Sexual orientation refers to "an enduring emotional, romantic, sexual, or affectional attraction toward others,"[1] usually conceived of as classifiable according to the sex or gender of the persons whom the individual finds sexually attractive. Sexology is the study of sexual interests behavior and function Asexuality is a Sexual orientation that describes individuals who do not experience Sexual attraction. Autosexuality refers to Sexual orientation and sexual behavior of attraction or romance that one holds exclusively and expresses towards oneself Bisexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of both sexes or to a bisexual orientation Heterosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the opposite sex or to a heterosexual orientation Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. Pansexuality or anthrosexuality ( anthro- literally meaning human human sexual (sometimes referred to as omnisexuality) is a Sexual orientation Pomosexual, or undefined sexual orientation, is a Neologism used to describe a person who shuns Sexual orientation labels (such as heterosexual and homosexual Zoophilia Zoosexuality is a term used to describe a Sexual orientation towards non-human animals In the English language, gay is an Adjective that in modern usage refers to Homosexuality. A lesbian is a Woman who is romantically or sexually attracted only to other women Queer has traditionally meant odd or unusual but is now also used to refer to anyone who is not heteronormative. Questioning is a term that can refer to a person who is questioning their Gender, Sexual identity or Sexual orientation. The Kinsey scale attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of their sexual activity at a given time The Klein Sexual Orientation Grid attempts to further measure Sexual orientation by expanding upon the earlier Kinsey scale which categorizes sexual history from 0 Biology and sexual orientation is research into possible biological influences on the development of human Sexual orientation. Measurement difficulties Measuring the prevalence of various Sexual orientations is difficult because there is a lack of Reliable data. Intersexuality is the state of a living thing of a gonochoristic species whose Sex chromosomes, Genitalia, and/or Secondary sex characteristics Transgender (trænzˈdʒɛndɚ from ( Latin) derivatives Transsexualism is a condition in which a person identifies with a physical Sex different from the one with which they were born An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS*************** Generally speaking human sexuality is how people experience and express themselves as sexual beings Affection is defined by the Random House Dictionary as "disposition or state of mind or body An organism's sex is defined by the gametes it produces males produce male gametes (spermatozoa or Sperm) while females produce female gametes (ova or Egg cells; individual Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social The most common forms exists along a continuum that ranges from exclusive heterosexuality (being sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex) to exclusive homosexuality (being sexually attracted to members of the same sex) and includes various forms of bisexuality (being sexually attracted to members of either sex). Heterosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the opposite sex or to a heterosexual orientation Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. Bisexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of both sexes or to a bisexual orientation There is also a much less common orientation, asexuality (being sexually attracted to members of neither sex). Asexuality is a Sexual orientation that describes individuals who do not experience Sexual attraction. [1]
Most definitions of sexual orientation include a psychological component (such as the direction of an individual's erotic desire) and/or a behavioral component (which focuses on the sex of the individual's sexual partner/s). Some prefer simply to follow an individual's self-definition or identity. Identity is an Umbrella term used throughout the Social sciences to describe an individual's comprehension of him or herself as a discrete separate entity
More recently, scholars of sexology, anthropology and history have argued that social categories such as heterosexual and homosexual are not universal. Sexology is the study of sexual interests behavior and function Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Different societies may consider other criteria to be more significant than sex, including the respective age of the partners, the sexual role played by each partner (such as active or passive), or the social status of the partners. Significant age disparity in sexual relationships has been and remains a feature of couples in many Cultures and societies.
Sexual identity and sexual behavior are closely related to sexual orientation, but they are distinguished, with identity referring to an individual's conception of themselves, behavior referring to actual sexual acts performed by the individual, and orientation referring to "fantasies, attachments and longings. Sexual identity is a term that like sex, has two distinctively different meanings Human sexual behavior or different human sexual practices encompass a wide range of activities such as strategies to find or attract partners ( Mating and display "[2] Individuals may or may not express their sexual orientation in their behaviors. [3] People whose sexual identity does not align with their sexual orientation are sometimes referred to as closeted. Coming outThe expressions " closeted " or "in the closet " generally refer to undisclosed sexual behavior, Sexual orientation or Gender
Sexual identity may also be used to describe a person's perception of his or her own sex, rather than sexual orientation. The term sexual preference has a similar meaning to sexual orientation, but is more commonly used outside of scientific circles by people who believe that sexual orientation is, in whole or part, a matter of choice.
Measuring an individual's sexual orientation
Varying definitions and strong social norms about sexuality can make sexual orientation difficult to quantify. A sexual norm can refer to a Personal or a social norm Most cultures have social norms regarding sexuality, and define normal sexuality Researchers may use different markers of sexual orientation, including self-labeling, sexual behaviour, sexual fantasy or a pattern of erotic arousal. A clinical measurement may use penile or vaginal photoplethysmography, where genital engorgement with blood is measured in response to exposure to different erotic material. The penile plethysmograph (PPG is a controversial type of Plethysmograph that measures changes in Blood flow in the Penis. The Vaginal photoplethysmograph (VPG is a controversial type of Plethysmograph. [4] In 1995, two researchers argued that due to a lack of research on change over time, there is a limitation on current conceptualizations of sexual orientation. They did not abandon the concept of sexual orientation, but concluded that "given such significant measurement problems, one could conclude there is serious doubt whether sexual orientation is a valid concept at all," and warned against increasing politicization of this area. [5]
From at least the late-19th century in Europe, there was speculation that the range of human sexual response looked more like a continuum than two or three discrete categories. 28-year-old Berlin sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld published a scheme in 1896 that measured the strength of an individual's sexual desire on two independent 10-point scales, A (homosexual) and B (heterosexual). Magnus Hirschfeld ( May 14, 1868 - May 14, 1935) was a German- Jewish physician sex researcher, and early Gay rights [6] A heterosexual individual may be A0, B5; a homosexual individual may be A5, B0; An asexual would be A0, B0; and someone with an intense attraction to both sexes would be A9, B9.
Fifty years later, American sexologist Alfred Kinsey wrote in Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948):
Males do not represent two discrete populations, heterosexual and homosexual. Alfred Charles Kinsey (June 23 1894 &ndash August 25 1956 was an American Biologist and professor of Entomology and Zoology, who in 1947 The Kinsey Reports are two books on Human sexual behavior, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948 and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female The world is not to be divided into sheep and goats. It is a fundamental of taxonomy that nature rarely deals with discrete categories. . . The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects. While emphasizing the continuity of the gradations between exclusively heterosexual and exclusively homosexual histories, it has seemed desirable to develop some sort of classification which could be based on the relative amounts of heterosexual and homosexual experience or response in each history. . . An individual may be assigned a position on this scale, for each period in his life. . . . A seven-point scale comes nearer to showing the many gradations that actually exist.
– [7]
The Kinsey scale measures sexual orientation from 0 (exclusively heterosexual) to 6 (exclusively homosexual), with an additional category, X, for those with no sexual attraction to either women or men. The Kinsey scale attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of their sexual activity at a given time Unlike Hirschfeld's scale, the Kinsey scale is one-dimensional. Simon LeVay writes, "it suggests (although Kinsey did not actually believe this) that every person has the same fixed endowment of sexual energy, which he or she then divides up between same-sex and opposite-sex attraction in a ratio indicative of his or her own sexual orientation. Simon LeVay (born 28 August 1943 in Oxford England) is an American neuroscientist known for his studies about Brain structures "[8]
Malleability of sexual orientation
In his 1985 book The Bisexual Option, Fritz Klein developed a scale to test his theory that sexual orientation is a "dynamic, multi-variable process" — dynamic in that it may change over time, and multi-variable in that it is composed of various elements, both sexual and non-sexual. Fred (Fritz Klein ( December 27, 1932 May 24, 2006) was an American Klein took into account sexual attraction, sexual behavior, sexual fantasies, emotional and social partners, lifestyle, and self-identification. Each of these variables was measured for the person's past, present, and ideal. [9]
The degree in which sexuality can change varies from person to person. The Centre for Addiction and Mental Health has said "For some people, sexual orientation is continuous and fixed throughout their lives. The Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH is a consortium of Mental health clinics at several sites in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. For others, sexual orientation may be fluid and change over time. "[10] Research by Lisa Diamond has shown the sexual orientation is more fluid among bisexual women than lesbians. [11]
Other organizations disagree with Fritz Klein. The American Psychological Association has stated that homosexuality "is not changeable. The American Psychological Association (APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the U "[12] In 2001, the United States Surgeon General David Satcher issued a report maintaining that "there is no valid scientific evidence that sexual orientation can be changed. Overview The Surgeon General is nominated by the US President and confirmed via majority vote by the Senate. David Satcher, MD, PhD (born March 2, 1941) was the 10th Assistant Secretary for Health from 1998 to 2001 and the 16th "[13] On the other hand, it is also conceivable that while sexual orientation is fluid on its own it cannot be consciously manipulated.
Desire, behavior and identity
Some people distinguish between
- opposite/same-sex desires
- opposite/same-sex sexual activity/behavior
- attraction to the other's sex (male/female) vs. attraction to the other's perceived gender-characteristics (masculine/feminine)
- self-identifying as straight, lesbian, gay, etc. Heterosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the opposite sex or to a heterosexual orientation
Mainstream medical organizations have made clear that ”sexual behavior does not necessarily equate to sexual orientation. “[14]
Sexual orientation and gender identity
- Further information: Homosexuality and transgender
The earliest writers on sexual orientation usually understood it to be intrinsically linked to the subject's own sex. For example, it was thought that a typical female-bodied person who is attracted to female-bodied persons would have masculine attributes, and vice versa. [15] This understanding was shared by most of the significant theorists of sexual orientation from the mid-19th to early 20th century, such as Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Magnus Hirschfeld, Havelock Ellis, Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud, as well as many gender variant homosexual people themselves. for the (unrelated periodical directory see Ulrich's Periodicals Directory Karl-Heinrich Ulrichs weiner ( Aurich, 28 August Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing ( August 14 1840 &ndash December 22 1902) was an Austro-German sexologist and Psychiatrist Magnus Hirschfeld ( May 14, 1868 - May 14, 1935) was a German- Jewish physician sex researcher, and early Gay rights Henry Havelock Ellis ( February 2, 1859 - July 8, 1939) was a British sexologist, physician and social reformer Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded However, this understanding of homosexuality as sexual inversion was disputed at the time, and through the second half of the 20th century, gender identity came to be increasingly seen as a phenomenon distinct from sexual orientation. Gender identity (or core gender identity) is a person's own sense of Identification as Male or Female. Transgender and cisgender people may be attracted to men, women, or both, although the prevalence of different sexual orientations is quite different in these two populations (see sexual orientation of transwomen). Transgender (trænzˈdʒɛndɚ from ( Latin) derivatives Cisgender (ˈsɪsdʒɛndə˞ is an adjective used in the context of Gender issues and Counselling to refer to a type of Gender identity formed by a match A transwoman (also spelled trans woman or trans-woman) is a male-to-female transsexual and the term transwoman is preferred by many such An individual homosexual, heterosexual or bisexual person may be masculine, feminine, or androgynous, and in addition, many members and supporters of lesbian and gay communities now see the "gender-conforming heterosexual" and the "gender-nonconforming homosexual" as negative stereotypes. Androgyny is a term derived from the Greek words ανήρ ( anér, meaning man and γυνή ( gyné, meaning woman that can refer to either of two A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group However, studies by J Michael Bailey and KJ Zucker have found that a majority of gay men and lesbians report being gender-nonconforming during their childhood years. John Michael Bailey (born July 2, 1957 in Lubbock Texas) is an American Psychologist and Professor at Northwestern [16]
The majority of transgender people today identify with the sexual orientation that corresponds with their gender; meaning that a transwoman who is solely attracted to women would often identify as a lesbian. Female-attracted transmen often consider themselves straight men, yet some participate in the lesbian community. A transman or transguy (often referred to as FTM) is short for Transsexual or Transgender man - a person who was naturally born or physically
For these reasons, the terms gynephilia and androphilia are occasionally (but increasingly) used when referring to the sexual orientation of transgender and intersex people (and occasionally, cisgender people), because rather than focusing on the sex of the subject, they only describe that of the object of their attraction. Gynephilia (or gynophilia) (From Greek gunē, "women" + -philia, "love" is the romantic and/or sexual attraction to adult Transgender (trænzˈdʒɛndɚ from ( Latin) derivatives Intersexuality is the state of a living thing of a gonochoristic species whose Sex chromosomes, Genitalia, and/or Secondary sex characteristics The third common term that describes sexual orientation, bisexuality, makes no claim about the subject's sex or gender identity. Bisexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of both sexes or to a bisexual orientation (See also Pansexuality)
Sexual orientation sees greater intricacy when non-binary understandings of both sex (male, female, or intersex) and gender (man, woman, transgender, third gender, or gender variant) are considered. Pansexuality or anthrosexuality ( anthro- literally meaning human human sexual (sometimes referred to as omnisexuality) is a Sexual orientation Intersexuality is the state of a living thing of a gonochoristic species whose Sex chromosomes, Genitalia, and/or Secondary sex characteristics Transgender (trænzˈdʒɛndɚ from ( Latin) derivatives The terms third gender and third sex describe individuals who are considered to be neither women nor men as well as the social category present in those societies who recognize Gender variance is a term that refers to those expressions of Gender ( Masculinity and Femininity) that do not conform to the dominant Gender norms Sociologist Paula Rodriguez Rust (2000) argues for a more multifaceted definition of sexual orientation:
. . . Most alternative models of sexuality. . . define sexual orientation in terms of dichotomous biological sex or gender. . . . Most theorists would not eliminate the reference to sex or gender, but instead advocate incorporating more complex nonbinary concepts of sex or gender, more complex relationships between sex, gender, and sexuality, and/or additional nongendered dimensions into models of sexuality.
– [17]
Demographics of sexual orientation
The multiple aspects of sexual orientation and the boundary-drawing problems already described create methodological challenges for the study of the demographics of sexual orientation. Measurement difficulties Measuring the prevalence of various Sexual orientations is difficult because there is a lack of Reliable data. Determining the frequency of various sexual orientations in real-world populations is difficult and controversial.
In the oft-cited and oft-criticized Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953), by Alfred C. Kinsey et al. The Kinsey Reports are two books on Human sexual behavior, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948 and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female The Kinsey Reports are two books on Human sexual behavior, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948 and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female Alfred Charles Kinsey (June 23 1894 &ndash August 25 1956 was an American Biologist and professor of Entomology and Zoology, who in 1947 , people were asked to rate themselves on a scale from completely heterosexual to completely homosexual. The Kinsey scale attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of their sexual activity at a given time Kinsey reported that when the individuals' behavior as well as their identity are analyzed, most people appeared to be at least somewhat bisexual - i. e. , most people have some attraction to either sex, although usually one sex is preferred. According to Kinsey, only a minority (5-10%) can be considered fully heterosexual or homosexual. Conversely, only an even smaller minority can be considered fully bisexual (with an equal attraction to both sexes).
Kinsey's methods have been criticized as flawed, particularly with regard to the randomness of his sample population, which included a large number of prison inmates. Nevertheless, Paul Gebhard, subsequent director of the Kinsey Institute for Sex Research, reexamined the data in the Kinsey Reports and concluded that accounting for major statistical objections barely affected the results. Paul H Gebhard (born July 3, 1917) was an American Anthropologist and Sexologist. The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex Gender and Reproduction, often shortened to The Kinsey Institute, exists "to promote interdisciplinary research and scholarship The Kinsey Reports are two books on Human sexual behavior, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948 and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female Most modern scientific surveys find that the majority of people report a mostly heterosexual orientation. However, the relative percentage of the population that reports a homosexual orientation varies with differing methodologies and selection criteria. Most of these statistical findings are in the range of 2. 8 to 9% of males, and 1 to 5% of females for the United States[18] — this figure can be as high as 12% for some large cities and as low as 1% percent for rural areas). In gay villages such as The Castro in San Francisco, California, the concentration of self-identified homosexual people can exceed 40%. A gay village (also known as a gay neighborhood or by the slang gayborhood) is an urban geographic location with generally recognized boundaries The Castro District better known as The Castro is a neighborhood within Eureka Valley in San Francisco California. The City and County of San Francisco is the fourth most populous city
Estimates for the percentage of the population that are bisexual vary widely, at least in part due to differing definitions of bisexuality. Some studies only consider a person bisexual if they are nearly equally attracted to both sexes, and others consider a person bisexual if they are at all attracted to the same sex (for otherwise mostly heterosexual persons) or to the opposite sex (for otherwise mostly homosexual persons). A small percentage of people are not sexually attracted to anyone (asexuality). Asexuality is a Sexual orientation that describes individuals who do not experience Sexual attraction.
Determinants of sexual orientation
- Further information: Theories on Homosexuality
The American Academy of Pediatrics has stated "Sexual orientation probably is not determined by any one factor but by a combination of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences. Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. The American Academy of Pediatrics ( AAP) is an organization of Pediatricians physicians trained to deal with the medical care of infants children and adolescents "[19] Considerable debate continues over what biological and/or psychological variables determine sexual orientation in humans, such as genes and the exposure of certain levels of hormones to fetuses. Biology and sexual orientation is research into possible biological influences on the development of human Sexual orientation. Biology and sexual orientation is research into possible biological influences on the development of human Sexual orientation. Freud and others in the psychoanalytic tradition speculate that sexual orientation is determined by numerous factors including formative childhood experiences in some cases.
Genetic
Twin studies indicate that homosexuality does not have a genetic component. Biology and sexual orientation is research into possible biological influences on the development of human Sexual orientation. Twin studies are one of a family of designs in Behavior genetics which aid the study of individual differences by highlighting the role of environmental and genetic In the most recently published study regarding twins and homosexuality, researchers at Yale University and Columbia University found no genetic connection with homosexuality. [20] Bearman & Bruckner (2002), based their conclusions on a study drawn from a wide population. These researchers found that otherwise identical twins were both homosexual only 6. 7% of the time. These researchers at Yale University and Columbia University conclude that "there is no evidence for strong genetic influence on same-sex preference in this sample. "[20]
Birth order
A recent study found an increased chance of homosexuality in male humans whose mothers previously carried to term many male children. A correlation between fraternal birth order and sexual orientation has been suggested by recent research This effect is nullified if the man is left-handed. [21] No similar effect was found in female humans.
Hormonal
The hormonal theory of sexuality holds that, just as exposure to certain hormones plays a role in fetal sex differentiation, such exposure also influences the sexual orientation that emerges later in the adult. The hormonal theory of sexuality holds that just as exposure to certain hormones plays a role in fetal Sex differentiation, such exposure also influences the Sexual orientation Fetal hormones may be seen as the primary determiner of adult sexual orientation, or a co-factor with genes and/or environmental and social conditions.
Innate bisexuality
Innate bisexuality (or predisposition to bisexuality) is a term introduced by Sigmund Freud (based on work by his associate Wilhelm Fliess), that expounds all humans are born bisexual but through psychological development (which includes both external and internal factors) become monosexual while the bisexuality remains in a latent state. Innate bisexuality (or predisposition to bisexuality) is a term introduced by Sigmund Freud (based on work by his associate Wilhelm Fliess) that expounds Innate bisexuality (or predisposition to bisexuality) is a term introduced by Sigmund Freud (based on work by his associate Wilhelm Fliess) that expounds Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Wilhelm Fliess ( 24 October 1858 &ndash 13 October 1928) was a German Otolaryngologist who practised in Berlin
Homosexuality as a mental illness
Homosexuality is no longer regarded as a mental illness by most segments of the psychiatric community. Following the emergence of new scientific data from researchers such as Kinsey and Evelyn Hooker, the trustees of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) voted in 1973 to remove homosexuality as a disorder from the Sexual Deviancy section of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the DSM-II. Evelyn Hooker ( September 2 1907 – November 18 1996) was a North American Psychologist most notable for her 1957 paper "The Adjustment The American Psychiatric Association (APA is the main Professional organization of Psychiatrists and trainee psychiatrists in the United States, and the The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association [22] (This was a major move with significant effect: the story ran on the front page of most newspapers, and over the following years the other mental health organizations came to the same conclusion. [23] Today, a minority of doctors regard homosexuality as a mental illness.
A minority of organizations have still not accepted the "mainstream" medical organizations' positions and presuppositions. For example, the United States Department of Defense still lists homosexuality as a mental disorder. The United States Department of Defense ( DOD or DoD) is the federal department charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government [24] Other governments have also claimed that homosexuality is an illness and have used that as a justification for laws limiting homosexuality. The countries of the world have a wide variety of laws relating to sexual relations between people of the same sex - everything from full legal recognition of Same-sex marriage Most Western nations do not regard homosexuality as a mental disorder. The World Health Organization also no longer recognizes it as a disorder.
A choice
There is a debate in popular culture about whether people are able to change their sexual orientations at will (this issue is not to be confused with the object-relational psychoanalytic concept of sexual object-choice). Popular culture (or pop culture) is the Culture — patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance — Some people believe that any of the many sexual orientations can be chosen and switched between by preference, and such individuals generally assume that sexual orientation is a lifestyle choice. The brain scientist Simon LeVay has argued against scientists who claim that genetic research has proven that homosexuality is not a choice, writing, . Simon LeVay (born 28 August 1943 in Oxford England) is an American neuroscientist known for his studies about Brain structures . . it is possible to construct a hypothesis whereby both "gay genes" and a desire to be homosexual are necessary for a person actually to become homosexual. ' [25]
Legal issues
- Further information: LGBT rights, Anti-discrimination laws, Hate crime laws, Same-sex marriage law, Trans law
Sexual orientation as a social construct
- Further information: Queer theory
Because sexual orientation is complex and multi-dimensional, some academics and researchers (especially in Queer studies) have argued that sexual orientation is a completely historical and social construction. This is a list of anti-discrimination acts (often called discrimination acts which are Laws designed to prevent Discrimination. Hate crimes (also known as bias motivated crimes) occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her membership in a certain Social group, usually defined Same-sex marriage (also referred to as gay marriage) is a term for a legally or Socially recognized Marriage between two people of the same Transsexual people are those who establish a permanent identity with the Gender opposite to that which they were assigned at birth Queer theory is a field of Gender Studies that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of gay and Lesbian studies and feminist studies " Queer studies " is the study of issues relating to Sexual orientation and Gender identity. In 1976 the historian Michel Foucault argued that homosexuality as an identity did not exist in the 18th century; that people instead spoke of "sodomy", which referred to sexual acts. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system Sodomy was a crime that was often ignored but sometimes punished severely (see sodomy law). A sodomy law is a Law that defines certain Sexual acts as sex crimes.
He further argued that it was in the 19th century that homosexuality came into existence as practitioners of emerging sciences and arts sought to classify and analyze different forms of sexuality. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar Finally, Foucault argues that it was this emerging discourse that allowed some to claim homosexuality as a human identity.
Heterosexuality and homosexuality are terms often used in European and American cultures to encompass a person’s entire social identity, which includes self and personality. In Western cultures some people speak meaningfully of gay, lesbian, and bisexual identities and communities. In other cultures, homosexuality and heterosexual labels don’t emphasize an entire social identity or indicate community affiliation based on sexual orientation. [26]
The boundary between friendship and homosexuality
Some historians and researchers argue that the emotional and affectionate activities associated with sexual-orientation words (gay, straight, etc. ) change significantly over time and across cultural boundaries. For example, in many English-speaking nations it is assumed that same-sex kissing, particularly between men, is a sign of homosexuality, whereas various types of same-sex kissing are common expressions of friendship in other nations. Friendship is a term used to denote co-operative and supportive behavior between two or more beings Also, many modern and historic cultures have formal ceremonies expressing long-term commitment between same-sex friends, even though homosexuality itself is taboo within the culture. [27]
See also
- Affectional orientation
- Ascribed characteristics
- LGBT lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender
- Terminology of homosexuality
- Bisexuality
- Sexual orientation and military service
- Social aspects of clothing
References
- ^ a b “Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality”, APAHelpCenter. Affectional orientation (or romantic orientation is used both alternatively and side-by-side with Sexual orientation. Ascribed characteristics, as used in the Social sciences, refer to properties of an individual over which that individual has very little if any control LGBT (also GLBT) is an initialism referring collectively to Lesbian, Gay, bisexual, and Transgender / transsexual See also List of terms for gay in different languages The terminology of homosexuality has been a contentious issue since the emergence of homosexual Social Bisexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of both sexes or to a bisexual orientation The militaries of the world have a variety of responses to Gays Lesbians and Bisexuals Most Western military forces have now removed policies excluding sexual Clothing is an aspect of Human physical appearance, and like other aspects of human physical appearance it has social significance The American Psychological Association (APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the U org, <http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=31>. Retrieved on 7 September 2007
- ^ Reiter, L. (1989) Sexual orientation, sexual identity, and the question of choice. Clinical Social Work Journal, 17, 138-150.
- ^ “Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality”, APAHelpCenter. The American Psychological Association (APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the U org, <http://www.apahelpcenter.org/articles/article.php?id=31>. Retrieved on 7 September 2007
- ^ Wilson, G. and Rahman, Q. , (2005). Born Gay. London: Peter Owen Publishers, p21
- ^ Gonsoriek, John. C. (1995). "Definition and measurement of sexual orientation" 25. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior.
- ^ Hirschfeld, Magnus, 1896. Magnus Hirschfeld ( May 14, 1868 - May 14, 1935) was a German- Jewish physician sex researcher, and early Gay rights Sappho und Socrates, Wie erklärt sich die Liebe der Männer & und Frauen zu Personen des eigenen Geschlechts? (Sappho and Socrates, How Can One Explain the Love of Men and Women for Individuals of Their Own Sex?)
- ^ A. C. Kinsey, W. B. Pomeroy, C. E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, (pp. 639, 656). Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 1948). ISBN 0-253-33412-8.
- ^ LeVay, Simon, 1996. Simon LeVay (born 28 August 1943 in Oxford England) is an American neuroscientist known for his studies about Brain structures Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-62119-3 .
- ^ Klein, F. , Barry Sepekoff, Timothy J. Wolf. Sexual Orientation: a Multi-Variable Dynamic Process, in Klein, Fritz and Timothy J. Wolf, ed. , 'Two Lives to Lead; Bisexuality in Men and Women', New York: Harrington Park Press, Inc. , 1985, p. 38. (Also published as Bisexualities: Theory and Research, by Haworth Press, 1985. ) Klein Sexual Orientation Grid online
- ^ CAMH: Resources for professionals
- ^ Diamond, Lisa Sexual Identity, Attractions, and Behavior Amoung Young Sexual-Minority Women Over a 2-Year Period Developmental Psychology (2000) Vol. 36 No. 2, 241-250
- ^ Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality, American Psychological Association. Retrieved on 04-12-2007.
- ^ "The Surgeon General's call to Action to Promote Sexual Health and Responsible Sexual Behavior", A Letter from the Surgeon General U. S. Department of Health and Human Services 2001-07-09. Retrieved 2007-03-29.
- ^ Just the Facts About Sexual Orientation & Youth: A Primer for Principals, Educators and School Personnel, American Psychological Association, et al. The American Psychological Association (APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the U , 1999. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
- ^ Minton, H. L. (1986). Femininity in men and masculinity in women: American psychiatry and psychology portray homosexuality in the 1930s, Journal of Homosexuality, 13(1), 1-21. The Journal of Homosexuality is a long-standing Peer reviewed Academic journal (founding editor Charles Silverstein) published by The Haworth
*Terry, J. (1999). An American obsession: Science, medicine, and homosexuality in modern society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press - ^ Bailey, J.M., Zucker, K. John Michael Bailey (born July 2, 1957 in Lubbock Texas) is an American Psychologist and Professor at Northwestern J. (1995), Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: a conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology 31(1):43
- ^ Rodriguez Rust, Paula C. Bisexuality: A contemporary paradox for women, Journal of Social Issues, Vol 56(2), Summer 2000. Special Issue: Women's sexualities: New perspectives on sexual orientation and gender. pp. 205-221. article online
Also published in: Rodriguez Rust, Paula C. Bisexuality in the United States: A Social Science Reader. Columbia University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-231-10227-5 - ^ James Alm, M. V. Lee Badgett, Leslie A. Whittington, Wedding Bell Blues: The Income Tax Consequences of Legalizing Same-Sex Marriage, page 24. (1998) PDF link
- ^ Sexual Orientation and Adolescents, American Academy of Pediatrics Clinical Report. The American Academy of Pediatrics ( AAP) is an organization of Pediatricians physicians trained to deal with the medical care of infants children and adolescents Retrieved 2007-02-23.
- ^ a b This work was published in the American Journal of Sociology (Bearman, P. S. & Bruckner, H. (2002) Opposite-sex twins and adolescent same-sex attraction. American Journal of Sociology 107, 1179–1205. ) and is available only to subscribers. However, a final draft of the paper is available here - there are no significant differences on the points cited between the final draft and the published version.
- ^ Blanchard, R. , Cantor, J. M. , Bogaert, A. F. , Breedlove, S. M. , & Ellis, L. (2006). "Interaction of fraternal birth order and handedness in the development of male homosexuality." Hormones and Behavior, 49, 405–414.
- ^ http://www.psych.org/pnews/00-09-01/recalling.html
- ^ The APA decision December 1973: declassification of homosexuality as an illness, Charles Kaiser argues, was the gay movement's most revolutionary moment - Bold beginnings | Advocate, The | Find Articles at BNET.com
- ^ Section E5. 1. 2. 9. 6. in the Department of Defense Instruction November 14, 1996
- ^ LeVay, Simon (1996). Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality. Cambridge: The MIT Press ISBN 0-262-12199-9
- ^ Zachary Green and Michael J. Stiers. Multiculturalism and Group Therapy in the United States: A Social Constructionist Perspective. Springer Netherlands 2002. Pages 233-246.
- ^ Robert Brain. Friends and Lovers. Granada Publishing Ltd. 1976. Chapters 3, 4.
Further reading
- Sell, Randall L. (December 1997). Defining and measuring sexual orientation: a review. Archives of Sexual Behavior 26(6) 643-658. (excerpt)
- Gil Brum, Larry McKane, and Gerry Karp. Biology – Exploring Life, 2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1994. p. 663. (About INAH-3. )
- Dynes, Wayne (ed. ) "Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. " New York and London, Garland Publishing, 1990.
External links
- The Science Of Sexual Orientation
- American Psychological Association: Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality
- Magnus Hirschfeld Archive of Sexology at the Humboldt University in Berlin
- Etiology on glbtq.com
- Is sexual orientation determined at birth?
- Brain gender: prostaglandins have their say
- Aspirin changes sexual behaviour of rats
- Sex, drugs and sports: Prostaglandins, epitestosterone and sexual development
- Endocrine Function in Male and Female Homosexuals
- Survivor bashing - bias motivated hate crimes
- A law lecture (mp3) on sexual orientation and U.S. constitutional law
- "The H-Word" by Paul Niquette
- The SexEdLibrary
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