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This article is about the practice of shamanism. For other uses, see Shaman (disambiguation).
A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shamans" in the literature. The tableau presents the diversity of this concept.
A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shamans" in the literature. The tableau presents the diversity of this concept.

Shamanism refers to a range of traditional beliefs and practices concerned with communication with the spirit world. The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath Practitioners of shamanism are known as shamans. There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, though there are some beliefs that are shared by all forms of shamanism:

Shamans have the ability to diagnose and cure human suffering and, in some societies, the ability to cause suffering. Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything This is believed to be accomplished by traversing the axis mundi and forming a special relationship with, or gaining control over, spirits. The axis mundi (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar and center of the world) is a ubiquitous symbol that crosses human cultures The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath Shamans have been credited with the ability to control the weather, divination, the interpretation of dreams, astral projection, and traveling to upper and lower worlds. Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep. Astral projection (or astral travel) is an esoteric interpretation of a type of Out-of-body experience that assumes the existence of an " Astral Shamanistic traditions have existed throughout the world since prehistoric times. Stone Age Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens, Early human migrations "Paleolithic"

Some anthropologists and religious scholars define a shaman as an intermediary between the natural and spiritual world, who travels between worlds in a state of trance. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Trance denotes a variety of processes techniques modalities and states of mind awareness and consciousness Once in the spirit world, the shaman would commune with the spirits for assistance in healing, hunting or weather management. Ripinsky-Naxon describes shamans as, “People who have a strong interest in their surrounding environment and the society of which they are a part. ”

Other anthropologists critique the term "shamanism", arguing that it is a culturally specific word and institution and that by expanding it to fit any healer from any traditional society it produces a false unity between these cultures and creates a false idea of an initial human religion predating all others. However, some others say that these anthropologists simply fail to recognize the commonalities between otherwise diverse traditional societies.

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits that affect the lives of the living. In contrast to animism and animatism, which any and usually all members of a society practice, shamanism requires specialized knowledge or abilities. Animism (from Latin anima ( Soul, Life) commonly refers to a religious belief that Souls or Spirits exist in Animals For the prog music band from Poznań, Poland, see Animatism (band. It could be said that shamans are the experts employed by animists and animist communities. Shamans are often organized into full-time ritual or spiritual associations, like priests. A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities In Indian culture as well there are those who are called tantrics and are said to have the power to control spirits and force them to do their bidding. People often visit them for many reasons but most often it is to ensure the spirit's aid in their work or to curse someone who they feel is an enemy of theirs or opposes them.

Contents

Etymology

Shaman pronounced /ˈʃɑːmən/, /ˈʃeɪmən/, (|ˈshämən; ˈshā-|) noun (pl. -man(s)) originally referred to the traditional healers of Turkic-Mongol areas such as Northern Asia (Siberia) and Mongolia, a "shaman" being the Turkic-Tungus word for such a practitioner and literally meaning "he or she who knows. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family North Asia or Northern Asia is sometimes defined as a Subregion of Asia consisting only of the Asian portion of Russia. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the The Evenks or Evenki (autonym Эвэнкил Evenkil; Эвенки Evenki; 鄂温克族 pny ''Èwēnkè Zú'' formerly known as Tungus " The words in Turkic languages which refer to shamans are kam, and sometimes baksı. The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the

Some say the Tungusic word šamán is from Chinese sha men (Chinese: 沙门，沙弥), "Buddhist monk," borrowed from Pali śamana, ultimately from Sanskrit śramana "ascetic," from śramati "he fatigues" (see shramana). Pali ( ISO 15919 / ALA-LC: Pāḷi is a Middle Indo-Aryan language or Prakrit of India. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical A Shramana ( Sanskrit sa श्रमण śramaṇa, Pāli pi शमण samaṇa) is a wandering monk in certain Ascetic "The word shaman is in fact loosely used for almost any savage witch doctor who becomes frenzied and has communication with spirits. In its original form it appears to be a corruption of the Sanskrit Shramana, which, indicating a disciple of Buddha, among the Mongolians became synonymous with magician. "[1]. Other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and indeed is "the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language". Manchu is a Tungusic language spoken in Northeast China; it used to be the language of the Manchu, though now most Manchus speak Mandarin [2]

Another explanation analyzes this Tungusic word as containing root “sa-”, this means “to know”. The Tungusic languages (also known as Manchu-Tungus Tungus are spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria. “Shaman” is “one who knows”:[3][4] a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple codes through which this complex belief system appears, and has a comprehensive view of them in their mind with certainty of knowledge. In Communications a code is a rule for converting a piece of Information (for example a letter, Word, Phrase, or Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding [3]

A criticism against the above approach says that there is no evidence that this Tungusic word would be of inner origin, and it is hard to reconstruct from the sources where this word was borrowed from in the past. [5][6]

The word passed through Russian and German before it was adopted into English. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages.

In any case, the proper plural form of the word is "shaman" and not "shamans" or "shamen", as it is unrelated to the English word "man". Like English, Tungus does not apply gender to words. Therefore, shaman is correct for both a male and female shaman. The word shamanka would be correct for one speaking Russian as it is the Russian variation for the feminine gender, a Russian language requirement.

In its common usage, it has replaced the older English language term witch doctor, a term which unites the two stereotypical functions of the shaman: knowledge of magical and other lore, and the ability to cure a person and mend a situation. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States A witch doctor often refers to Healers in Third world regions who use traditional healing rather than Science or developed Medicine. However, this term is generally considered to be pejorative and anthropologically inaccurate. Objections to the use of shaman as a generic term have been raised as well, by both academics and traditional healers themselves, given that the word comes from a specific place, people, and set of practices.

The shaman is referred to in Greek mythology as a necromancer and could raise spirits and corpses to use as slaves, soldiers and tools for divination. Necromancy ( Greek νεκρομαντία nekromantía) is a form of Divination in which the practitioner seeks to summon "operative spirits"

Function

Shamans (in all cultures that are recorded as having shamans), can perform a plethora of functions:[7] healing;[8][9] leading a sacrifice;[10] preserving the tradition by storytelling and songs;[11] fortune-telling;[12] acting as a psychopomp (literal meaning, “guide of souls”). Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" The word tradition comes from the Latin traditionem acc of traditio which means "a giving up delivering up surrendering" and is used in a number of Storytelling is the ancient art of conveying events in Words Images and Sounds often by Improvisation or embellishment Fortune-telling is the practice of predicting the future usually of an individual through mystical or supernatural means and often for commercial gain Many religious belief systems have a particular spirit, Angel, or Deity whose responsibility is to escort newly-deceased souls to the Afterlife [13] In some cultures, a shaman may fulfill several functions in one person. [14]

As a psychopomp, the shaman may accompany the incarnating soul of a newborn baby, or inversely, the departing soul of the newly-dead. [13] They may also serve the community by maintaining the tradition through memorizing long songs and tales. The word tradition comes from the Latin traditionem acc of traditio which means "a giving up delivering up surrendering" and is used in a number of [11]

Mediator

Shamans act as "mediators" in their culture. Mediation, a form of Alternative dispute resolution (ADR or "appropriate Dispute resolution " aims to assist two (or more disputants in reaching [15][16] The shaman is seen as communicating with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the dead. In some cultures, this mediator function of the shaman may be illustrated well by some of the shaman's objects and symbols. E. g. among the Selkups, a report mentions sea duck as a spirit-animal: ducks are capable of both flying, and diving underwater, thus they are regarded as belonging to both the upper world and the world underneath. The Selkup (сельку́пы until 1930s called Ostyak - Samoyeds (остя́ко-самое́ды are a people in Siberia, Russia. [17] Similarly, the shaman and the jaguar are identified in some Amazonian cultures: the jaguar is capable of moving freely on the ground, in the water, and climbing trees (like the shaman's soul). In some Siberian cultures, it is some water fowl species that are associated to the shaman in a similar way, and the shaman is believed to take on its form. [18]

“The Shaman's Tree” is an image found in several cultures (Yakuts, Dolgans, Evenks), Celts, as a symbol for mediation. Yakuts, self-designation Sakha, are a Turkic -speaking people associated with the Sakha (Yakutia Republic. Dolgans (долганы self-designation долган тыа-кихи саха are a Turkic -speaking people who mostly inhabit Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia The Evenks or Evenki (autonym Эвэнкил Evenkil; Эвенки Evenki; 鄂温克族 pny ''Èwēnkè Zú'' formerly known as Tungus Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The tree is seen as a being whose roots belong to the world underneath; its trunk belongs to the middle, human-inhabited word; and its top is related to the upper world. [19]

Distinct types of shamans

In some cultures there may be additional types of shamans, who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the Nanai people, a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp. The Nanai people (self name нани tr "nani" Russian: нанайцы tr [20] Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the Nenets, Enets, and Selkup shamans (paper;[21] online[22]). The Nenets people ( Ethnonym in Nenets language: ненэця Russian name ненцы IPA: (plural--> The Enets people (энцы singular ru энец or Yenetses Entsy Entsi Yenisei Yenisei-Samoyed Yenisey Samoyeds or Yeniseian people are a traditionally nomadic people The Selkup (сельку́пы until 1930s called Ostyak - Samoyeds (остя́ко-самое́ды are a people in Siberia, Russia. Among Huichol, there are two categories of shamans. The Huichol or Wixáritari are an indigenous ethnic group of western central Mexico, living in the Sierra Madre Occidental range in the Mexican states of This demonstrates the differences of shamans even within a single tribe.

Ecological aspect

In tropical rainforests, resources for human consumption are easily depletable. Tropical rainforests are generally found near the Equator. They are common in Asia, Australia, Africa, South America, Central In some rainforest cultures, such as the Tucano, a sophisticated system exists for the management of resources, and for avoiding the depletion of these resources through overhunting. The Tucano are a group of indigenous South Americans living in the northwestern Amazon along the Vaupés river and the surrounding area This system is conceptualized in a mythological context, involving symbolism and, in some cases, the belief that the breaking of hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this ecological management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of The shaman is able to “release” game animals (or their souls) from their hidden abodes,[23] The Desana shaman has to negotiate with a mythological being for souls of game. [24] Not only Tucanos, but also some other rainforest Indians have such ecological concerns related to their shamanism, for example Piaroa. The Piaroa are an indigenous American Ethnic group living along the banks of the Orinoco and its tributaries in present day Venezuela [25] Besides Tukanos and Piaroa, also many Eskimo groups think that the shaman is able to fetch souls of game from remote places ;[26][27] or undertake a soul travel in order to promote hunting luck, e. Eskimos or Esquimaux are Indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia ( Russia) across Soul Travel is the belief that when one Sleeps their Soul leaves its body and seeks spiritual lessons in the Soul Planes or Heaven as Christians g. by asking for game from mythological beings (Sea Woman). In Inuit mythology, Sedna ( Inuktitut Sanna, ᓴᓐᓇ is a Deity and god of the marine animals especially mammals such as seals [28]

Soul concept, spirits

The plethora of functions described in the above section may seem to be rather distinct tasks, but some important underlying concepts join them.

Soul concept

In some cases, at some cultures, the soul concept can explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena:[29][30][31]

Healing
may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman (online[8]). The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Healing, assessed physically is the process by which the cells in the Body regenerate and repair to reduce the size of a damaged or necrotic area It may consist of the retrieving the lost soul of the ill person. [32] See also the soul dualism concept. Soul dualism or a dualistic soul concept is a range of beliefs that a person has two (or more kinds of Souls In many cases the one of the souls
Scarcity of hunted game
can be solved by “releasing” the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Scarcity (also called paucity) is the problem of Infinite human needs and Wants, in a world of Finite Resources In other Besides that, many taboos may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can let themselves to be caught and killed. A taboo is a strong Social prohibition (or ban) against words objects actions or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group culture [33][34] The ecological aspect of shamanistic practice (and the related beliefs) has already been mentioned above in the article.
Infertility of women
can be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child to be born. Female infertility|Male infertility Infertility primarily refers to the biological inability of a Man or a Woman to contribute to conception.

Spirits

Also the beliefs related to spirits can explain many different phenomena too,[35] for example, the importance of storytelling, or acting as a singer, can be understood better if we examine the whole belief system: a person who is able to memorize long texts or songs (and play an instrument) may be regarded as having achieved this ability through contact with the spirits (for example among Khanty people). The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath Storytelling is the ancient art of conveying events in Words Images and Sounds often by Improvisation or embellishment Khanty / Hanti (obsolete Ostyaks) are an endangered Indigenous people calling themselves Khanti Khande Kantek (Khanty living in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous [36]

Knowledge

As mentioned, a (debated) approach explains the etymology of word “shaman” as meaning “one who knows”. [37][38] Really, the shaman is a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple codes through which this complex belief system appears, and has a comprehensive view on it in their mind with certainty of knowledge. In Communications a code is a rule for converting a piece of Information (for example a letter, Word, Phrase, or Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding [39] The shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes. In Communications a code is a rule for converting a piece of Information (for example a letter, Word, Phrase, or Shamans express meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects, such as amulets. An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic [40]

The shaman knows the culture of their community well,[41][42] and acts accordingly. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Thus, their audience knows the used symbols and meanings — that's why shamanism can be efficient: people in the audience trust it. The musical instrument is spelled Cymbal. A symbol is something --- such as an object, Picture, written word a sound a piece [42] Such belief system can appear to its members with certainty of knowledge — this explains the above described etymology for the word “shaman”. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding [43]

Sami shaman with his drum
Sami shaman with his drum

There are semiotic theoretical approaches to shamanism,[44][45][46] and also ones that regard it as a cognitive map,[47][48] see also Juha Pentikäinen's “grammar of mind” approach:[49]

“ Juha Pentikäinen, in his introduction to Shamanism and Northern Ecology, explains how the Sámi drum embodies Sámi worldviews. Semiotics, semiotic studies, or semiology is the study of sign processes (semiosis or signification and communication signs and Symbols both Juha Pentikäinen is a professor in the Department of Comparative Religion at the University of Helsinki. He considers shamanism to be a ‘grammar of mind’ (10), because shamans need to be experts in the folklore of their cultures (11) ”

.

Some approaches refer to hermeneutics[50] (“ethnohermeneutics”[48]). Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of Theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts

Other fieldworks use systems theory concepts and ecological considerations to understand the shaman's lore. This article is about the scientific method For the military term see Field fortifications under Fortification. Systems theory is an Interdisciplinary field of Science and the study of the nature of Complex systems in Nature, Society, and History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological Desana and Tucano Indians have developed a sophisticated symbolism and concepts of “energy” flowing between people and animals in cyclic paths. The Tucano are a group of indigenous South Americans living in the northwestern Amazon along the Vaupés river and the surrounding area Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff relates these concepts to the changes how modern science (systems theory, ecology, some new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats causality in a less linear way. Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff ( March 6, 1912 — May 16, 1994) was an anthropologist, known for his holistic approach and his in-depth Causality (but not causation) denotes a necessary relationship between one event (called cause and another event (called effect) which is the direct consequence [23] He suggests also a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore (online[51]).

According to Vladimir Basilov and his work Chosen By the Spirits, a shaman is to be in the utmost healthy conditions to perform their duties to the fullest. The belief of the shaman is most popular through the people located in Central Asia and Kazakhstan. The traditions of the shamanism is also imbedded in the Tadzhiks and Uzbeks regions. The shaman’s bodies are to be formed in a strong manner, someone having a small build would be turned away at once. Age is a requirement as well, definitely being over the age of fifty would disqualify those that want to be involved in serving the spirits. The shamans are always of the higher intellect and are looked at in a different perspective, they have a way that makes them quick on their feet and at ill will curing those in need.

One of the most significant and relevant qualities that separate a shaman from other spiritual leaders is their communications with the supernatural world. As early as the beginning of the century self-hypnosis was very highly thought of by those who worship. Another characteristic of the shaman is the talent to locate objects and discover thieves, shocking those of their tribe and those others also around to witness. The belief in the spirits or the supernatural is what attracts those to believe in the shamans. Those who have ill children or are in failing health of their own is what draws them to the shaman spiritual healings. Although the shamans are still in existence, the population is surely declining. [52]

Career

Initiation and learning

In the world's shamanic cultures, the shaman plays a priest-like role; however, there is an essential difference between the two, as Joseph Campbell describes:

"The priest is the socially initiated, ceremonially inducted member of a recognized religious organization, where he holds a certain rank and functions as the tenant of an office that was held by others before him, while the shaman is one who, as a consequence of a personal psychological crisis, has gained a certain power of his own. Joseph John Campbell ( March 26, 1904 – October 30, 1987) was an American Mythology Professor, Writer " (1969, p. 231)

A shaman may be initiated via a serious illness, by being struck by lightning and dreaming of thunder to become a Heyoka, or by a near-death experience (e. g. , the shaman Black Elk), or one might follow a "calling" to become a shaman. Black Elk (Hehaka Sapa (c December 1863 &ndash August 17 or August 19, 1950 (sources differ was a famous Wichasha There is usually a set of cultural imagery expected to be experienced during shamanic initiation regardless of the method of induction. Vagina Imagery is used in literature to refer to descriptive language that evokes sensory experience Initiation is a Rite of passage Ceremony marking entrance or acceptance into a group or society According to Mircea Eliade, such imagery often includes being transported to the spirit world and interacting with beings inhabiting the distant world of spirits, meeting a spiritual guide, being devoured by some being and emerging transformed, and/or being "dismantled" and "reassembled" again, often with implanted amulets such as magical crystals. Mircea Eliade ( – April 22, 1986) was a Romanian historian of religion fiction writer philosopher and professor at the University of Chicago The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating The imagery of initiation generally speaks of transformation and the granting powers to transcend death and rebirth. Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific

In some societies shamanic powers are considered to be inherited, whereas in other places of the world shamans are considered to have been "called" and require lengthy training. Among the Siberian Chukchis one may behave in ways that "Western" bio-medical clinicians would perhaps characterize as psychotic, but which Siberian peoples may interpret as possession by a spirit who demands that one assume the shamanic vocation. Chukchi, or Chukchee (чукчи ( plural) ru чукча ( singular) are an Indigenous people inhabiting the Chukchi Peninsula Health science is the applied science dealing with Health, and it includes many sub disciplines Spirit possession is a concept of Paranormal, Supernatural and/or Superstitious belief in which spirits, gods, daemons Among the South American Tapirape shamans are called in their dreams. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a The Tapirapé indigenous people is a Brazilian Indian tribe that survived the European conquest and subsequent colonization of the country keeping with little changes Dreams are the images sounds thoughts and feelings experienced while Sleeping, particularly strongly associated with Rapid eye movement sleep. In other societies shamans choose their career. In North America, First Nations peoples would seek communion with spirits through a "vision quest"; whereas South American Shuar, seeking the power to defend their family against enemies, apprentice themselves to accomplished shamans. The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath A vision quest is a Rite of passage in some Native American cultures. Shuar, in the Shuar language, means " People." The people who speak the Shuar language live in Tropical rainforest between the upper mountains Similarly the Urarina of Peruvian Amazonia have an elaborate cosmological system predicated on the ritual consumption of ayahuasca. The Urarina are an Indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazon Basin ( Loreto) who inhabit the Chambira, Urituyacu and Corrientes Rivers The Amazon Rainforest (Brazilian Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica or Amazonía A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions This entry focuses on the Ayahuasca brew for information on the vine of the same name see Banisteriopsis caapi Ayahuasca Coupled with millenarian impulses, Urarina ayahuasca shamanism is a key feature of this poorly documented society. The Urarina are an Indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazon Basin ( Loreto) who inhabit the Chambira, Urituyacu and Corrientes Rivers This entry focuses on the Ayahuasca brew for information on the vine of the same name see Banisteriopsis caapi Ayahuasca

Putatively customary shamanic "traditions" can also be noted among indigenous Kuna peoples of Panama, who rely on shamanic powers and sacred talismans to heal. The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (República de Panamá) is the southernmost country of Central America. SACRED was a Cubesat built by the Student Satellite Program of the University of Arizona. An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic As such, they enjoy a popular position among local peoples.

Note: Some feel that the Lakota tradition (which includes the Heyoka and Black Elk, mentioned above) are not really shamanic. Lakota or Lakotah may refer to Lakota people, a Native American tribe Lakota language, the language of the Lakota There is a big difference between the Lakota culture and shamanic cultures. In many South American shamanic cultures there is the use of psycho-active substances (peyote, fly agaric, psilocybin, etc. ) In the Lakota culture pain is often used instead of psychoactive plants. While a Siberian shaman would use fly agaric, a Lakota medicine man would do a sun dance. The Lakota medicine people have some bias against the use of psychoactive plants. The majority of shamanic cultures use repetitive sound to enter the shamanic state versus the use of psycho-active plants or pain.

Shamanic illness

Shamanic illness, also called shamanistic inititatory crisis, is a psycho-spiritual crisis, usually involuntary, or a rite of passage, observed among those becoming shamans. A rite of passage is a Ritual that marks a change in a person's social or sexual status The episode often marks the beginning of a time-limited episode of confusion or disturbing behavior where the shamanic initiate might sing or dance in an unconventional fashion, or have an experience of being "disturbed by spirits". The symptoms are usually not considered to be signs of mental illness by interpreters in the shamanic culture; rather, they are interpreted as introductory signposts for the individual who is meant to take the office of shaman (Lukoff et. al, 1992). Similarities of some shamanic illness symptoms to the kundalini process have been often noted [1]. Kundalini (kuṇḍalinī sa कुण्डलिनी Sanskrit, literally "coiled" The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the detailed case history of Chuonnasuan, the last master shaman among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China. [53]

Practice

Underlying beliefs of practice

The shaman plays the role of healer in shamanic societies; shamans gain knowledge and power by traversing the axis mundi and bringing back knowledge from the heavens. The axis mundi (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar and center of the world) is a ubiquitous symbol that crosses human cultures Even in western society, this ancient practice of healing is referenced by the use of the caduceus as the symbol of medicine. The caduceus (/kəˈdjuːsiəs/ -ʃəs -ˈduː- κηρύκειον in Greek) or wand of Hermes is typically depicted as a short herald's staff Often the shaman has, or acquires, one or more familiar helping entities in the spirit world; these are often spirits in animal form, spirits of healing plants, or (sometimes) those of departed shamans. In many shamanic societies, magic, magical force, and knowledge are all denoted by one word, such as the Quechua term "yachay". The Odic force (also called Od, Odyle, Önd, Odes, Odylic, Odyllic, or Odems) is the name given in the mid-19th Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. Yachay is the traditional name for the magical Phlegm of the Curandero healers of the Peruvian Amazon Basin.

While the causes of disease are considered to lie in the spiritual realm, being effected by malicious spirits or witchcraft, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Witchcraft, in various historical anthropological religious and mythological contexts is the use of certain kinds of Supernatural or magical powers Commonly, a shaman will "enter the body" of the patient to confront the spirit making the patient sick, and heal the patient by banishing the infectious spirit. Many shamans have expert knowledge of the plant life in their area, and an herbal regimen is often prescribed as treatment. In many places shamans claim to learn directly from the plants, and to be capable of harnessing their effects and healing properties only after obtaining permission from its abiding or patron spirit. In South America, individual spirits are summoned by the singing of songs called icaros; before a spirit can be summoned the spirit must teach the shaman its song. For the character in Greek mythology see Icarus. Icaros are medicine songs used as part of the toolkit of Shamans and Curanderos in the The use of totem items such as rocks is common; these items are believed to have special powers and an animating spirit. A totem is any supposed entity that watches over or assists a group of people such as a family Clan or tribe ( Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary and Webster's Such practices are presumably very ancient; in about 368 BCE, Plato wrote in the Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that everyone who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth". Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Phaedrus (c 15 BC – c AD 50) Roman Fabulist, was probably a Thracian slave born in Pydna of Macedonia (Roman province

The belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujeria in South America, is prevalent in many shamanic societies. For the band see Brujeria (band. Bruja is the Spanish word for witch Some societies distinguish shamans who cure from sorcerers who harm; others believe that all shamans have the power to both cure and kill; that is, shamans are in some societies also thought of as being capable of harm. The shaman usually enjoys great power and prestige in the community, and is renowned for their powers and knowledge; but they may also be suspected of harming others and thus feared.

By engaging in this work, the shaman exposes himself to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from any enemy shamans, as well as from the means employed to alter his state of consciousness. Certain of the plant materials used can be fatal, and the failure to return from an out-of-body journey can lead to physical death. Spells are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is usually very highly ritualized.

Methods

Generally, the shaman traverses the axis mundi and enters the spirit world by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens. The axis mundi (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar and center of the world) is a ubiquitous symbol that crosses human cultures Religious ecstasy is an Altered state of consciousness characterized by greatly reduced external awareness and expanded interior mental and spiritual awareness which is frequently Trance denotes a variety of processes techniques modalities and states of mind awareness and consciousness The term autosuggestion is used for positive or negative physical Symptoms explained by the thoughts and beliefs of a person An entheogen, in the strictest sense is a Psychoactive substance used in a religious or shamanic (or entheogenic) context The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together. Some of the methods for effecting such trances:

Shamans will often observe dietary or customary restrictions particular to their tradition. Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana, or ganja (from Hindi / Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā hemp) is a The San Pedro cactus ( Echinopsis pachanoi, syn Trichocereus pachanoi) is a fast-growing columnar Cactus native to the The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. Lophophora williamsii (loʊˈfɒfərə wɪlˈjæmsiaɪ lō-fof′ŏ-ră will-yăm′sē-ī better known by its common name Peyote, (from the This entry focuses on the Ayahuasca brew for information on the vine of the same name see Banisteriopsis caapi Ayahuasca Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. This entry focuses on the Ayahuasca brew for information on the vine of the same name see Banisteriopsis caapi Ayahuasca Cedar ( Cedrus) is a genus of Coniferous Trees in the Plant family Pinaceae. Datura is a Genus of 12-15 species of vespertine Flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. Atropa belladonna or Atropa bella-donna, commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a perennial Herbaceous Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita is a poisonous and Psychoactive Basidiomycete Fungus, Morning glory is a common name for over 1000 Species of Flowering plants in the family Convolvulaceae, belonging to the following genera Sweet grass ( Anthoxanthum nitens) also known as Sweetgrass Holy grass buffalo grass Vanilla grass Manna grass Seneca grass Mary's grass Common sage ( Salvia officinalis) is a small perennial Evergreen Subshrub, with woody stems grayish leaves and blue to purplish flowers Salvia divinorum, also known as Diviner’s Sage, ska María Pastora, Sage of the Seers, or simply by the genus name Sometimes these restrictions are more than just cultural. For example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices prior to participating in an Ayahuasca ceremony includes foods rich in tryptophan (a biosynthetic precursor to serotonin) as well as avoiding foods rich in tyramine, which could induce hypertensive crisis if ingested with MAOIs such as are found in Ayahuasca brews. This entry focuses on the Ayahuasca brew for information on the vine of the same name see Banisteriopsis caapi Ayahuasca Tryptophan (abbreviated as Trp or W) is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an Essential amino acid in the Human diet Serotonin (ˌsɛrəˈtoʊnən ( 5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a Monoamine Neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic Neurons In organic Chemistry tyramine (4-hydroxy- Phenethylamine, para-tyramine p-tyramine is a Monoamine compound derived from the A hypertensive emergency is severe Hypertension (high blood pressure with acute impairment of an Organ system (especially the Central nervous system Monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs) are a class of powerful antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression.

Music, songs

See also: Imitation of natural sounds related to various shamanistic beliefs or practice

Just like shamanism itself,[54] music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse, far from being alike. Shamanism in various cultures shows great diversity In some cultures the music or songs related to shamanistic beliefs or practice may intentionally mimic natural sounds, sometimes In some cultures and several instances, some songs related to shamanism intend to imitate also natural sounds, sometimes via onomatopoiea. Natural sounds include animal sounds possibly also sounds of other natural phenomena Onomatopoeia (also spelled onomatopœia, from Greek: ονοματοποιΐα is a Word or a grouping of words that imitates the sound it is describing [55]

Of course, in several cultures, imitation of natural sounds may serve other functions, not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals as luring game in the hunt;[56] or entertainment (katajjaqs of Inuit). The imitation of Natural sounds in various cultures is a diverse phenomenon Inuit throat singing or katajjaq, also known (and commonly confused under the generic term Overtone singing, is a form of musical performance uniquely found Inuit (plural the singular Inuk, means "man" or "person" is a general term for a group of culturally similar Indigenous peoples inhabiting [56][57]

Paraphernalia

Goldes shaman priest in his regalia
Goldes shaman priest in his regalia

As mentioned above, cultures termed as shaministic can be very different. Thus, shamans may have various kinds of paraphernalia.

Drum

Shaman's drum
Shaman's drum

Drum is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia; same holds for many Eskimo groups,[58] although its usage for shamanistic seances may be lacking among the Inuit of Canada. The drum is a member of the percussion group technically classified as a Membranophone. [59]

The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey. The drum is a member of the percussion group technically classified as a Membranophone. The drum is for example referred to as, “‘horse’ or ‘rainbow-bridge’ between the physical and spiritual worlds”. The drum is a member of the percussion group technically classified as a Membranophone. [60] The journey mentioned is one in which the shaman establishes a connection with one or two of the spirit worlds. With the beating of the drum come neurophysiological effects. The drum is a member of the percussion group technically classified as a Membranophone. Much fascination surround the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. The drum is a member of the percussion group technically classified as a Membranophone.

There are two different worlds, the upper and the lower. In the upper world, images such as “climbing a mountain, tree, cliff, rainbow, or ladder; ascending into the sky on smoke; flying on an animal, carpet, or broom and meeting a teacher or guide”,[61]are typically seen. The lower world consists of images including, “entering into the earth through a cave, hollow tree stump, a water hole, a tunnel, or a tube”. [62] By being able to interact with a different world at an altered and aware state, the Shaman can then exchange information between the world in which he lives and that in which he has traveled to.

Eagle Feather

These feathers have been seen used as a kind of spiritual scalpel. [2] One example of such use would be Rolling Thunder, an inter-tribal medicine-man/shaman.

Rattle

Found mostly among South American[63] and African peoples. Also used in ceremonies among the Navajo and in traditional ways in their blessings and ceremonies. Navajo (sometimes spelled Navaho) or Diné, (means The People in Navajo) refers or relates to the Navajo people, currently

Gong

Often found through South East Asia, Far Eastern peoples.

Didgeridoo & Clap Stick

Found mainly among the various aboriginal peoples of Australia.

Gender and sexuality

While some cultures have had higher numbers of male shamans, others such as native Korean cultures have had a preference for females. Recent archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest known shamans—dating to the Upper Paleolithic era in what is now the Czech Republic—were women. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe Africa The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, [64]

In some societies, shamans exhibit a two-spirit identity, assuming the dress, attributes, role or function of the opposite sex, gender fluidity and/or same-sex sexual orientation. Two-Spirit (also two spirit or twospirit) people are Native Americans who fulfill one of many mixed Gender roles found traditionally among many This practice is common, and found among the Chukchi, Sea Dyak, Patagonians, Araucanians, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Navajo, Pawnee, Lakota, and Ute, as well as many other Native American tribes. Chukchi, or Chukchee (чукчи ( plural) ru чукча ( singular) are an Indigenous people inhabiting the Chukchi Peninsula Tehuelches is the collective name of the native tribes of Patagonia. The Mapuche are the indigenous inhabitants of Central and Southern Chile and Southern Argentina. The Arapaho (in French: Gens de Vache) tribe of Native Americans historically living on the eastern plains of Colorado and Wyoming Cheyenne are a Native American nation of the Great Plains. The Cheyenne Nation is composed of two united tribes, the Só'taa'e (more commonly The Navajo Nation ( Diné in the Navajo language) is a semi- autonomous Native American homeland covering about 26000 square miles (67339 square The Pawnee (also Paneassa, Pari, Pariki) are a Native American tribe that historically lived along the Platte, Loup and The Lakota (laˈkˣota (also Teton, Tetonwan) are a Native American tribe The Utes (/juːts/ " yoots " are an ethnically related group of American Indians now living primarily in Utah and Colorado. Indeed, these two spirited shamans were so widespread as to suggest a very ancient origin of the practice. See, for example, Joseph Campbell's map in his The Historical Atlas of World Mythology: [Vol I: The Way of the Animal Powers: Part 2: pg 174] Such two-spirit shamans are thought to be especially powerful, and Shamanism so important to ancestral populations that it may have contributed to the maintenance of genes for transgendered individuals in breeding populations over evolutionary time through the mechanism of "kin selection. Joseph John Campbell ( March 26, 1904 – October 30, 1987) was an American Mythology Professor, Writer From the time of antiquity field biologists have observed that some organisms tend to exhibit strategies that favor the reproductive success of their relatives even at a cost to their own survival " [see final chapter of E. O. Wilson's "Sociobiology: The New Synthesis] They are highly respected and sought out in their tribes, as they will bring high status to their mates.

Duality and bisexuality are also found in the shamans of the Dogon people of Mali (Africa). The Dogon are a group of people living in the central plateau region of Mali, south of the Niger bend near the city of Bandiagara in the Mopti Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. References to this can be found in several works of Malidoma Somé, a writer who was born and initiated there. Malidoma Patrice Somé (born 1956) is a West African writer He was born in Dano Burkina Faso, among the Dagara.

Position

In some cultures, the border between the shaman and the lay person is not sharp:

“ Among the Barasana, there is no absolute difference between those men recognized as shamans and those who are not. At the lowest level, most adult men have some abilities as shamans and will carry out some of the same functions as those men who have a widespread reputation for their powers and knowledge. ”

The difference is that the shaman knows more myths and understands their meaning better, but the majority of adult men knows many myths, too. The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" [65]

Similar can be observed among some Eskimo peoples. Eskimos or Esquimaux are Indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia ( Russia) across Many laic people have felt experiences that are usually attributed to the shamans of those Eskimo groups: experiencing daydreaming, reverie, trance is not restricted to shamans. Shamanism among Eskimo peoples refers to those aspects of the various Eskimo cultures that are related to the shamans’ role as a mediator between A daydream is a visionary fantasy experienced while awake especially one of happy pleasant thoughts hopes or ambitions Trance denotes a variety of processes techniques modalities and states of mind awareness and consciousness [66] It is the control over helping spirits that is characteristic mainly to shamans, the laic people use amulets, spells, formulae, songs. An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic [67][68] In Greenland among some Inuit, there are laic people who may have the capability to have closer relationships with beings of the belief system than others. Inuit (plural the singular Inuk, means "man" or "person" is a general term for a group of culturally similar Indigenous peoples inhabiting These people are apprentice shamans who failed to accomplish their learning process. [69]

The assistant of an Oroqen shaman (called jardalanin, i. Not to be confused with the Oroch and Oroks of Russia The Oroqen people ( also spelt Orochen or Orochon e. "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs: he/she accompanies the rituals, interprets the behavior of the shaman. [70] Despite of this, the jardalanin is not a shaman. For his/her interpretative, accompanying role, it would be even unwelcome to fall into trance. [71]

The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies among cultures. In many Eskimo groups, they provide services for the community and get a “due payment” (some cultures believe the payment is given to the helping spirits[72]), but these goods are only “welcome addenda. ” They are not enough to enable shamanizing as a full-time activity. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as hunter or housewife. [72][73]

History

Hypotheses on origins

Shamanistic practices are sometimes claimed to predate all organized religions, dating back to the Paleolithic [74][75], and certainly to the Neolithic period [75]. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos

Historical times

Aspects of shamanism are encountered in later, organized religions, generally in their mystic and symbolic practices. Greek paganism was influenced by shamanism, as reflected in the stories of Tantalus, Prometheus, Medea, and Calypso among others, as well as in the Eleusinian Mysteries, and other mysteries. In Greek mythology Tantalus ( Greek Τάνταλος was a son of Zeus and the Nymph Plouto. In Greek mythology, Prometheus (Προμηθεύς "forethought" is a Titan known for his wily intelligence who stole Fire from Zeus Medea (Μήδεια Mēdeia) in Greek mythology was the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, niece of Circe, granddaughter of Calypso ( Greek: Καλυψώ Kālupsō; English translation: "I will conceal" was a Nymph and a daughter of Atlas The Eleusinian Mysteries (Ἐλευσίνια Μυστήρια were initiation ceremonies held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone Some of the shamanic practices of the Greek religion later merged into the Roman religion.

The shamanic practices of many cultures were marginalized with the spread of monotheism in Europe and the Middle East. For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. In Europe, starting around 400, institutional Christianity was instrumental in the collapse of the Greek and Roman religions. Temples were systematically destroyed and key ceremonies were outlawed or appropriated. The Early Modern witch trials may have further eliminated lingering remnants of European shamanism (if in fact "shamanism" can even be used to accurately describe the beliefs and practices of those cultures). "Witch trial" redirects here For the song by Rush, see Fear series.

The repression of shamanism continued as Catholic influence spread with Spanish colonization. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism In the Caribbean, and Central and South America, Catholic priests followed in the footsteps of the Conquistadors and were instrumental in the destruction of the local traditions, denouncing practitioners as "devil worshippers" and having them executed. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a This article is about the Spanish explorer soldiers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuriesfor other uses see Conquistador (disambiguation A Conquistador In North America, the English Puritans conducted periodic campaigns against individuals perceived as witches. The English people (from the adjective in Englisc) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to England who predominantly speak English A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of Worship and Doctrine, As recently as the nineteen seventies, historic petroglyphs were being defaced by missionaries in the Amazon. Petroglyphs are Images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising pecking carving and abrading A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. A similarly destructive story can be told of the encounter between Buddhists and shamans, e. A number of noted individuals have been Buddhists. Historical Buddhist thinkers and founders of schools Individuals are grouped by nationality except in cases where the g. , in Mongolia (See Caroline Humphrey with Urgunge Onon, 1996). Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East

Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements

A recent photograph: shaman doctor of Kyzyl, 2005. (Details missing). Tuvan shamanhood is tried to be preserved and revitalized: some former authentic shamans began to practice again, and young apprentices are educated in an organized way.
A recent photograph: shaman doctor of Kyzyl, 2005. Kyzyl ( Tuvan and Кызы́л is a city, and is the capital of the Tuva Republic, Russia. (Details missing). Tuvan shamanhood is tried to be preserved and revitalized:[76] some former authentic shamans began to practice again, and young apprentices are educated in an organized way. Tuvans or Tuvinians ( Tuvan: Тывалар Tyvalar) are a group of Mongols or Turkic people. [77]

In many areas, former shamans ceased to fill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,[78] or regarded their own past as a deprecated thing, sometimes even unwilling to talk about it to an ethnographer. [79] Moreover, besides personal communications of former shamans, even some folklore texts narrate directly about a deterioration process: a Buryat epic text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like omnividence[80], fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as bullet; the texts contrast them to the recent heartless, unknowing, greedy shamans. The Buryats or Buriyads, numbering approximately 436000 are the largest ethnic minority group in Siberia and are mainly concentrated in their homeland the [81]

As for reality, in most affected areas, shamanistic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans died and their personal experiences following. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motifs related to the local shamanhood (laics know myths as well, among Barasana, even though less;[65] there are former shaman apprentices unable to complete the learning among some Greenlandic Inuit peoples,[69] moreover, even laics can have trance-like experiences among Eskimos;[66] the assistant of a shaman can be extremely knowledgable among Oroqen[71][70]). Not to be confused with the Oroch and Oroks of Russia The Oroqen people ( also spelt Orochen or Orochon Although the shaman is often believed and trusted exactly because he/she "accommodates" to the "grammar" of the beliefs of the community,[42] but several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman (illness), or root in his/her family life (the interpretation of the symbolics of his/her drum),[82] thus, these are lost with his/her death. Besides of this, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total language shift), the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) became old or died, many folklore memories (songs, texts) went forgotten — this may threaten even such peoples which could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th centrury, like the Nganasan. Language shift, sometimes referred to as language transfer or language replacement or assimilation, is the progressive process whereby a speech community Nganasans are one of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. They are the northernmost of the Samoyedic peoples living on the Taymyr Peninsula in the Arctic [83]

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.

After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, let us mention that there are some revitalization or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,[88] there are also some tradition-preserving[89] and even revitalization efforts,[90] sometimes lead by authentic former shamans (for example among Cherokee[3], Sakha people[91] and Tuvans[77]). The Cherokee (ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯ a-ni-yv-wi-ya, in the Cherokee language) are a people native to North America, who at the time of European contact Yakuts, self-designation Sakha, are a Turkic -speaking people associated with the Sakha (Yakutia Republic. Tuvans or Tuvinians ( Tuvan: Тывалар Tyvalar) are a group of Mongols or Turkic people.

Besides tradition-preserving efforts, there are also neoshamansistic movements, these may differ from many tradtitional shamanistic practice and beliefs in several points. Neoshamanism, or Neo-Shamanism, is a term applied to certain emergent shamanistic philosophies whether they are a revival of older shamanistic beliefs and traditions [92] Admittedly, several traditional beliefs systems indeed have ecological considerations (for example, many Eskimo peoples), and among Tukano people, the shaman indeed has directly resource-protecting roles, see details in section Ecological aspect. The Tucano are a group of indigenous South Americans living in the northwestern Amazon along the Vaupés river and the surrounding area

Today, shamanism survives primarily among indigenous peoples. The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical Shamanic practices continue today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and even in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially true for Africa and South America, where "mestizo shamanism" is widespread. Mestizo is a Spanish term that was coined during the Spanish Empire to refer to people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in Latin

Areal variations

Europe

While shamanism had a strong tradition in Europe before the rise of monotheism, shamanism remains as a traditional, organized religion in Uralic , Altaic people and Huns; and also in Mari-El and Udmurtia, two semi-autonomous provinces of Russia with large Finno-Ugric minority populations. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy Mari El Republic (Респу́блика Мари́й Эл Mari: Марий Эл Республик is a federal subject and republic of Russia Udmurt Republic (Удму́ртская респу́блика Удмурт Республика or Udmurtia (ru Удму́ртия is a federal subject of Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The term Finno-Ugric people is used to describe peoples speaking a Finno-Ugric language. It was widespread in Europe during the Stone Age, and continued to be practiced throughout the Iron Age by the various Teutonic tribes and the Fino-Baltic peoples. [93]

See also Sami shamanism, Finnish mythology , Astuvansalmi rock paintings, Huns , Tengri and the appropriate parts of Shamanism in Siberia. A Noaidi, Noaide or Noaydde was a Shaman of the Sami people in the Nordic countries representing an indigenous nature Religion. Finnish mythology, that of the Finnish people, has many features shared with fellow Finnic Estonian mythology and its non-Finnic neighbours the Balts and Astuvansalmi rock paintings (Astuvansalmen kalliomaalaukset are located in Finland at the shores of the lake Yövesi, which is a part of the large lake Saimaa The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy Tengri is the supreme god of the old Xiongnu, Xianbei, Turkic, Bulgar, Mongolian, Hunnic and Altaic Northern Asia, particularly Siberia is regarded as the locus classicus of Shamanism.

Some peoples, which used to live in Siberia, have wandered to their present locations since then. For example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia. The original location of the Proto-Uralic peoples (and its extent) is debated. Proto-Uralic is the hypothetical language ancestral to the Uralic Language family, which includes Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic. Combined phytogeographical and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central Ural Mountains and on lower and middle parts of Ob River. Phytogeography, also called geobotany is the branch of Biogeography that is concerned with the geographic distribution of Plant Species, or more generally Riphean redirects here For the time period see Riphean stage The Ural Mountains (Ура́льские го́ры Uralskiye Ob River (Обь also Obi, is a major river in West Siberia, Russia, the country's fourth longest [94] The ancestors of Hungarian people or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to the Pannonian Basin. Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. The Pannonian Basin or Carpathian Basin is a large basin in Central Europe. Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but some remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs. [95] See shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore. Comparative methods used in analysing ethnographic data of Hungarian folktales, and some historical sources (e

Tuva is the only region in the world to have shamanism as an official religion. Tyva Republic (Респу́блика Тыва́ Respublika Tyva, rʲɪˈspublʲɪkə tɨˈva Тыва Республика Tyva Respublika) or Tuva

Asia

Siberia

Main article: Shamanism in Siberia

Siberia is regarded as the locus classicus of shamanism. Northern Asia, particularly Siberia is regarded as the locus classicus of Shamanism. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving [96] It is inhabited by many different ethnic groups. Many of its Uralic, Altaic, and Paleosiberian peoples observe shamanistic practices even in modern times. Paleosiberian (Palaeosiberian Paleo-Siberian languages or Paleoasian languages (Palaeo-Asiatic (from Greek palaios, "ancient"is a term of convenience Many classical ethnographic sources of “shamanism” were recorded among Siberian peoples.

Among several Samoyedic peoples shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation until recent times (Nganasans). The term Samoyedic peoples is used to describe peoples speaking a Samoyedic language. Nganasans are one of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. They are the northernmost of the Samoyedic peoples living on the Taymyr Peninsula in the Arctic [97] The last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s. [97][98]

When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949 and the border with Russian Siberia was formally sealed, many nomadic Tungus groups that practiced shamanism were confined in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. These include the Ewenki and the Oroqen. Not to be confused with the Oroch and Oroks of Russia The Oroqen people ( also spelt Orochen or Orochon The last shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), died in October 2000.

In many other cases, shamanism was in decline even at the beginning of 20th century (Selkups). The Selkup (сельку́пы until 1930s called Ostyak - Samoyeds (остя́ко-самое́ды are a people in Siberia, Russia. [99]

Korea

Main article: Korean shamanism

Shamanism is still practiced in South Korea, where the role of a shaman is most frequently taken by women known as mudangs, while male shamans (rare)are called baksoo mudangs. Korean shamanism encompasses a variety of indigenous beliefs and practices that have been influenced by Buddhism and Taoism. South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː Korean shamans are considered to be from a low class.

A person can become a shaman through hereditary title or through natural ability. Shamans are consulted in contemporary society for financial and marital decisions.

The Korean shamans' use of the Amanita Muscaria . Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita is a poisonous and Psychoactive Basidiomycete Fungus, . in traditional practice is thought to have been suppressed as early as the Choseon dynasty. Another mushroom of the Russula genus was renamed as the Shaman's mushroom, "Mu-dang-beo-seot무당버섯". Around 750 worldwide species of mycorrhizal mushrooms compose the genus Russula. Korean shamans are also reputed to use spiders over the subject's skin. Colorful robes, dancing, drums and ritual weapons are also features.

Other Asian areas

There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Bön religion of some Central Asians, and in Tibetan Buddhism. Bön ( is the oldest spiritual tradition of Tibet. Tenzin Gyatso, the fourteenth Dalai Lama, has recognized the Bön tradition as the fifth principal spiritual Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Tibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet and certain regions of the Himalayas, including Buddhism became popular with shamanic peoples such as the Tibetans, Mongols, and Manchu beginning in the eighth century. The Tibetan people are indigenous to Tibet and surrounding areas stretching from Central Asia in the North and West to Myanmar and China Proper The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in Forms of shamanistic ritual combined with Tibetan Buddhism became institutionalized as the state religion under the Mongolian Yuan dynasty and the Manchurian Qing dynasty. Tibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet and certain regions of the Himalayas, including The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China However, in the shamanic cultures still practiced by various ethnic groups in areas such as Nepal and northern India, shamans are not necessarily considered enlightened, and often are even feared for their ability to use their power to carry out malicious intent. Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

In Tibet, the Nyingma schools in particular, had a Tantric tradition that had married "priests" known as Ngakpas or Ngakmas/mos (fem. ). The Ngakpas were often employed or commissioned to rid the villages of demons or disease, creations of protective amulets, the carrying out of religious rites etc. The Ngakpas should however, been grounded in Buddhist philosophy and not simply another form of shaman, but sadly, this was most often not the case. There have always been, however, highly realised and accomplished ngakpas. They were in their own right great lamas who were of equal status as lamas with monastic backgrounds. The monasteries, as in many conventional religious institutions, wished to preserve their own traditions, sometimes at the expense of others. The monasteries depended upon the excesses of patrons for support. This situation often led to a clash between the more grassroots and shamanic character of the travelling Chödpa and Ngakpa culture and the more conservative religious monastic system. Chöd (Sanskrit ccheda-sadhana, Tibetan gChod sgrub thabs) is a Tantric ritual practice primarily found in Tibetan Buddhism. In Tibetan Buddhism and Bön, Ngagpas (sNgags-pa or male practitioners (female practioners are knowns as Ngagmas or Ngagmos) are non-monastic [100]

Shamanism is still widely practiced in the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa), where shamans are known as 'Nuru' (all women) and 'Yuta'. The Ryukyu Islands, in Japanese called the (literally Southwest Islands are a chain of Japanese islands in the western Pacific Ocean at the eastern limit is one of Japan 's southern prefectures, and consists of hundreds of the Ryukyu Islands in a chain over 1000 km long which extends southwest from Kyūshū 'Nuru' generally administrates public or communal ceremonies while 'Yuta' focuses on the civil or private matters. Shamanism is also practiced in a few rural areas in Japan proper. It is commonly believed that the Shinto religion is the result of the transformation of a shamanistic tradition into a religion. is the native religion of Japan and was once its State religion.

Shamanistic practices also seem to have been preserved in the Catholic religious traditions of aborigenes in Taiwan[101]

In Vietnam, shamans conduct rituals in many of the religious traditions that co-mingle in the majority and minority populations. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially In their rituals, music, dance, special garments and offerings are part of the performance that surround the spirit journey. [102]

Eskimo cultures

Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, Nushagak, Alaska, 1890s. Nushagak, located on Nushagak Bay of the Bering Sea in southwest Alaska, is part of the territory of the Yup'ik, speakers of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language
Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, Nushagak, Alaska, 1890s. Nushagak was a trade center and settlement near the present-day site of Dillingham, Alaska at the northern end of Nushagak Bay in northern Bristol Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent [103] Nushagak, located on Nushagak Bay of the Bering Sea in southwest Alaska, is part of the territory of the Yup'ik, speakers of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik language
Main article: Shamanism among Eskimo peoples

Eskimo groups comprise a huge area stretching from Eastern Siberia through Alaska and Northern Canada (including Labrador Peninsula) to Greenland. Nushagak Bay is one of the largest estuaries of the US state of Alaska 's Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the eastern Bering Sea north Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent The Yup'ik people (also Central Alaskan Yup'ik, plural Yupiit) are an Eskimo people of western and southwestern Alaska ranging from southern Central Alaskan Yup'ik (also called Yupik, Yup'ik, or Central Yup'ik) is a Yupik language of the Eskimo-Aleut language group Shamanism among Eskimo peoples refers to those aspects of the various Eskimo cultures that are related to the shamans’ role as a mediator between Eskimos or Esquimaux are Indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia ( Russia) across Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent Northern Canada is the vast Northernmost Region of Canada variously defined by Geography and Politics. Labrador Peninsula is a large peninsula in eastern Canada. It is bounded by the Hudson Bay to the west the Hudson Strait to the north the Labrador Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat meaning "Land of the Greenlanders" Grønland is a self-governing Danish Province located between the Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders. [104][66][34]

As for terminology used in the article: the term Eskimo has fallen out of favour in Canada and Greenland, where it is considered pejorative and the term Inuit has become more common. Words and phrases are pejorative if they imply disapproval or contempt However, Eskimo is still considered acceptable among Alaska Natives of Yupik and Inupiaq (Inuit) heritage, and is preferred over Inuit as a collective reference. Alaska Natives are Indigenous peoples of the Americas native to the state of Alaska within the United States. To date, no replacement term for Eskimo inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people has achieved acceptance across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples. The Inuit and Yupik languages together constitute one branch within the Eskimo-Aleut language family alongside the Aleut branch. The Inuit language is traditionally spoken across the North American Arctic and to some extent in the Subarctic in Labrador. The Yupik languages are the several distinct languages of the several Yupik (Юпик peoples of western and southcentral Alaska and northeastern Siberia Eskimo-Aleut is a Language family native to Greenland, the Canadian Arctic, Alaska, and parts of Siberia. Aleut ( Unangam Tunuu) is a language of the Eskimo-Aleut Language family. (The Sireniki Eskimo language is sometimes proposed to form a third branch of the Eskimo,[105][106][107] but sometimes it is regarded as belonging to the Yupik languages. Sirenik or Sirenikskiy (also Old Sirenik or Vuteen) is an extinct Eskimo-Aleut language. [108]) The languages of the Eskimo branch have certain common characteristics (compared to Aleut) which justifies "splitting off" the Eskimo branch inside the Eskimo-Aleut family. Aleut ( Unangam Tunuu) is a language of the Eskimo-Aleut Language family.

Shamanistic features

When speaking of “shamanism” in various Eskimo groups, we must remember that (as mentioned above) the term “shamanism” can cover certain characteristics of various different cultures. [109] Mediation is regarded often as an important aspect of shamanism in general. [110] Also in most Eskimo groups, the role of mediator is known well:[111] the person filling it in is actually believed to be able to contact the beings who populate the belief system. Term “shaman” is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos. [104][112][113][114] Also the /aˈliɣnalʁi/ of the Asian Eskimos is translated as “shaman” in the Russian[115] and English[111] literature.

The belief system assumes specific links between the living people, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people. [116] The soul concepts of several groups are specific examples of soul dualism (showing variability in details in the various cultures). The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Soul dualism or a dualistic soul concept is a range of beliefs that a person has two (or more kinds of Souls In many cases the one of the souls

Like most cultures labelled as “shamanistic”, the Eskimo groups have several special features, or at least ones that are not present in all shamanistic cultures. Unlike in many Siberian cultures, the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivation of force: becoming a shaman is usually a result of deliberate consideration, not a necessity forced by the spirits. [117]

Diversity, with some similarities

Another possible concern: do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features at all, that would justify any mentioning them together? There was no political structure above the groups, their languages were relative, but differed more or less, often forming language continuums (online[107]). A dialect continuum is a range of Dialects spoken across a large geographical area differing only slightly between areas that are geographically close and gradually decreasing

There are some similarities in the cultures of the Eskimo groups[118][119][120][121][122] together with diversity, far from homogeneity. [123]

The Russian linguist Меновщиков, an expert of Siberian Yupik and Sireniki Eskimo languages (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology[124]) mentions, that the shamanistic seances of those Siberian Yupik and Sireniki groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by Fridtjof Nansen,[125] although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. Siberian Yupik (also known as Central Siberian Yupik, Bering Strait Yupik, Yuit, Yoit, or Yuk) is the language of the Siberian Sirenik or Sirenikskiy (also Old Sirenik or Vuteen) is an extinct Eskimo-Aleut language. Siberian Yupiks, or Yuits are indigenous people who reside along the coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in the far northeast of the Russian Federation and Sireniki Eskimos are former speakers of a very peculiar Eskimo language in Siberia, before they underwent a Language shift rendering it Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen (October 10 1861 – May 13 1930 was a Norwegian Explorer, Scientist and Diplomat. There may be certain similarities also in Asiatic groups with some North American ones. [126] Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups, used mostly for talking to spirits. [127][128] Also the Ungazigmit (belonging to Siberian Yupiks) had a special allegoric usage of some expressions. Siberian Yupiks, or Yuits are indigenous people who reside along the coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in the far northeast of the Russian Federation and An allegory (from αλλος allos "other" and el αγορευειν agoreuein "to speak in public" is a figurative mode of representation [129]

The local cultures showed great diversity. The myths concerning the role of shaman had several variants, and also the name of their protagonists varied from culture to culture. For example, a mythological figure, usually referred to in the literature by the collective term Sea Woman, has factually many local names: Nerrivik “meat dish” among Polar Inuit, Nuliayuk “lubricous” among Netsilingmiut, Sedna “the nether one” among Baffin Land Inuit. In Inuit mythology, Sedna ( Inuktitut Sanna, ᓴᓐᓇ is a Deity and god of the marine animals especially mammals such as seals The Netsilik Inuit (Netsilingmiut live predominately in the communities of Kugaaruk and Gjoa Haven of the Kitikmeot Region, Nunavut and to a [130] Also the soul conceptions, e. g. the details of the soul dualism showed great variability, ranging from guardianship to a kind of reincarnation. Soul dualism or a dualistic soul concept is a range of beliefs that a person has two (or more kinds of Souls In many cases the one of the souls Conceptions of spirits or other beings had also many variants (see e. g. the tupilaq concept). In Greenlandic Inuit ( Kalaallit) Folklore, a tupilaq ( tupilak or ᑐᐱᓚᒃ) was an avenging monster fabricated [131]

Africa

See also African traditional religion. See also Religion in Africa African traditional religions, also referred to as African indigenous religions or African

In the early 19th century traditional healers in parts of Africa were often referred to in a derogatory manner as "witch doctors" practising Juju by early European settlers and explorers. A witch doctor often refers to Healers in Third world regions who use traditional healing rather than Science or developed Medicine. Juju is a word of West African origin that refers to the supernatural power ascribed to an object The San or Bushmen ancestors who were primarily scattered in Southern Africa before the 19th century, are reported to have practiced a practice similar to shamanism. In areas in Eastern Free State and Lesotho, where they co-existed with the early Sotho tribes, local folklore describes them to have lived in caves where they drew pictures on cave walls during a trance and were also reputed to be good rain makers.

Americas

Native American "conjuror" in a 1590 engraving
Native American "conjuror" in a 1590 engraving

Native American and First Nations cultures have diverse religious beliefs. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. First Nations is a term of Ethnicity that refers to the Aboriginal peoples in Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis people There was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Though many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, mystics, lore-keepers and "Medicine People", none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders.

Many of these indigenous religions have been grossly misrepresented by outside observers and anthropologists, even to the extent of superficial or seriously mistaken anthropological accounts being taken as more authentic than the accounts of actual members of the cultures and religions in question. Often these accounts suffer from "Noble Savage"-type romanticism and racism. In the eighteenth-century cult of " Primitivism " the noble savage, uncorrupted by the influences of civilization was considered more worthy more authentically noble List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Some contribute to the fallacy that Native American cultures and religions are something that only existed in the past, and which can be mined for data despite the opinions of Native communities.

Not all Indigenous communities have roles for specific individuals who mediate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Among those that do have this sort of religious structure, spiritual methods and beliefs may have some commonalities, though many of these commonalities are due to some nations being closely-related, from the same region, or through post-Colonial governmental policies leading to the combining of formerly-independent nations on reservations. This can sometimes lead to the impression that there is more unity among belief systems than there was in antiquity.

Navajo medicine men, known as "Hatałii", use several methods to diagnose the patient's ailments. The Navajo or Diné people (also spelled Navaho) of the Southwestern United States The Navajo or Diné people (also spelled Navaho) of the Southwestern United States These may include using special tools such as crystal rocks, and abilities such as hand-trembling and trances, sometimes accompanied by chanting. The Hatałii will select a specific healing chant for that type of ailment. Navajo healers must be able to correctly perform a healing ceremony from beginning to end. If they don't, the ceremony will not work. Training a Hatałii to perform ceremonies is extensive, arduous, and takes many years, and is not unlike priesthood. The apprentice learns everything by watching his teacher, and memorizes the words to all the chants. Many times, a medicine man cannot learn all sixty of the traditional ceremonies, so he will opt to specialize in a select few.

Santo Daime is a syncretic religion with elements of shamanism. Santo Daime is a syncretic spiritual practice which was founded in the Brazilian Amazonian state of Acre in the 1930s and became a

Maya shamanism

Maya priest performing a healing ritual at Tikal.
Maya priest performing a healing ritual at Tikal. Tikal (or Tik’al, according to the more current orthography is the largest of the ancient ruined cities of the Mayan civilization.
Main article: Maya shamanism
Further information: Mayan astrology
Further information: Maya religion

The Maya people of Guatemala, Belize, and Southern Mexico practice a highly sophisticated form of shamanism based upon astrology and a form of divination known as "the blood speaking", in which the shaman is guided in divination and healing by pulses in the veins of his arms and legs. Maya calendrical divination is a subset of traditional beliefs rituals and divinatory practices that are held or performed among various Maya communities in Nowadays the Maya religion of Chiapas and Yucatan (Mexico Guatemala Belize and western Honduras is full of tensions between the traditional ancestral religion the 're-invention

Inuit and Eskimo

Main article: Shamanism among Eskimo peoples

Amazonia

Shaman from an equatorial Amazonian forest. June 2006
Shaman from an equatorial Amazonian forest. Shamanism among Eskimo peoples refers to those aspects of the various Eskimo cultures that are related to the shamans’ role as a mediator between June 2006
Urarina shaman, 1988
Urarina shaman, 1988

In the Peruvian Amazon Basin and north coastal regions of the country, the healer shamans are known as curanderos. The Urarina are an Indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazon Basin ( Loreto) who inhabit the Chambira, Urituyacu and Corrientes Rivers A curandero (or curandera for a female is a traditional Folk healer or Shaman in Hispanic America, who is dedicated to curing physical and/or In addition to Peruvian shaman’s (curanderos) use of rattles, and their ritualized ingestion of mescaline-bearing San Pedro cactuses (Trichocereus pachanoi) for the divinization and diagnosis of sorcery, north-coastal shamans are famous throughout the region for their intricately complex and symbolically dense healing altars called mesas (tables). Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. RATTLE is an award-winning poetry magazine based in Los Angeles, California Mescaline or 345-trimethoxyphenethylamine is a naturally-occurring Psychedelic Alkaloid of the Phenethylamine class The San Pedro cactus ( Echinopsis pachanoi, syn Trichocereus pachanoi) is a fast-growing columnar Cactus native to the An altar is any structure upon which Sacrifices or other offerings are made for religious purposes or some other sacred place where ceremonies take place Sharon (1993) has argued that the mesas symbolize the dualistic ideology underpinning the practice and experience of north-coastal shamanism. [132] For Sharon, the mesas are the, "physical embodiment of the supernatural opposition between benevolent and malevolent energies” (Dean 1998:61). [133]

In the Amazon Rainforest, at several Indian groups the shaman acts also as a manager of scare ecological resources (paper;[23][25] online[51]). The Amazon Rainforest (Brazilian Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica or Amazonía The rich symbolism behind Tukano shamanism has been documented in some in-depth field works[23][134][135] even in the last decades of the 20th century. The Tucano are a group of indigenous South Americans living in the northwestern Amazon along the Vaupés river and the surrounding area This article is about the scientific method For the military term see Field fortifications under Fortification.

The yaskomo of the Waiwai is believed to be able to perform a soul flight. The Wai-wai (or Waiwai are an ethnic group of Guyana and northern Brazil. Soul Travel is the belief that when one Sleeps their Soul leaves its body and seeks spiritual lessons in the Soul Planes or Heaven as Christians The soul flight can serve several functions:

Thus, a yaskomo is believed to be able to reach sky, erth, water, in short, every element. [136]

Among literature on South American tropical forest shamanism are :-

Mapuche

Among the Mapuche people of South America, the community "shaman", usually a woman, is known as the Machi, and serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism. The Mapuche are the indigenous inhabitants of Central and Southern Chile and Southern Argentina. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a A machi is a Shaman or (usually a good Witch in the Mapuche culture of South America; and is also an important character and the Mapuche

Fuegians

Although Fuegians (the indigenous peoples of Tierra del Fuego) were all hunter-gatherers,[137] they did not share a common culture. Fuegians are the indigenous inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, at the southern tip of South America. Tierra del Fuego ( Spanish for " Land of Fire " in English tiˈɛərə dɛl ˈfweɪgoʊ] Spanish ˈtjerað̞elˈfweɰo is an Archipelago A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented. [138][139]

Both Selk'nam and Yámana had persons filling in shaman-like roles. The Selk'nam, also known as the Ona, lived in the Patagonian region of in southern Chile and Argentina including the Tierra del Fuego The Yaghan, also called Yagán, Yahgan (the original spelling Yámana or Yamana, are the indigenous inhabitants of the islands south of The Selk'nams believed their /xon/s to have supernatural capabilities, e. g. to control weather. [140][141] The figure of /xon/ appeared in myths, too. [142] The Yámana /jekamuʃ/[143] corresponds to the Selknam /xon/. [144]

Oceania

In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their "shamans" as "clever men" and "clever women" also as kadji. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. These Aboriginal shamans use maban or mabain, the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Maban or Mabain is a material that is held to be magical in Australian Aboriginal mythology. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "hex" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men".

Criticism of the term “shaman” or “shamanism”

Certain anthropologists, most notably Alice Kehoe in her book Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking, are highly critical of the term. Alice Beck Kehoe (b 1934 in New York City) is an Anthropologist. Part of this criticism involves the notion of cultural appropriation. Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by a different cultural group This includes criticism of New Age and modern Western forms of Shamanism, which may not only misrepresent or 'dilute' genuine indigenous practices but do so in a way that, according to Kehoe, reinforces racist ideas such as the Noble Savage. New Age ( New Age Movement and New Age Spirituality) is a Social Collective Phenomenon and a Spiritual Nature In the eighteenth-century cult of " Primitivism " the noble savage, uncorrupted by the influences of civilization was considered more worthy more authentically noble

Kehoe is highly critical of Mircea Eliade's work. Mircea Eliade ( – April 22, 1986) was a Romanian historian of religion fiction writer philosopher and professor at the University of Chicago Eliade, being a philosopher and historian of religions rather than an anthropologist, had never done any field work or made any direct contact with 'shamans' or cultures practicing 'shamanism', though he did spend four years studying at the University of Calcutta in India where he received his doctorate based on his Yoga thesis and was acquainted with Mahatma Gandhi. According to Kehoe, Eliade's 'shamanism' is an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, what some scholars of shamanism treat as being definitive of shamanism, most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogenics, spirit communication and healing, are practices that

Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the notion that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the Paleolithic period. The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone"

Mihály Hoppál also discusses whether the term “shamanism” is appropriate. He recommends using the term “shamanhood”[145] or “shamanship”[146] for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. This is a term used in old Russian and German ethnographic reports at the beginning of the 20th century. He believes that this term is less general and places more stress on the local variations,[54] and it emphasizes also that shamanism is not a religion of sacred dogmas, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way. [147] Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift. [145] Also Piers Vitebsky mentions, that despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. Piers Vitebsky is an Anthropologist and is the Head of Social Science at the Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, England The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible). [148]

See books and small online materials on this topic. [149]

Shamanism and New Age movement

Main article: Neoshamanism

The New Age movement has appropriated some ideas from shamanism as well as beliefs and practices from Eastern religions and Native American cultures. Neoshamanism, or Neo-Shamanism, is a term applied to certain emergent shamanistic philosophies whether they are a revival of older shamanistic beliefs and traditions New Age ( New Age Movement and New Age Spirituality) is a Social Collective Phenomenon and a Spiritual Nature Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by a different cultural group For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. As with other such appropriations, the original practitioners of these traditions frequently condemn New Age use as misunderstood, sensationalized, or superficially understood and/or applied. [4] Some Nanai shamans experienced performances on the stage as dangerous: inappropriate (untimely, superfluous) invocation of the helping spirits can raise their anger. The Nanai people (self name нани tr "nani" Russian: нанайцы tr An invocation (from the Latin verb invocare "to call on invoke" may take the form of Supplication or Prayer [150]

There is an endeavor in some occult and esoteric circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, drawing from core shamanism - a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by the controversial Michael Harner - often revolving around the use of ritual drumming and dance, and Harner's interpretations of various indigenous religions. The word occult comes from the Latin word occultus (clandestine hidden secret referring to "knowledge of the hidden" Core Shamanism is a system of Shamanic beliefs and practices from all over the world Michael Harner (born April 27 1929 is the founder of the Foundation for Shamanic Studies the formulator of " Core shamanism," and one of the primary proponents of Harner has faced much criticism for implying that pieces of diverse religions can be taken out of context to form some sort of "universal" shamanic tradition. Some of these neoshamans also focus on the ritual use of entheogens, as well as chaos magic. An entheogen, in the strictest sense is a Psychoactive substance used in a religious or shamanic (or entheogenic) context Chaos magic is a form of magic which was first formulated in West Yorkshire, England, in the 1970s Allegedly, European-based Neoshamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where they believe many mystical practices and belief systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such "neoshamanism" as 'giving extra pay' (Harvey, 1997 and elsewhere) to indigenous American traditions, particularly as many Pagan- or Heathen-'shamanic practitioners' of legitimate cultural traditions do not call themselves shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the older European traditions - the völva or seidkona (seid-woman) of the sagas being an example (see Blain 2002, Wallis 2003). A Völva (also Vala, Spákona) is a priestess in Norse paganism, and a recurring motif in Norse mythology. Seid or seiðr is an Old Norse term for a type of Sorcery or Witchcraft which was practiced by the pre-Christian Norse. Shamanism has also been used in New Age therapies which use enactment and association with other realities as an intervention [5][6]

(see also Plastic shaman)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The History of Religions (1918), E. The phrase plastic shaman is a Pejorative Colloquialism used for individuals who try to pass themselves off as Shamans or other traditional spiritual Astral spirits are Spirits believed to animate or to people the heavenly bodies to whom worship was paid and to hover unembodied through space exercising Demonic influence Animism (from Latin anima ( Soul, Life) commonly refers to a religious belief that Souls or Spirits exist in Animals This entry focuses on the Ayahuasca brew for information on the vine of the same name see Banisteriopsis caapi Ayahuasca Core Shamanism is a system of Shamanic beliefs and practices from all over the world An entheogen, in the strictest sense is a Psychoactive substance used in a religious or shamanic (or entheogenic) context Inuit (plural the singular Inuk, means "man" or "person" is a general term for a group of culturally similar Indigenous peoples inhabiting Mana is the concept of an impersonal force or quality that resides in people animals and inanimate objects A machi is a Shaman or (usually a good Witch in the Mapuche culture of South America; and is also an important character and the Mapuche Neoshamanism, or Neo-Shamanism, is a term applied to certain emergent shamanistic philosophies whether they are a revival of older shamanistic beliefs and traditions Neuroanthropology is the study of culture and the brain This field explores how new findings in the brain sciences help us understand the interactive effects of culture and biology on Neurotheology New Age ( New Age Movement and New Age Spirituality) is a Social Collective Phenomenon and a Spiritual Nature An ovoo (овоо heap) is a type of shamanistic Cairn found in Mongolia, usually made from rocks or from wood Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world Lophophora williamsii (loʊˈfɒfərə wɪlˈjæmsiaɪ lō-fof′ŏ-ră will-yăm′sē-ī better known by its common name Peyote, (from the The phrase plastic shaman is a Pejorative Colloquialism used for individuals who try to pass themselves off as Shamans or other traditional spiritual Power animal, is a broadly Animistic and Shamanic concept that has entered the English language from Anthropology, Ethnography and Prehistoric medicine is a term used to describe the use of Medicine before the invention of writing Many religious belief systems have a particular spirit, Angel, or Deity whose responsibility is to escort newly-deceased souls to the Afterlife Sacred Hoop Magazine is a quarterly Magazine on the subject of Shamanism and animistic spirituality Shaman's Drum Journal, a Periodical devoted to experiential Shamanism, is edited by Timothy White and published by the Cross-Cultural Shamanism Network (a nonprofit is the native religion of Japan and was once its State religion. A Soulcatcher ("Haboolm Ksinaalgat" 'keeper of breath' is an Amulet ("Aatxasxw" used by the Medicine man (Halayt of the Tsimshian In the study of Comparative religion, the East Asian religions (also known as Far Eastern religions, Chinese religions, or Taoic religions) form Technoshamanism is a term used to describe various methods of integrating modern technology into shamanic practice (see Shamanism) A thoughtform is a manifestation of mental energy also known as a ' Tulpa ' in Tibetan Mysticism. Yatiri are medical practitioners and community healers among the Aymara of Bolivia, Chile and Peru, who use in their practice both symbols Washburn Hopkins
  2. ^ Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1996). The Manchus. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 1557865604.  
  3. ^ a b Hoppál 2005:15
  4. ^ Diószegi 1962:13
  5. ^ Noll & Shi 2004: 1
  6. ^ Voigt 2000:41–45
  7. ^ Hoppál 2005: 25
  8. ^ a b Sem, Tatyana. Shamanic Healing Rituals. Russian Museum of Ethnography.
  9. ^ Hoppál 2005: 27–28
  10. ^ Hoppál 2005: 28–33
  11. ^ a b Hoppál 2005: 37
  12. ^ Hoppál 2005: 34–35
  13. ^ a b Hoppál 2005: 36
  14. ^ Hoppál 2005: 25
  15. ^ Hoppál 2005: 45
  16. ^ Boglár 2001: 24
  17. ^ Hoppál 2005: 94
  18. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 46
  19. ^ Hoppál 2005: 149
  20. ^ Hoppál 2005:36164
  21. ^ Hoppál 2005:87–95
  22. ^ Czaplicka 1914
  23. ^ a b c d Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997
  24. ^ Vitebsky 1996:107
  25. ^ a b Boglár 2001:26
  26. ^ Merkur 1985: 5
  27. ^ Vitebsky 1996:108
  28. ^ Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28
  29. ^ Merkur 1985: 4
  30. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 11, 12–14, 107
  31. ^ Hoppál 2005:27, 30, 36
  32. ^ Hoppál 2005: 27
  33. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21
  34. ^ a b Gabus, Jean: A karibu eszkimók. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1970. (Hungarian translation of the original: Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous, Libraire Payot Lausanne, 1944. ) It describes the life of Caribou Eskimo groups.
  35. ^ Hoppál 2007: 18
  36. ^ Hoppál 2005: 99
  37. ^ Hoppál 2005:14
  38. ^ Diószegi 1962:13
  39. ^ Hoppál 2005:15
  40. ^ Hoppál 2005:14
  41. ^ Boglár 2001:24
  42. ^ a b c Hoppál 2005:25–26,43
  43. ^ Hoppál 2004:14
  44. ^ Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197
  45. ^ Hoppál 2006a: 11
  46. ^ Hoppál 2006b: 175
  47. ^ Hoppál 2005:15
  48. ^ a b Hoppál, Mihály: Nature worship in Siberian shamanism
  49. ^ page 14 in: Dana, Kathleen Osgood. Áillohaš and his image drum: the native poet as shaman (pdf).
  50. ^ Merkur 1985:v
  51. ^ a b Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff: A View from the Headwaters. Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff ( March 6, 1912 — May 16, 1994) was an anthropologist, known for his holistic approach and his in-depth The Ecologist, Vol. 29 No. 4, July 1999.
  52. ^ Shamanic Worlds: Rituals and Lore of Siberia and Central Asia
  53. ^ Noll & Shi 2004
  54. ^ a b Hoppál 2005: 15
  55. ^ Hoppál 2006c: 143
  56. ^ a b Nattiez: 5
  57. ^ Deschênes 2002
  58. ^ Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51
  59. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25
  60. ^ Maxfield, Melinda. "The journey of the drum. " ReVision 16. 4 (1994): 157.
  61. ^ Maxfield, Melinda. "The journey of the drum. " ReVision 16. 4 (1994): 157.
  62. ^ Maxfield, Melinda. "The journey of the drum. " ReVision 16. 4 (1994): 157.
  63. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 49
  64. ^ Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam.
  65. ^ a b Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980: 32
  66. ^ a b c Merkur 1985
  67. ^ Merkur 1985
  68. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 8–10
  69. ^ a b Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24
  70. ^ a b Noll & Shi 2004: 10, footnote 10
  71. ^ a b Noll & Shi 2004: 8–9
  72. ^ a b Merkur 1985: 3
  73. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24
  74. ^ Jean Clottes. Shamanism in Prehistory. Bradshaw foundation. Retrieved on 2008-03-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty
  75. ^ a b Karl J. Narr. Prehistoric religion. Britannica online encyclopedia 2008. Retrieved on 2008-03-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate.
  76. ^ Hoppál 2005: 117
  77. ^ a b Hoppál 2005: 259
  78. ^ Boglár 2001: 19–20
  79. ^ Diószegi 1960: 37–39
  80. ^ Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled Flatland
  81. ^ Diószegi 1960: 88–89
  82. ^ Hoppál 2005: 224
  83. ^ Nagy 1998: 232
  84. ^ Merkur 1985:132
  85. ^ Merkur 1985:134
  86. ^ Hoppál 2005: 92
  87. ^ Hoppál 1994: 62
  88. ^ Hoppál 2005: 88
  89. ^ Hoppál 2005: 93
  90. ^ Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–119, 128, 132, 133–134, 252-263
  91. ^ Hoppál 2005: 257–258
  92. ^ Vitebsky 1996: 150–153
  93. ^ A. For other uses see Flatland (disambiguation Flatland A Romance of Many Dimensions is an 1884 Science fiction Asbjorn Jon, Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn
  94. ^ Hajdú 1975:35
  95. ^ Diószegi 1998
  96. ^ Hoppál 2005:13
  97. ^ a b Hoppál 2005:92–93
  98. ^ Hoppál 1994:62
  99. ^ Hoppál 2005:94
  100. ^ Economy of Excess. George Bataille.
  101. ^ O. Lardenois, Shamanism and Catholic Indigenous Communites in Taiwan
  102. ^ Journeys to Other Worlds: The Rites of Shamans. American Museum of Natural History. The American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH) located on the Upper West Side, Manhattan, New York, USA is one of the largest and most
  103. ^ Fienup-Riordan, Ann. 1994:206
  104. ^ a b Kleivan & Sonne 1985
  105. ^ Linguist List's description about Nikolai Vakhtin's book: The Old Sirinek Language: Texts, Lexicon, Grammatical Notes. The author's untransliterated (original) name is “Н.Б. Вахтин”.
  106. ^ Representing genealogical relations of (among others) Eskimo-Aleut languages by tree: Alaska Native Languages (found on the site of Alaska Native Language Center)
  107. ^ Ethnologue Report for Eskimo-Aleut
  108. ^ Hoppál 2005:15
  109. ^ Hoppál 2005:45–50
  110. ^ a b Menovščikov 1996:442
  111. ^ Merkur 1985
  112. ^ Vitebsky 1996
  113. ^ Freuchen 1961: 32
  114. ^ Рубцова 1954: 203, 209
  115. ^ Both death of a person and successfully hunted game require that cutting, sewing etc. be tabooed, so that the invisible soul does not get hurt accidentally (Kleivan&Sonne, pp. 18–21). In Greenland, the transgression of death tabu could turn the soul of the dead into a tupilak, a restless ghost which scared game away (Kleivan&Sonne 1985, p. 23). Animals fleed from hunter in case of taboo breaches, e. g. birth taboo, death taboo (Kleivan&Sonne, pp. 12–13)
  116. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24
  117. ^ Kleivan 1985:8
  118. ^ Rasmussen 1965:366 (ch. XXIII)
  119. ^ Rasmussen 1965:166 (ch. XIII)
  120. ^ Rasmussen 1965:110 (ch. VIII)
  121. ^ Mauss 1979
  122. ^ Kleivan 1985:26
  123. ^ Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:433
  124. ^ Menovščikov 1996 [1968]:442
  125. ^ Vitebsky 1996:42 (ch. North America)
  126. ^ Merkur 1985:7
  127. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985:14
  128. ^ Rubcova 1954:128
  129. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 27
  130. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 30–31
  131. ^ Joralemen, D and D Sharon 1993 Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
  132. ^ Dean, Bartholomew 1998 “Review of Sorcery and Shamanism: Curanderos and Clients in Northern Peru” American Ethnologist. 25(1): 61-62.
  133. ^ Christine Hugh-Jones 1980
  134. ^ Stephen Hugh-Jones 1980
  135. ^ Fock 1963: 16
  136. ^ Gusinde 1966, pp. 6–7
  137. ^ Service, Elman: The Hunter. Prentice-Hall, 1966.
  138. ^ Extinct Ancient Societies Tierra del Fuegians
  139. ^ Gusinde 1966:175
  140. ^ About the Ona Indian Culture in Tierra del Fuego
  141. ^ Gusinde 1966:15
  142. ^ Gusinde 1966:156
  143. ^ Gusinde 1966:186
  144. ^ a b ISSR, 2001 Summer, abstract online in 2nd half of 2nd paragraph)
  145. ^ Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14
  146. ^ Hoppál 1998:40
  147. ^ Vitebsky 1996:11
  148. ^ Books relating to “shamanhood”, some of them with online abstract:
    • (Online abstract) Pentikäinen, Juha. Shamanhood symbolism and epic. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, 2001. ISBN 963-05-7811-5.
    • Pentikäinen, Juha and Simoncsics, Péter (eds): Shamanhood. An endangered language. The Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture, 2005. (Series B, 117). ISBN 82-7099-391-3.
    See also similar online abstracts.
  149. ^ Shaman on the Stage (Shamanism and Northern Identity) by Tatyana Bulgakova

References

Latin

Cyrillic

Further reading

External links

Dictionary

shamanism

-proper noun

  1. a range of traditional beliefs and practices concerned with communication with the spirit world
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