Each member state also sends a permanent representative to RATS. [3]

Activities

Cooperation on security

The SCO is primarily centered around its member nations' Central Asian security-related concerns, often describing the main threats it confronts as being terrorism, separatism and extremism. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion Separatism refers to the advocacy of a state of cultural ethnic tribal religious racial or gender separation from the larger group often with demands for greater political autonomy Extremism is a term used to describe the actions or ideologies of individuals or groups outside the perceived political center of a society or otherwise claimed to violate However evidence is growing that its activities in the area of social development of it's member states is increasing fast. Unlike CSTO (Collective Security Treaty Organisation) it is not a security organisation.


At the June 16-17 2004 SCO summit, held in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, the Regional Antiterrorism Structure (RATS) was established. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly On 21 April 2006, the SCO announced plans to fight cross-border drug crimes under the counter-terrorism rubric. Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. [4]

Grigory Logninov claimed in April 2006 that the SCO has no plans to become a military bloc; nonetheless he argued that the increased threats of "terrorism, extremism and separatism" make necessary a full-scale involvement of armed forces. [5]

There have been a number of SCO joint military exercises. The first of these was held in 2003, with the first phase taking place in Kazakhstan and the second in China. [6]

On a larger scale, but outside the SCO framework, the first ever joint military exercise between the PRC and Russia, called Peace Mission 2005 started on August 19, 2005. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Peace Mission 2005 was the first ever joint military exercise between China and Russia. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Following their successful completion, Russian officials have begun speaking of India joining such exercises in the future and the SCO taking on a military role.

The joint military exercises in 2007 took place in Chelyabinsk Russia, near the Ural Mountains and close to Central Asia, as was agreed upon on April 2006 at a meeting of SCO Defense Ministers. Chelyabinsk (Челя́бинск is a city in Russia, located just to the east of the Ural Mountains, on Miass River. Riphean redirects here For the time period see Riphean stage The Ural Mountains (Ура́льские го́ры Uralskiye More than 4,000 soldiers participated from China. Air forces and precision-guided weapons were have likely to be used. Russian Defense Minister Sergei Ivanov said that the exercises will be transparent and open to media and the public. Sergei Borisovich Ivanov (Серге́й Бори́сович Ивано́в (born January 31, 1953) is a Russian political figure [6][7]

In October 2007, the SCO signed an agreement with the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO), in the Tajik capital Dushanbe, to broaden cooperation on issues such as security, crime, and drug trafficking. [8] Joint action plans between the two organizations are planned to be signed by early 2008 in Beijing. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common [9]

Economic cooperation

A Framework Agreement to enhance economic cooperation was signed by the SCO member states on 23 September 2003. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. At the same meeting the PRC's Premier, Wen Jiabao, proposed a long-term objective to establish a free trade area in the SCO, while other more immediate measures would be taken to improve the flow of goods in the region. The Premier of the State Council ( sometimes incorrectly referred to as the "Prime Minister" is the Chairman of the State Council of the People's Republic of China This is a Chinese name; the family name is Wen. Wen Jiabao ( (born 15 September 1942 is the Premier of the See also List of free trade agreements This is article is on free international trade A follow up plan with 100 specific actions was signed one year later, on September 23, 2004. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " [10][11]

On 26 October 2005, the Moscow Summit of the SCO, the Secretary General of the Organisation said that the SCO will prioritise joint energy projects; such will include the oil and gas sector, the exploration of new hydrocarbon reserves, and joint use of water resources. Events 740 - An Earthquake strikes Constantinople, causing much damage and death Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of The creation of an Inter-bank SCO Council was also agreed upon at that summit in order to fund future joint projects. The first meeting of the SCO Interbank Association was held in Beijing on 21-22 February 2006. [12][13] On 30 November 2006, at The SCO: Results and Perspectives, an international conference held in Almaty, the representative of the Russian Foreign Ministry announced that Russia is developing plans for an SCO "Energy Club". Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats Almaty ( Алматы; formerly known as Alma-Ata ( Алма-Ата) also Verniy, (Верный is the largest city in Kazakhstan [14]. The need for this "club" was reiterated by Moscow at an SCO summit in November 2007. Other SCO members, however, have not committed themselves to the idea. [15]

Cultural cooperation

Cultural cooperation also occurs in the SCO framework. Culture ministers of the SCO met for the first time in Beijing on 12 April 2002, signing a joint statement for continued cooperation. Events 467 - Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. The third meeting of the Culture Ministers took place in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, on 27-28 April 2006. [16][17]

An SCO Arts Festival and Exhibition was held for the first time during the Astana Summit in 2005. Astana ( Kazakh: Астана آستانه former names include Akmola, Akmolinsk, Tselinograd, and Aqmola) is the capital Kazakhstan has also suggested an SCO folk dance festival to take place in 2008, in Astana. Folk dance is a term used to describe a large number of dances mostly of European origin that tend to share the following attributes originally danced in about the Astana ( Kazakh: Астана آستانه former names include Akmola, Akmolinsk, Tselinograd, and Aqmola) is the capital [18]

Summits

According to the Charter of the SCO, summits of the Council of Heads of State shall be held annually at alternating venues. The locations of these summits follow the alphabetical order of the member state's name in Russian. [19] The charter also dictates that the Council of Heads of Government (that is, the Prime Ministers) shall meet annually in a place previously decided upon by the council members. The Council of Foreign Ministers is supposed to hold a summit one month before the annual summit of Heads of State. Extraordinary meetings of the Council of Foreign Ministers can be called by any two member states. [19]

List of Summits

Heads of State
DateCountryLocation
2001Flag of the People's Republic of China People's Republic of ChinaShanghai
2002Flag of Russia RussiaSaint Petersburg
2003Flag of Russia RussiaMoscow
2004Flag of Uzbekistan UzbekistanTashkent
2005Flag of Kazakhstan KazakhstanAstana
2006Flag of the People's Republic of China People's Republic of ChinaShanghai
2007Flag of Kyrgyzstan KyrgyzstanBishkek
2008Flag of Tajikistan TajikistanDushanbe[20]
2009Flag of Russia RussiaYekaterinburg[20]
Heads of Government
DateCountryLocation
2001Flag of Kazakhstan KazakhstanAlmaty
2002Flag of Russia RussiaSaint Petersburg
2003Flag of the People's Republic of China People's Republic of ChinaBeijing
2004Flag of Kyrgyzstan KyrgyzstanBishkek
2005Flag of Russia RussiaMoscow
2006Flag of Tajikistan TajikistanDushanbe
2007Flag of Uzbekistan UzbekistanTashkent
2008Flag of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan



Future membership possibilities

Current Observers

Pakistan and Iran have been lobbying for full membership, while India and Mongolia have not shown strong interest in becoming official members. [29] Chinese Assistant Foreign Minister Li Hui once said that the SCO will not take in new members before its six members make serious studies. Russia's permanent representative in the SCO Secretariat Grigory Longinov has also claimed that the enlargement of the SCO is impeded by "an immature mechanism of admission of new members", while Secretary General Zhang Deguang argued that an over-expansion might hinder the intensification of the cooperation. Zhang Deguang ( Simplified Chinese: 张德广 born February 10, 1941) is the Secretary general of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization [30]

Other Countries

Power balance in a multi-polar world

Together, SCO full and observer members form not only the world's biggest economic, military, nuclear and space power, but also the world's biggest producer and consumer of energy. . Moreover, SCO countries (full members and observers) comprise a hefty 25% of Earth's land area. Although the declaration on the establishment of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation contained a statement that it "is not an alliance directed against other states and regions and it adheres to the principle of openness", many observers believe that one of the original purposes of the SCO was to serve as a counterbalance to NATO and the United States and in particular to avoid conflicts that would allow the United States to intervene in areas near both Russia and China. The North Atlantic Treaty The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National [33] Some observers also believe that the organisation was formed as a direct response to the threat of missile defense systems by the United States, after the United States reversed course in its nuclear policy and began promoting National Missile Defense. Missile defense is a system weapon or technology involved in the detection tracking interception and destruction of attacking Missiles Originally conceived as a defence against National missile defense (NMD as a generic term is a type of Missile defense: a military strategy and associated systems to shield an entire country against incoming

The United States applied for observer status in the SCO, but was rejected in 2005. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [34]

At the Astana summit in July 2005, with the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq foreshadowing an indefinite presence of U. S. forces in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, the SCO urged the U. S. to set a timetable for withdrawing its troops from SCO member states. Shortly afterwards, Uzbekistan asked the U. S. to leave the K-2 air base. Karshi-Khanabad is an Airbase in south-eastern Uzbekistan at. [35]

Recently the SCO has made no direct comments against the U. S. or its military presence in the region. However, several indirect statements at the past summits, including the 2007 summit in Bishkek, have been viewed as "thinly veiled swipes at Washington". [36]

See also

External links

Discussion

Media

Articles and research

References

  1. ^ Session of the Council of Foreign Ministers from Member States of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization Embassy of the Russian Federation in Malaysia
  2. ^ SCO Secretariat in Brief SCO Website
  3. ^ Information on Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure of Shanghai Cooperation Organization SCO Website
  4. ^ SCO to intensify fight against cross-border drug crimes Xinhua. net
  5. ^ SCO gets ready for joint military exercise World Student Press Agency
  6. ^ a b SCO to stage joint anti-terror military exercise in 2007 Xinhua. net
  7. ^ SCO's anti-terrorism military drill to be transparent Xinhua. net
  8. ^ Security alliances led by Russia, China link up Daily Times
  9. ^ Kazakhstan Notes Afghanistan's Emerging Security Agenda Eurasia Daily Monitor
  10. ^ China Intensifies Regional Trade Talks International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD)
  11. ^ Joint Communique of the Council of the Governmental Heads (Prime Ministers) of Shanghai Cooperation Organization Member States University of Hawaii
  12. ^ Shanghai Cooperation Organization Eyes Economic, Security Cooperation The Jamestown Foundation
  13. ^ SCO Ministers of Foreign Economic Activity and Trade to meet in Tashkent National Bank of Uzbekistan
  14. ^ Russia's Foreign Ministry develops concept of SCO energy club Gazeta. kz
  15. ^ Russia Urges Formation of Central Asian Energy Club Eurasianet
  16. ^ Culture Ministers of SCO Member States Meet in Beijing People's Daily
  17. ^ SCO Culture Ministers to Meet in Tashkent Gazeta. kz
  18. ^ Kazakhstan Backs Promotion of SCO Cultural Ties Embassy of Kazakhstan in India
  19. ^ a b Charter of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation SCO Website
  20. ^ a b Main Events of SCO Secretariat in 2008 SCO Website
  21. ^ Pakistan qualifies to become SCO Member: Musharraf Pakistan Times
  22. ^ China invites Musharraf to SCO summit Dawn News
  23. ^ [1]
  24. ^ [2]
  25. ^ [3]
  26. ^ [4]
  27. ^ [5]
  28. ^ Iran applies for membership Press TV
  29. ^ SCO Fails to Solve Its Expansion Dilemma Central Asia-Caucasus Institute
  30. ^ SCO has immature mechanism of new members admission - official UzReport
  31. ^ SCO, Afghanistan need to deepen cooperation, secretary general People's Daily
  32. ^ The Shanghai Cooperation Organization acquires military character Kommersant
  33. ^ Tannock, Charles. "Backing Kazakhstan's 'great game'", Guardian Weekly, February 18, 2008.  
  34. ^ Shanghai surprise Guardian Unlimited
  35. ^ Central Asia: China and Russia up the ante The Hindu
  36. ^ Shanghai Cooperation Organization Summiteers Take Shots at US Presence in Central Asia Eurasianet


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