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The Great Seljuq Empire in 1092, upon the death of Malik Shah I
The Great Seljuq Empire in 1092, upon the death of Malik Shah I
This article is about the dynasty which ruled the political entity known as Great Seljuq Empire. The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled Jalāl al-Dawlah Mālikshāh or simply Malik Shah ( Persian: fa ملكشاه Turkish: Melikşah) (died 1092 was the The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled

The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks[1], Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Persian: سلجوقيان Ṣaljūqīyān; in Arabic سلجوق Saljūq, or السلاجقة al-Salājiqa) were a Turkic[2] and Persianate[3] Sunni Muslim dynasty that ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to 14th centuries. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family A Persianate society ( - Djāma-ye Pārsīzabān) is a society that is either based on or strongly influenced by the Persian language, culture, literature Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. They set up an empire known as Great Seljuq Empire that stretched from Anatolia to Punjab and was the target of the First Crusade. The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing The dynasty had its origins in the Turcoman tribal confederations of Central Asia and marked the beginning of Turkic power in the Middle East. The Oghuz (variously known as Ghuzz, Guozz, Kuz, Oguz, Oğuz, Okuz, Oufoi, Ouz, Ouzoi, The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. After arriving in Persia, the Seljuqs adopted the Persian culture[4][5][6] and language[7][8], and played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition which features "Persian culture patronized by Turkic rulers. Greater Iran (in Irān-e Bozorg, or fa ایران‌زمین Irān-zamīn; the Encyclopedia Iranica uses the term A Persianate society ( - Djāma-ye Pārsīzabān) is a society that is either based on or strongly influenced by the Persian language, culture, literature The composite Turko-Persian tradition was a variant of Islamic culture. "[9] Today, they are remembered as great patrons of Persian culture, art, literature, and language[7][8][10] and are regarded by some as the cultural ancestors of the Western Turks – the present-day inhabitants of Azerbaijan, Turkey, and Turkmenistan. To best understand Iran and its people one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of its ancient culture The Iranian cultural region - consisting of the modern nations of Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia.

Contents

Early history

Head of male royal figure, 12-13th century, from Iran. Carved and drilled stone with Seljuq craftsmanship. Kept at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Head of male royal figure, 12-13th century, from Iran. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Carved and drilled stone with Seljuq craftsmanship. Kept at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art is an art museum located on the eastern edge of Central Park, along what is known as Museum Mile in New York City,

Origins

Prior to the ninth century, hordes of Turks had crossed the Volga River into the Black Sea steppes. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey [11] Originally, the House of Seljuq was a branch of the Qinik Oghuz Turks[12][13][14][15] who in the 9th century lived on the periphery of the Muslim world, north of the Caspian and Aral sea in their Yabghu Khaganate of the Oghuz confederacy,[16] in the Kazakh Steppe of Turkestan. The Oghuz (variously known as Ghuzz, Guozz, Kuz, Oguz, Oğuz, Okuz, Oufoi, Ouz, Ouzoi, The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Consumers Against Supermarket Privacy Invasion and Numbering ( CASPIAN) is a USA Grass-roots Consumer group dedicated to fighting Supermarket "loyalty" The Aral Sea ( Kazakh: Арал Теңізі Aral Tengizi, Orol dengizi Russian: Аральскοе мοре Tajik / Persian: Daryocha-i Yabgu (literally "pioneer" "guide" was a state office in the early Turkic states roughly equivalent to Viceroy. For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title Kazakh Steppe or Kirghiz Steppe, is a vast region of open grassland in northern Kazakhstan and adjacent portions of Russia, extending to the east of Turkestan (literally meaning "Land of the Turks" is a region in Central Asia, which today is largely inhabited by Turkic peoples. [17] In the 10th century the Seljuqs migrated from their ancestral homelands into mainland Persia, in the province of Khurasan, where they mixed with the local population and adopted the Persian culture and language in the following decades. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Greater Khorasan (خراسان بزرگ (also written Khorasaan, Khurasan and Khurasaan) is a modern term for eastern territories of ancient Persia To best understand Iran and its people one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of its ancient culture [7][8][10][18][19]

Seljuq leaders

Rulers of Seljuq Dynasty 1037-1157

The "Great Seljuqs" were heads of the family; in theory their authority extended over all the other Seljuq lines, although in practice this often was not the case. Turkish custom called for the senior member of the family to be the Great Seljuq, although usually the position was associated with the ruler of western Persia.

Muhammad's son Mahmud II succeeded him in western Persia, but Sanjar, the governor of Khurasan from 1097 and the senior member of the family, becomes Great Seljuq sultan

The Oghuz take control of much of Khurasan, with the remainder in the hands of former Seljuq emirs

Seljuq sultans of Hamadan 1118-1194

The rulers of western Persia, who maintained a very loose grip on the Abbasids of Baghdad. For the Kerait ruler Toghrul protector of Genghis Khan see Wang Khan. Alp Arslan (1029 &ndash December 15, 1072) was the second sultan of the Seljuk dynasty and great-grandson of Seljuk, the Eponym of Jalāl al-Dawlah Mālikshāh or simply Malik Shah ( Persian: fa ملكشاه Turkish: Melikşah) (died 1092 was the Nasir ad-Din Mahmud I was the sultan of Great Seljuk (1092 - 1094 Abu al-Muzaffar Rukn ud-Dīn Barkyāruq bin Malikšāh ( was the sultan of Great Seljuk from 1094 - 1105. Mu'izz ad-Din Malik Shah II (b? - d? Was Seljuk Sultan in Baghdad during 1105. Ghiyath ad-Din Muhammad Tapar (died 1118 was a son of Seljuk Sultan Malik Shah I. Mahmud II (died 1131) proclaimed himself the Seljuk Sultan of Baghdad in 1118 following the death of Mehmed I (probably Mu'iz ud-Dīn Ahmad-e Sanjar (Sultan Sancar (1084/1086 &ndash May 8 1157) was the Sultan of the Great Seljuq Empire from 1118 to 1153 Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Several Turkish emirs gained a strong level of influence in the region, such as the Eldiduzids. The Atabegs of Azerbaijan rose from the ashes of the vast Seljuk Empire in the beginning of the 12th century

Tugrul III killed in battle with the Khwarazmshah, who annexes Hamadan

Seljuq rulers of Kerman 1041-1187

Kerman was a province in southern Persia. Mahmud II (died 1131) proclaimed himself the Seljuk Sultan of Baghdad in 1118 following the death of Mehmed I (probably Jibāl ( جبال) was a short-lived Arab-ruled province located in western Iran, under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad This article is about the region in Iran for other uses see Azerbaijan (disambiguation. The Khwarezmian Empire, more commonly known as the empire of the Khwarezm Shahs ( Khwārezmšhāḥīān, "Kings of Khwarezmia " Kermān is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. It is in the south-east of the country

Muhammad abandons Kerman, which falls into the hands of the Oghuz chief Malik Dinar

Seljuq rulers in Syria 1076-1117

To the Artuqids

Sultans/Emirs of Damascus:

Damascus seized by the Burid Toghtekin

Seljuq sultans of Rûm (Anatolia) 1077-1307

The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm in 1190, before the Third Crusade
The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm in 1190, before the Third Crusade

The Seljuq line, already having been deprived of any significant power, effectively ends in the early thirteenth century

Gallery

Toghrol Tower, a 12th century monument south of Tehran commemorating Toğrül. Arslan Shah I was Sultan of Kerman ( 1101 - 1142) a city in Iran situated at the center of Kerman province Muhammad-Shah was the last Seljuk amir of Kerman, from 1183 until 1186. Malik Dinar (died 1195 was the Ghuzz ruler of Sarakhs from c 1153 until 1179 Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I ( أبو سعيد ناج الدولة تتش السلجوقي) (died in 1095 was the Seljuk ruler (probably Sultan or Jalāl al-Dawlah Mālikshāh or simply Malik Shah ( Persian: fa ملكشاه Turkish: Melikşah) (died 1092 was the Qasim ad-Dawla Abu Said Aq Sunqur al-Hajib (also Aksunkur el-Hacib or Aksungur al-Hajib) was the Seljuk governor of Aleppo under Sultan Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I ( أبو سعيد ناج الدولة تتش السلجوقي) (died in 1095 was the Seljuk ruler (probably Sultan or Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan (also Ridwan or Rudwan; died December 10, 1113) was a Seljuk ruler of Aleppo from 1095 to 1113 The Artuqid dynasty ( Artuklu in Turkish, sometimes also spelled as Artukid, Ortoqid or Ortokid; Turkish Plural: Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings Emir ( Arabic: ar أمير;, female أميرة; emira;) ( Farsi and Urdu: امیر) Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Aziz ibn Abaaq al-Khwarazmi (died 1079 was a commander under Malik Shah I and later became the first Seljuk ruler to gain independence from the Great Seljuk Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I ( أبو سعيد ناج الدولة تتش السلجوقي) (died in 1095 was the Seljuk ruler (probably Sultan or Abu Nasr Shams al-Muluk Duqaq (died June 8, 1104) was the Seljuk ruler of Damascus from 1095 to 1104 The Burid dynasty was a Turkish dynasty which ruled over Damascus in the early 12th century The Third Crusade (1189&ndash1192 also known as the Kings' Crusade, was an attempt by European leaders to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin Kutalmish (alternative spellings Kutalmysh / Qutulmush) was the name of two different personalities in Turkish history the first having lived in the 11th century Suleyman I (سليمان بن قتلمش Sulayman bin Kutalmish founded an independent Seljuk Turkish state in Anatolia and ruled as Seljuk Sultan of Rûm Kilij Arslan (قلج أرسلان Qilij Arslān I Kılıç Arslan was the Seljuq Sultan of Rum from 1092 until his death in 1107 Jalāl al-Dawlah Mālikshāh or simply Malik Shah ( Persian: fa ملكشاه Turkish: Melikşah) (died 1092 was the Masud I or Ma'sud I (ركن الدين مسعود Rukn al-Dīn Mas'ūd I Kilij Arslan II (عز الدين قلج أرسلان بن مسعود 'Izz al-Dīn Qilij Arslān bin Mas'ūd II Kaykhusraw I ( Arabic / Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Qilij Arslān I Suleyman II aka Rukn ad-Din Suleiman Shah (1196-1204 was the Seljuk Sultan of Rum between 1196-1204 Kilij Arslan III (قلج أرسلان Qilij Arslān III Kılıç Arslan was the Seljuq Sultan of Rum for a short period in 1204 and 1205 Kaykhusraw I ( Arabic / Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Qilij Arslān I Kaykaus I or Kayka'us I or Keykavus I ( Arabic / 'Izz al-Dīn Kaykā'ũs bin Kaykhusraw I Kayqubad I ( Arabic / 'Alā al-Dīn Kayqubād bin Kaykā'ūs I Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II ( Arabic / Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Kayqubād II Kaykaus II or Kayka'us II ( Arabic / 'Izz al-Dīn Kaykā'ũs bin Kaykhusraw II Kilij Arslan IV (ركن الدين قلج ارسلان بن كيخسرو Rukn al-Dīn Qilij Arslān bin Kaykhusraw IV Kayqubad II ( Arabic / 'Alā al-Dīn Kayqubād bin Kaykhusraw II Kaykhusraw III ( Arabic / Ghīyāth al-Dīn Kaykhusraw bin Qilij Arslān III Masud II or Mas'ud II (غياث الدين مسعود بن كيكاوس Ghīyāth al-Dīn Mas'ūd bin Kaykā'ūs bore the title of Seljuq Sultan of Rum at various Kayqubad III (علا الدين كيقباد بن فراموزس 'Alā al-Dīn Kayqubād bin Ferāmurz III Masud II or Mas'ud II (غياث الدين مسعود بن كيكاوس Ghīyāth al-Dīn Mas'ūd bin Kaykā'ūs bore the title of Seljuq Sultan of Rum at various Kayqubad III (علا الدين كيقباد بن فراموزس 'Alā al-Dīn Kayqubād bin Ferāmurz III Masud II or Mas'ud II (غياث الدين مسعود بن كيكاوس Ghīyāth al-Dīn Mas'ūd bin Kaykā'ūs bore the title of Seljuq Sultan of Rum at various Kayqubad III (علا الدين كيقباد بن فراموزس 'Alā al-Dīn Kayqubād bin Ferāmurz III Masud II or Mas'ud II (غياث الدين مسعود بن كيكاوس Ghīyāth al-Dīn Mas'ūd bin Kaykā'ūs bore the title of Seljuq Sultan of Rum at various Toghrol Tower (also transliterated Toghrul, Tughrol, or Tughrul) is a 12th century monument located in the city of Ray Iran. Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of For the Kerait ruler Toghrul protector of Genghis Khan see Wang Khan.

Seljuq era art: Ewer from Iran, dated 1180-1210CE. A pitcher is a container with a spout used for pouring its contents For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Brass worked in repousse and inlaid with silver and bitumen. Bitumen is a mixture of organic Liquids that are highly Viscous, black sticky entirely soluble in Carbon disulfide, and composed primarily NY Metropolitan Museum.

The Kharāghān twin towers, built in 1053 CE in Iran, is the burial of Seljuq princes. Kharraqan towers are Mausoleums built in 1093 CE and 1067 CE located on the plains in northern Iran, near Qazvin.

Shatranj chess set, glazed fritware, 12th century, from Iran. Shatranj is an old form of Chess, which has been popular in Persia and the Middle East for almost 1000 years Fritware is a type of Pottery in which Frit is added to Clay to reduce its fusion temperature For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art is an art museum located on the eastern edge of Central Park, along what is known as Museum Mile in New York City,

Notes

  1. ^ "Seljuq Turks" in various scholastic sources
  2. ^
    • Jackson, P. (2002). Review: The History of the Seljuq Turks: The History of the Seljuq Turks. Journal of Islamic Studies 2002 13(1):75-76; doi:10. 1093/jis/13. 1. 75. Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies.
    • Bosworth, C. E. (2001). Notes on Some Turkish Names in Abu 'l-Fadl Bayhaqi's Tarikh-i Mas'udi. Oriens, Vol. 36, 2001 (2001), pp. 299-313.
    • Dani, A. H. , Masson, V. M. (Eds), Asimova, M. S. (Eds), Litvinsky, B. A. (Eds), Boaworth, C. E. (Eds). (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers (Pvt. Ltd).
    • Hancock, I. (2006). ON ROMANI ORIGINS AND IDENTITY. The Romani Archives and Documentation Center. The University of Texas at Austin.
    • Asimov, M. S. , Bosworth, C. E. (eds. ). (1998). History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement: AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting. Multiple History Series. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
  3. ^
    • Josef W. Meri, "Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia", Routledge, 2005, p. 399
    • Michael Mandelbaum, "Central Asia and the World", Council on Foreign Relations (May 1994), p. 79
    • Jonathan Dewald, "Europe 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World", Charles Scribner's Sons, 2004, p. 24: "Turcoman armies coming from the East had driven the Byzantines out of much of Asia Minor and established the Persianized sultanate of the Seljuks. "
  4. ^ Ram Rahul. "March of Central Asia", Indus Publishing, pg 124:"The Seljuk conquest of Persia marked the triumph of the Sunni over Shii but without a decline in Persian culture. The Seljuks eventually adopted the Persian culture.
  5. ^ C.E. Bosworth, "Turkish expansion towards the west", in UNESCO HISTORY OF HUMANITY, Volume IV: From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century, UNESCO Publishing / Routledge, p. Clifford Edmund Bosworth (born December 29, 1928, Sheffield, United Kingdom) is an English historian and orientalist, specializing United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 391: "While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law, theology and science, the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized; this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuk rulers (Qubād, Kay Khusraw and so on) and in the use of Persian as a literary language (Turkish must have been essentially a vehicle for everyday speech at this time). The process of Persianization accelerated in the thirteenth century with the presence in Konya of two of the most distinguished refugees fleeing before the Mongols, Bahā' al-Dīn Walad and his son Mawlānā Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, whose Mathnawī, composed in Konya, constitutes one of the crowning glories of classical Persian literature. "
  6. ^ Mehmed Fuad Koprulu, "Early Mystics in Turkish Literature", Translated by Gary Leiser and Robert Dankoff, Routledge, 2006, pg 149: "If we wish to sketch, in broad outline, the civilization created by the Seljuks of Anatolia, we must recognize that the local, i. e. non-Muslim, element was fairly insignificant compared to the Turkish and Arab-Persian elements, and that the Persian element was paramount/The Seljuk rulers, to be sure, who were in contact with not only Muslim Persian civilization, but also with the Arab civilizations in al-jazīra and Syria – indeed, with all Muslim peoples as far as India – also had connections with {various} Byzantine courts. Some of these rulers, like the great 'Ala' al-Dīn Kai-Qubād I himself, who married Byzantine princesses and thus strengthened relations with their neighbors to the west, lived for many years in Byzantium and became very familiar with the customs and ceremonial at the Byzantine court. Still, this close contact with the ancient Greco-Roman and Christian traditions only resulted in their adoption of a policy of tolerance toward art, aesthetic life, painting, music, independent thought – in short, toward those things that were frowned upon by the narrow and piously ascetic views {of their subjects}. The contact of the common people with the Greeks and Armenians had basically the same result. {Before coming to Anatolia}, the Turks had been in contact with many nations and had long shown their ability to synthesize the artistic elements that they had adopted from these nations. When they settled in Anatolia, they encountered peoples with whom they had not yet been in contact and immediately established relations with them as well. 'Ala' al-Dīn Kai-Qubād I established ties with the Genoese and, especially, the Venetians at the ports of Sinop and Antalya, which belonged to him, and granted them commercial and legal concessions. Meanwhile, the Mongol invasion, which caused a great number of scholars and artisans to flee from Turkistan, Iran, and Khwārazm and settle within the Empire of the Seljuks of Anatolia, resulted in a reinforcing of Persian influence on the Anatolian Turks. Indeed, despite all claims to the contrary, there is no question that Persian influence was paramount among the Seljuks of Anatolia. This is clearly revealed by the fact that the sultans who ascended the throne after Ghiyāth al-Dīn Kai-Khusraw I assumed titles taken from ancient Persian mythology, like Kai-Khusraw, Kai-Kā'ūs, and Kai-Qubād; and that 'Ala' al-Dīn Kai-Qubād I had some passages from the Shāhnāme inscribed on the walls of Konya and Sivas. When we take into consideration domestic life in the Konya courts and the sincerity of the favor and attachment of the rulers to Persian poets and Persian literature, then this fact {i. e. the importance of Persian influence} is undeniable. With regard to the private lives of the rulers, their amusements, and palace ceremonial, the most definite influence was also that of Iran, mixed with the early Turkish traditions, and not that of Byzantium. "
  7. ^ a b c O. Özgündenli, "Persian Manuscripts in Ottoman and Modern Turkish Libraries", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK)
  8. ^ a b c Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Seljuq", Online Edition, (LINK): ". Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc . . Because the Turkish Seljuqs had no Islamic tradition or strong literary heritage of their own, they adopted the cultural language of their Persian instructors in Islam. Literary Persian thus spread to the whole of Iran, and the Arabic language disappeared in that country except in works of religious scholarship . . . "
  9. ^ Daniel Pipes: "The Event of Our Era: Former Soviet Muslim Republics Change the Middle East" in Michael Mandelbaum,"Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkemenistan and the World", Council on Foreign Relations, pg 79. Exact statement: "In Short, the Turko-Persian tradition featured Persian culture patronized by Turcophone rulers. "
  10. ^ a b M. Ravandi, "The Seljuq court at Konya and the Persianisation of Anatolian Cities", in Mesogeios (Mediterranean Studies), vol. 25-6 (2005), pp. 157-69
  11. ^ Previte-Orton (1971), vol. 1, pg. 278
  12. ^ Concise Britannica Online Seljuq Dynasty article
  13. ^ Merriam-Webster Online – Definition of Seljuk
  14. ^ The History of the Seljuq Turks: From the Jami Al-Tawarikh (LINK)
  15. ^ History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey – Stanford Shaw (LINK)
  16. ^ Wink, Andre, Al Hind the Making of the Indo Islamic World, Brill Academic Publishers, Jan 1, 1996, ISBN 90-04-09249-8 pg. 9
  17. ^ Islam: An Illustrated History, p. 51
  18. ^ M. A. Amir-Moezzi, "Shahrbanu", Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition, (LINK): ". Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and . . here one might bear in mind that non-Persian dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and Ilkhanids were rapidly to adopt the Persian language and have their origins traced back to the ancient kings of Persia rather than to Turkish heroes or Muslim saints . . . "
  19. ^ F. Daftary, Sectarian and National Movements in Iran, Khorasan, and Trasoxania during Umayyad and Early Abbasid Times, in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol 4, pt. 1; edited by M. S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth; UNESCO Publishing, Institute of Ismaili Studies: ". Clifford Edmund Bosworth (born December 29, 1928, Sheffield, United Kingdom) is an English historian and orientalist, specializing United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 Institute of Ismaili Studies (IIS is a contemporary undertaking by the Aga Khan to study Islam in general and Ismailism in particular . . Not only did the inhabitants of Khurasan not succumb to the language of the nomadic invaders, but they imposed their own tongue on them. The region could even assimilate the Turkic Ghaznavids and Seljuks (eleventh and twelfth centuries), the Timurids (fourteenth–fifteenth centuries), and the Qajars (nineteenth–twentieth centuries) . . . "

References

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