External images
The Second Punic War (referred to as "The War Against Hannibal" by the Romans) lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient Events By place Carthage A Carthaginian army under Hannibal attacks Rome's Spanish allies Events By place Carthage On Hannibal 's advice Carthage sues for peace with the Romans, ending the Second Punic Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later Gallia Narbonensis ( Narbonese Gaul) was a Roman province located in what is now Languedoc and Provence, in southern France. The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Aetolian League was a confederation of states in Ancient Greece centered on the cities of Aetolia in central Greece Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Syracuse, as a place name may refer to In Italy Syracuse Sicily the Province of Syracuse In the United States Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most Publius Cornelius Scipio (died 211 BC was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic. Tiberius Sempronius Longus ( c 260 BC – 210 BC was a Roman Consul during the Second Punic War and a contemporary of Publius Cornelius Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183 Gaius Flaminius Nepos was a Politician and Consul of the Roman Republic in the 3rd century BC Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (ca 280 BC-203 BC called Cunctator ( the Delayer) was a Roman politician and General born in Rome around 280 BC and Marcus Claudius Marcellus (ca 268 BC-208 BC was a Roman general one of the commanders of the Roman Army during the Second Punic War and the conqueror of Syracuse Lucius Aemilius Paullus (d 216 BC was a Roman Consul twice in 219 and 216 BC Gaius Terentius Varro (fl 3rd century BC was a Roman Consul and commander Marcus Livius Salinator (254 BC-ca 204 BC the son of Marcus (a member of the Gens Livia) was a Roman Consul who fought in both Gaius Claudius Nero was a Roman Consul who fought in the Battle of the Metaurus (207 BC Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (died 211 BC was a Roman general and statesman Masinissa or Massinissa (c 240 or 238 BC - c 148 BC was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of Ancient Libyan tribes Minucius (rarely also Minicius) was a Roman nomen gentile. At the beginning of the fifth century BC it was a Patrician family (existence of this branch Gnaeus Servilius Geminus (d August 2, 216 BCE was a Roman consul serving as both general and admiral of Roman forces during the Second Punic War. Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash Hasdrubal son of Hamilcar Barca, (d 207 BC short form Hasdrubal) was Hamilcar's second son and a Carthaginian general in the Second Punic War Mago son of Hamilcar Barca, (also spelled Magon; 243 BC - 203 BC short form Mago) was a member of the Barcid family and played an important Hasdrubal Gisco or Hasdrubal son of Gisco (died 202 BC was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia ( Hispania) and For the Canadian mountain see Mount Syphax. For the mythological figure see Sufax. Hanno the Elder was a Carthaginian general who served under Hannibal during the Second Punic War Maharbal (fl 2nd century BC was Hannibal 's cavalry commander during the Second Punic War. Events By place Carthage A Carthaginian army under Hannibal attacks Rome's Spanish allies Events By place Carthage On Hannibal 's advice Carthage sues for peace with the Romans, ending the Second Punic It was the second of three major wars between Carthage and the Roman Republic. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the They are called the "Punic Wars" because Rome's name for Carthaginians was Punici (older Poenici, due to their Phoenician ancestry. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient In modern historiography "Punic" is used to make a distinction between Phoenicians and the people of Carthaginian origin. )
The war is marked by Hannibal's surprising overland journey and his costly crossing of the Alps, followed by his reinforcement by Gaulish allies and crushing victories over Roman armies in the battle of the Trebia and the giant ambush at Trasimene. Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash The Battle of the Trebia (or Trebbia) was the first major battle of the Second Punic War, fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal The Battle of Lake Trasimene ( June 24, 217 BC, April on the Julian calendar) was a Roman defeat in the Second Punic War between the Carthaginians Against his skill on the battlefield the Romans deployed the Fabian strategy. The Fabian strategy is a Military strategy where Pitched battles are avoided in favor of wearing down an opponent through a war of attrition. But because of the increasing unpopularity of this approach, the Romans nevertheless resorted to a further major field battle. The result was the Roman defeat at Cannae. For the 11th century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018. In consequence many Roman allies went over to Carthage, prolonging the war in Italy for over a decade, during which more Roman armies were destroyed on the battlefield. Despite these setbacks, the Roman forces were more capable in siegecraft than the Carthaginians and recaptured all the major cities that had joined the enemy, as well as defeating a Carthaginian attempt to reinforce Hannibal at the battle of the Metaurus. The Battle of the Metaurus was a pivotal battle in the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage, fought in 207 BC near the Metaurus River In the meantime in Iberia, which served as the main source of manpower for the Carthaginian army, a second Roman expedition under Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major took New Carthage by assault and ended Carthaginian rule over Iberia in the battle of Ilipa. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183 The Battle of Ilipa was arguably Scipio Africanus ’s most brilliant victory in his military career during the Second Punic War. The final showdown was the battle of Zama in Africa between Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major and Hannibal, resulting in the latter's defeat and the imposition of harsh peace conditions on Carthage, which ceased to be a major power and became a Roman client-state. The Battle of Zama, fought around October 19 of 202 BC, marked the final and decisive end of the Second Punic War. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183
A sideshow of this war was the indecisive first Macedonian War in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Ionian Sea. The First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against
All battles mentioned in the introduction are ranked among the most costly traditional battles of human history; in addition there were a few successful ambushes of armies that also ended in their annihilation.
Contents
|
Events leading to the war
The Second Punic War between Carthage and Rome was ignited by the dispute over the hegemony of Saguntum, a hellenized Iberian coastal city with diplomatic contacts with Rome. Sagunto ( Valencian Sagunt; Latin Saguntum) formerly Murviedro (Valencian Morvedre) is an ancient city in Eastern After great tension within the city government culminating in the assassination of the supporters of Carthage, Hannibal laid siege to the city of Sagunt in 218 BC. The city called for Roman aid, but the pleas fell on deaf ears. Following a prolonged siege and a bloody struggle in which Hannibal himself was wounded and the army practically destroyed, the Carthaginians finally took control of the city. Many of the Saguntians chose to commit suicide rather than face the subjugation by the Carthaginians.
Hannibal takes the initiative (218 BC - 213 BC)
Western Mediterranean (218 BC - 213 BC)
Hannibal's overland journey
The Carthaginian army in Iberia, excluding the forces in Africa, totaled 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry and an unknown number of war elephants and was thus one of the largest in the Hellenistic world and equal in numbers to any that the Romans had yet fielded. Hannibal's expeditionary force numbered as many as 75,000 foot soldiers and 9,000 horsemen, including 36 war elephants. A war elephant is an Elephant trained and guided by humans for combat Hannibal departed with this army from New Carthage northwards along the coast in late spring of 218 B. Cartagena ( is a Spanish Mediterranean city and naval station in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula in the autonomous community of Region of Murcia C. At the Ebro he split the army into three columns and subdued the tribes from there to the Pyrenees within weeks, but with severe losses. The Pyrenees (Pirineos French: Pyrénées; Catalan: Pirineus; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés At the Pyrenees, he left a detachment of 11,000 Iberian troops, who showed reluctance to leave their homeland, to garrison the newly conquered region. Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul with 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western He took his army by an inland route, avoiding the Roman allies along the coast. In Gaul negotiations helped him to move unmolested except for the Battle of Rhone Crossing where a force of the Allobroges unsuccessfully tried to oppose his 38,000 infantry (that number may exclude light infantry), 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants from the other shore. The Battle of Rhone Crossing took place during the Second Punic War. The Allobroges were a warlike Celtic tribe in Gaul located between the Rhône River and the Lake of Geneva in what later became Savoy A war elephant is an Elephant trained and guided by humans for combat [2]
In the meantime, a Roman fleet with an invasion force was underway to northern Iberia. Its commanders, the brothers Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus and Publius Cornelius Scipio, knew that Hannibal had crossed the Ebro, but were surprised by the Carthaginian army's presence at the Rhone upstream of their ally Massalia, where they had landed. Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (died 211 BC was a Roman general and statesman Publius Cornelius Scipio (died 211 BC was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic. Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ A scouting party of 300 cavalry was sent to discover the whereabouts of the enemy. These eventually defeated a Carthaginian scouting troop of 500 mounted Numidians and chased them back to their main camp. Thus, with knowledge of the location of the enemy, the Romans marched upstream, ready for battle. Hannibal evaded this force and by an unknown route reached (the Isere or the Durance) the foot of the Alps in autumn. The Isère ( Isera in Arpitan and Occitan) is a 286 km long River in southeastern France, in the Rhône-Alpes The Durance ( Occitan: Durença in classical norm or Durènço in Mistralian norm is a 324 km long River in south-eastern France, He also received messengers from his Gaulish allies in Italy that urged him to come to their aid and offered to guide him over the Alps. Before setting out to cross the Alps, he was re-supplied by a native tribe which he had helped solve some hereditary disputes.
First Roman expedition to Iberia
_03.jpg/200px-Relieve_de_Osuna_(M.A.N._Madrid)_03.jpg)
_03.jpg/200px-Falcata_íbera_(M.A.N._Madrid)_03.jpg){kind=small}
The first Roman expedition to Iberia was unable to bring the Carthaginian troops in the hinterland of Massalia to a pitched battle, so it continued on its way to northern Iberia under Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, a move which was to prove decisive for the outcome of the war. Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (died 211 BC was a Roman general and statesman Their other commander, Publius Cornelius Scipio, returned to Rome, realizing the danger of an invasion of Italy where the tribes of the Boii and Insubres were already in revolt. Publius Cornelius Scipio (died 211 BC was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic. Boii ( Latin plural singular Boius; Greek) is the Roman name of an ancient Celtic tribe, attested at various The Insubres or Insubri were a population settled in Insubria, in what is now Lombardy. After 217 BC he also traveled to Spain.
In Iberia, Carthaginian rule was not popular, but Roman inaction during the siege of Saguntum had made the natives cautious about an alliance against their masters. Sagunto ( Valencian Sagunt; Latin Saguntum) formerly Murviedro (Valencian Morvedre) is an ancient city in Eastern Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus established his headquarters at Cissa in the midst of Hannibal's latest acquisition, the area between Ebro and Pyrenees. Despite initial setbacks, he was winning increasing support among the natives. This convinced the Carthaginian commander Hanno, the nephew of Hannibal, to accept pitched battle before his troops had been united with the army under Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, despite being outnumbered 2 to 1. Hasdrubal son of Hamilcar Barca, (d 207 BC short form Hasdrubal) was Hamilcar's second son and a Carthaginian general in the Second Punic War The result was a Roman victory in the battle of Cissa in 218 BC. The Battle of Cissa was part of the Second Punic War. It was fought in the fall of 218 BC south of the Greek town of Tarraco in north-eastern Iberia When Hasdrubal finally made it to the scene, he was in no position to fight the Roman army and merely caught their navy personnel off-guard, killing some of them in the process.
The combined Roman and Massalian fleet and army posed a threat to the Carthaginians. Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ Hasdrubal intended to first defeat the fleet. However, his naval forces had a history of failure against the Romans. They had lost all but one major naval engagement in the First Punic War and in 218 BC a naval engagement in the waters of Lilybaeum had been lost despite numerical superiority. The First Punic War ( 264 to 241 BC) was the first of three major wars fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic. Marsala is a seaport city located in the Province of Trapani on the island of Sicily in Italy. For this reason he moved the army and fleet together. The fleet is described as being very disorganized prior to the battle. The army in the meantime provided loud moral support and a safe harbour for the ensuing naval battle of the Ebro River. Battle of Ebro River was a naval battle fought between a Carthaginian fleet of approximately 40 Quinqueremes under the command of Himilco and a Roman fleet of 55 ships under The 40 Carthaginian and Iberian vessels were severely defeated by the 55 Roman and Massalian ships in the second naval engagement of the war with about 3/4 of the fleet captured or sunk and the rest beaching their ships with the army on the shore. In the aftermath the Carthaginian forces retreated, but the Romans were still confined to the area between Ebro and Pyrenees.
This position prevented the Carthaginians from sending reinforcements from Iberia to Hannibal or to the insurgent Gauls in northern Italy during critical stages of the war. To deal with this problem, in 215 BC Hasdrubal marched into Roman territory and offered battle at Dertosa. The Battle of Dertosa, also known as the Battle of Ibera, was fought in the spring of 215 BC on the south bank of the Ebro River across from the town of Dertosa In this battle he used his cavalry superiority to clear the field and to envelop the enemy on both sides with his infantry, a tactic that had been very successfully employed in Italy. But the Romans broke through the thinned out line in the centre and defeated both wings separately, inflicting severe losses; not without, however, taking heavy losses themselves.
While little progress was made in the Iberian theatre, the Scipios were able to negotiate a new front in Africa by allying themselves with Syphax, a powerful Numidian king in North Africa. For the Canadian mountain see Mount Syphax. For the mythological figure see Sufax. In 213 BC he received Roman advisers to train his heavy infantry soldiers that had not yet been able to stand up to their Carthaginian counterparts. With this support he waged war against the Carthaginian ally Gaia. Numidia was an Ancient Libyan kingdom located in the region of North Africa in what is now Kabylie in Algeria. According to Appian, in 213 BC Hasdrubal left Iberia and fought Syphax, though he may be confused with Hasdrubal Gisco, however, it did bind Carthaginian resources. Hasdrubal son of Hamilcar Barca, (d 207 BC short form Hasdrubal) was Hamilcar's second son and a Carthaginian general in the Second Punic War Hasdrubal Gisco or Hasdrubal son of Gisco (died 202 BC was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia ( Hispania) and [3] Hasdrubal Gisco is the son of the Gesco who had served together with Hamilcar Barca, Hannibal's father, in Sicily during the First Punic War and son-in-law of Hanno the Elder who was one of Hannibal's lieutenants in Italy. Hamilcar Barca or Barcas (ca 275 &ndash 228 BC was a Carthaginian general and statesman leader of the Barcid family and father of Hannibal Hanno the Elder was a Carthaginian general who served under Hannibal during the Second Punic War
Central Mediterranean (218 BC - 213 BC)
Naval raids and expeditions
In 218 BC the Carthaginian navy was busy scouting the Sicilian waters and preparing for a surprise attack on their former key stronghold Lilybaeum on the western tip of the island. The quadrans (literally meaning "a quarter" was a low-value Roman Bronze Coin worth one fourth of an as. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Marsala is a seaport city located in the Province of Trapani on the island of Sicily in Italy. 20 quinqueremes, loaded with 1,000 soldiers, raided the Lipari Islands west of Sicily and 8 ships intended to attack the Vulcan islands, but were blown off-course in a storm towards the Straits of Messina. A quinquereme (Latin or penteres (Greek is a type of ancient oar-propelled warship that was used by the Greeks of the Hellenistic period and later by the Carthaginians The Aeolian Islands ( Italian Isole Eolie) are a Volcanic Archipelago in the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Sicily. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. The Syracusan navy, then at Messina, managed to capture three of these ships without resistance. Learning from their crews that a Carthaginian fleet was to attack Lilybaeum, Hiero II warned the Roman praetor Marcus Amellius there. Hieron II, king of Syracuse from 270 to 215 BC was the illegitimate son of a Syracusan noble Hierocles, who claimed descent from Gelon He was a former Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before As a result the Romans prepared 20 quinquiremes to intercept, and defeated the 35 Carthaginian quinquiremes in the battle of Lilybaeum, the first naval engagement of the war. The Battle of Lilybaeum was the first naval clash between the navies of Carthage and Rome during the Second Punic War.
In 218 BC preparations were made to launch a Roman expedition from the same Lilybaeum against Africa. Hannibal had anticipated the move and reinforced the defending army in Africa with 13,850 Iberian heavy infantry, 870 Balearic slingers and 1200 Iberian cavalry. In addition, some 4000 Iberian men of good family were called up who were under orders to be conveyed to Carthage to strengthen its defence, and also to serve as hostages for the loyalty of their people. [4] In return, 11,850 Lybian infantry, 300 Ligurians, and 500 Balearics were sent to Iberia to strengthen the local defence against the other anticipated Roman invasion. [5]
The Carthaginian navy had been defeated in two major encounters by the Romans, but neither side was usually able to interdict the other from raiding each other's coasts. An exception was in 217 BC when a Carthaginian fleet of 70 quinquiremes was intercepted off the coast of Etruria by a Roman fleet of 120 quinquiremes and retreated without giving battle. A quinquereme (Latin or penteres (Greek is a type of ancient oar-propelled warship that was used by the Greeks of the Hellenistic period and later by the Carthaginians Etruria &mdash usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia &mdash was a region of Central Italy, located in an area
The first Carthaginian expedition to Sardinia in 215 BC was under the command of Hasdrubal The Bald with his subordinate Hampsicora. A previous pro-Carthaginian uprising had been defeated while a storm had blown the Carthaginian fleet to the Balearic Islands. The Balearic Islands ( Catalan and official Illes Balears; Spanish: Islas Baleares) are an Archipelago in the western Mediterranean When they finally made it to Sardinia, the Romans were aware of their intentions and had reinforced the unpopular garrison under Titus Manlius Torquatus to 20,000 infantry and 1,200 cavalry. Titus Manlius Torquatus can refer to three Roman Republic Consuls of the Gens Manlia: Titus Manlius Imperiosus These engaged and defeated the Carthaginians' 15,000 infantry and 1,500 cavalry (plus an unknown number of elephants) and the remaining insurgent Sardinians at the Battle of Cornus. The Battle of Cornus, or Caralis took place when a Carthaginian army sailed to Sardinia in support of a Sardinian revolt against Roman rule In the aftermath the defeated expedition of 60 quinquiremes and several transports encountered a Roman raiding party from Africa with 100 quinquiremes. The Carthaginian fleet scattered and escaped save for 7 ships. As a result Sardinia, an important grain exporter, remained under Roman occupation.
Gaulish uprising
The Romans simultaneously received news of Hannibal's crossing of the Ebro and of an uprising in northern Italy of the Gaulish tribes Boii and Insubres. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. Boii ( Latin plural singular Boius; Greek) is the Roman name of an ancient Celtic tribe, attested at various The Insubres or Insubri were a population settled in Insubria, in what is now Lombardy. [6] These had established diplomatic contact with the Carthaginians and joined them as allies against their common enemy, Rome. The first objective of the insurgents were the Roman colonies of Placentia and Cremona, causing the Romans to flee to Mutina, which the Gauls then besieged. Cremonese redirects here For the football team see US Cremonese Cremona is a City in northern Italy, situated Modena (ˈmɔːdena Mòdna in Modenese dialect is a city and a Comune ( Municipality) on the south side of the Po valley, in the In response, Praetor L. Manlius Vulso marched with 2 Roman legions and allies, 1,600 cavalry and 20,000 infantry, to Cisalpine Gaul. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Lucius Manlius Af Vulso Longus (fl 250s BC) was a Consul of Ancient Rome twice in 256 BC and in 250 BC, and was notable as a commander Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later This army was ambushed twice on the way from Ariminium, lost 1,200 men, and although the siege of Mutina was raised, this army itself fell under a loose siege a few miles from Mutina. Rimini is a city in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy and capital city of the Province of Rimini. [7] This event prompted the Roman Senate to send one of Scipio's legions and 5,000 allied troops to aid Vulso. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Scipio had to raise troops to replace these and thus could not set out for Iberia until September of 218 BC, thus giving Hannibal time to march from the Ebro to the Rhone.
After evading a pitched battle at the Rhone, Hannibal came to the aid of his Gaulish allies, who were hard pressed by the Roman reinforcements. He crossed the Alps, surmounting the difficulties of climate and terrain, and the guerrilla tactics of the native tribes. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc His exact route is disputed. Hannibal arrived with at least 28,000 infantry , 6,000 cavalry and 30 elephants in the territory of the Taurini in Italy. The Taurini were an ancient Celt - Ligurian people who occupied the upper valley of the river Po, in the centre of modern Piedmont. His crossing was expected by the enemy, but not such an early arrival, while the Roman forces were still in their winter quarters. [8] This crossing is usually credited as a great achievement since no army before had crossed the Alps in winter with elephants and it led to the termination of Rome's main intended thrust, an invasion of Africa.
The Gauls of the lower Po Valley, Hannibal's allies, were still far away. The Po ( Latin: Padus, Po Ligurian: Bo, Greek: Eridanus) is a river that flows 652 km(405 miles (682 km by considering Hannibal was first obliged to fight with his currently reduced force to be able to reach them and to incite the rest of Gallia Cisalpina to revolt. His first action was to take the chief city of the hostile Taurini. The Taurini were an ancient Celt - Ligurian people who occupied the upper valley of the river Po, in the centre of modern Piedmont. Afterwards the Carthaginians were intercepted by a newly raised Roman force under Publius Cornelius Scipio, whom Hannibal had evaded earlier in the Rhone Valley, and who had not anticipated such an early arrival on the other side of the Alps. Publius Cornelius Scipio (died 211 BC was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic. The Rhone, or the Rhône is one of the major Rivers of Europe, running through Switzerland and France. In the ensuing Battle of Ticinus the cavalry forces of Hannibal's army defeated the cavalry and light infantry of the Romans in a minor engagement. The Battle of Ticinus was a battle of the Second Punic War fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and the Romans under Publius Scipio, severely injured in the battle, retreated across the River Trebia with his heavy infantry still intact, and encamped at the town of Placentia to await reinforcements. The Trebbia (stressed Trèbbia; Trebia is a River of Liguria and Emilia Romagna in northern Italy. Piacenza ( Placentia in Latin and old-fashioned English, Piasëinsa in the local dialect of Emiliano-Romagnolo) is a . As a result of Rome’s defeat at the Ticinus, all the Gauls except the Cenomani were induced to join the Carthaginian cause. This article is about the Cenomani in Gallia Celtica for the Cenomani in Cisalpine Gaul see Cenomani (Cisalpine Gaul. Soon the entire north of Italy was unofficially insurgent, with both Gallic and Ligurian troops bolstering Hannibal's army back to at least 40,000 men.
Even before news of the defeat at the Ticinus River reached Rome, the Senate had ordered the consul Sempronius Longus to bring his army back from Sicily, where it had been preparing for the invasion of Africa, to join Scipio and face Hannibal. The River Ticino (Tessin Latin: Ticinus) is a Tributary of the Po. Tiberius Sempronius Longus ( c 260 BC – 210 BC was a Roman Consul during the Second Punic War and a contemporary of Publius Cornelius The latter was blocking Sempronius' way to Scipio's army. But the Carthaginian capture of the supply depot at Clastidium, through the treachery of the local Latin commander, served as a diversion and allowed Sempronius' army to slip through to Scipio, who was still too seriously injured to take the field. Clastidium (modern Casteggio) was a village of the Anamares, in Gallia Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 miles east of Iria (modern Voghera Latin is the name of various peoples or ethnicities related to the Latium region in the Italian Peninsula, to the Latin language, or to its descendants After some minor successes, the united and numerically equal Roman force under the command of Sempronius Longus was lured by Hannibal into combat at the battle of the Trebia. The Battle of the Trebia (or Trebbia) was the first major battle of the Second Punic War, fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal The Roman troops were drawn into the engagement without breakfast and had to first cross a cold river, preventing many from putting up much of a fight. Furthermore, a hidden detachment led by Hannibal's younger brother Mago attacked them from the rear. Mago son of Hamilcar Barca, (also spelled Magon; 243 BC - 203 BC short form Mago) was a member of the Barcid family and played an important All in all, the Romans suffered heavy losses with only 20,000 men out of 40,000 able to retreat to safety. They left Cisalpine Gaul in the aftermath. Having secured his position in northern Italy by this victory, Hannibal quartered his troops for the winter amongst the Gauls. The latter joined his army in large numbers, bringing it up to 60,000 men, but the Carthaginians living on their land reduced their enthusiasm.
The Roman Senate resolved to raise new armies against Hannibal under the recently-elected consuls of 217 B. C. , Gnaeus Servilius Geminus and Gaius Flaminius. Gnaeus Servilius Geminus (d August 2, 216 BCE was a Roman consul serving as both general and admiral of Roman forces during the Second Punic War. Gaius Flaminius Nepos was a Politician and Consul of the Roman Republic in the 3rd century BC The latter had long distrusted his fellow senators and feared they would try to sabotage his command by finding excuses to delay his departure. So he quietly left Rome to take over his army at Ariminum without performing the lengthy religious rituals required of an incoming consul. [9] The Senate voted unanimously to recall him but he ignored its orders. This caused widespread dismay among the Romans, who feared that Flaminius' disrespect for the gods would bring disaster on Rome. As it was expected that Hannibal would advance into central Italy, Flaminius moved his army from Ariminum to Arretium, to cover the Apennine mountain passes into Etruria. Arezzo ( Latin Arretium) is a city in central Italy, capital of the province of the same name, located in His colleague Servilius, who had performed the proper rituals and was therefore well behind Flaminius, replaced him with his freshly-raised army at Ariminum to cover the route along the Adriatic coast. A third force, containing the survivors of previous engagements, was also stationed in Etruria under Scipio. Thus the both the eastern and western routes to Rome appeared guarded.
In early spring 217 BC Hannibal decided to advance, leaving his wavering Gaulish allies in the Po Valley and crossing the Apennines unopposed. The Battle of Lake Trasimene ( June 24, 217 BC, April on the Julian calendar) was a Roman defeat in the Second Punic War between the Carthaginians Events By place Roman Republic Gaius Flaminius Nepos is re-elected Consul with Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, in what is Afterwards he avoided the Roman positions and took the only unguarded route into Etruria at the mouth of the Arno. Etruria &mdash usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia &mdash was a region of Central Italy, located in an area This route was through a huge marsh which happened to be more flooded than usual for spring. Hannibal's army marched for several days without finding convenient places to rest, suffering terribly from fatigue and lack of sleep. This led to the loss of part of the force, including, it seems, the few remaining elephants.
Arriving in Etruria still in the spring of 217 BC, Hannibal tried without success to draw the main Roman army under Flaminius into a pitched battle by devastating the area the latter had been sent to protect. Events By place Roman Republic Gaius Flaminius Nepos is re-elected Consul with Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, in what is A pitched battle is a Combat fought on a Battlefield expected to be site of engagement by both sides [10] Then a new stratagem was employed by Hannibal who marched around his opponent’s left flank and effectively cut him off from Rome. Advancing through the uplands of Etruria, the Carthaginian now provoked Flaminius into a hasty pursuit without proper reconnaissance. Etruria &mdash usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia &mdash was a region of Central Italy, located in an area Then, in a defile on the shore of Lake Trasimenus, Hannibal lay in ambush with his army. Defile is a geographic term for a narrow pass or gorge between mountains or hills Lake Trasimeno or Trasimene (in Italian: Lago Trasimeno) is the largest lake in the Italian peninsula south of the Po with a surface The ambush was a complete success: in the battle of Lake Trasimene Hannibal destroyed most of the Roman army and killed Flaminius with little loss to his own army. The Battle of Lake Trasimene ( June 24, 217 BC, April on the Julian calendar) was a Roman defeat in the Second Punic War between the Carthaginians 6,000 Romans had been able to escape, but were caught and forced to surrender by Maharbal's Numidians. Maharbal (fl 2nd century BC was Hannibal 's cavalry commander during the Second Punic War. Furthermore, Scipio, aware of the fighting, sent his cavalry in support but it was also caught and annihilated. As a result of this victory, the heterogeneous force of insurgent Gauls, Africans, Iberians and Numidians had more military equipment than they could use themselves and sold the surplus via Egyptian traders to the Romans. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. As after all previous engagements the captured enemies were sorted according to whether they were Romans, who were held captive, or non-Romans, who were released to spread the propaganda that the Carthaginian army was in Italy to fight for their freedom against the Romans. Strategically, Hannibal had now disposed of the only field force which could check his advance upon Rome, but despite the urgings of his generals, did not proceed to attack Rome. Instead he marched to the south in the hope of winning over allies amongst the Greek and Italic population there. Ancient peoples of Italy are all those peoples that lived in Italy (including the islands of Sicily and Sardinia) before the Roman domination
Fabian Strategy
The defeat at Lake Trasimene put the Romans in an immense state of panic, fearing for the very existence of their city. For Sir Francis Galton 's machine for demonstrating the Normal distribution named "quincunx" see Bean machine. Larino ( Latin: Larinum, Campobassan dialect Larìn) is a town and commune of approximately 7000 inhabitants in the Italian Region of Molise The Senate decided to resort to the traditional emergency measure of appointing a dictator, a temporary commander-in-chief who would unite military authority, which was normally divided between the two consuls, under one head for six months. Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic The usual procedure required the presence of a consul to appoint the dictator. Since one consul (Flaminius) was dead and the other (Servilius) away with the only army left in Italy, the Senate resolved to elect a dictator itself. As this was unconstitutional, the person appointed, Quintus Fabius Maximus, was given the title of prodictator (acting dictator) although he held the same powers as a dictator. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (ca 280 BC-203 BC called Cunctator ( the Delayer) was a Roman politician and General born in Rome around 280 BC and Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic The Senate also appointed his magister equitum ("master of cavalry", who acted as his second-in-command) instead of allowing the dictator to choose one himself as was the normal rule: M. Minucius Rufus. The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases is a historical position of varying importance in several European nations Marcus Minucius Rufus (d August 2, 216 BC) was a Roman Consul in 221 BC. [12]
Departing from the Roman military tradition of engaging the enemy in pitched battle as soon as possible, Fabius invented the Fabian strategy: refusing open battle with his opponent, but constantly skirmishing with small detachments of the enemy. The Fabian strategy is a Military strategy where Pitched battles are avoided in favor of wearing down an opponent through a war of attrition. This course was not popular among the soldiers, earning Fabius the nickname Cunctator ("delayer"), since he seemed to avoid battle while Italy was being ravaged by the enemy. Moreover, it was widely feared that, if Hannibal continued to plunder Italy unopposed, the terrified allies, believing that Rome was incapable of protecting them, might defect and pledge their allegiance to the Carthaginians. As a countermeasure, residents of villages were encouraged to post lookouts, so that they could gather their livestock and possessions in time and take refuge in fortified towns which the enemy could not yet take. Fabius' policy was to shadow Hannibal by moving on the heights parallel to the Carthaginian movements on the plains, to avoid Hannibal's cavalry which was supreme on flat terrain. This demanded great care since the Carthaginian tried with all his skill to ambush the Romans. For this reason a new marching formation with three parallel columns of infantry was developed instead of the single column that had been in use at Lake Trasimene.
Fabius' constant harassment of Hannibal's force handicapped the latter's command abilities and gained many prisoners. Both commanders decided that they would exchange prisoners under the same conditions as in the First Punic War. The First Punic War ( 264 to 241 BC) was the first of three major wars fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic. Although the Carthaginians returned to the Romans several hundred more prisoners than they received and were thus expecting monetary compensation, the Senate was reluctant to pay. However, the estates of Fabius had not been touched by the Carthaginian pillage parties in order to incite distrust against him. Fabius now sold these estates to pay the enemy army for the received surplus of prisoners.
Having ravaged Apulia without provoking Fabius into a battle, Hannibal decided to march through Samnium to Campania, one of the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping that the devastation would draw Fabius into battle. Samnium ( Oscan: Safinim; Italian Sannio) is a historical region of the south central Apennines in Italy, that was home to the Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 The latter was aware that there were excellent opportunities to trap the Carthaginian force on the Campanian plain and to force Hannibal to fight in the surrounding mountains on ground of his own choice. As the year wore on, Hannibal decided that it would be unwise to winter in the already devastated plains of Campania but Fabius had ensured that all the mountain passes offering an exit were blocked. This situation led to the night battle of Ager Falernus in which the Carthaginians made good their escape by tricking the Romans into believing that they were heading to the heights above them. The Battle of Ager Falernus (or the Battle of the Falernian Territory was a skirmish during the Second Punic War between the armies of Rome and Carthage The Romans were thus decoyed and the Carthaginians slipped through the undefended pass with all their baggage train. This was a severe blow to Fabius’ prestige.
Minucius, the magister equitum, was one of the leading voices in the army against the adoption of the Fabian Strategy. As soon as he scored a minor success by winning a skirmish with the Carthaginians, the Senate promoted Minucius to the same imperium (power of command) as Fabius, whom he accused of cowardice. In consequence the two men decided to split the army between them. Minucius with his division was swiftly lured by Hannibal into an ambush in the flat country of Geronium. The Battle of Geronium or Gerunium is part of the Second Punic War, where a large skirmish and an ambush took place in the summer and autumn of 217 BC respectively Fabius Maximus rushed to his co-commander's assistance and Hannibal's forces immediately retreated. Subsequently Minucius accepted Fabius' authority and ended their political conflict.
Seeking a decisive engagement
Fabius became unpopular in Rome, since his tactics did not lead to a quick end to the war. For the 11th century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018. The Roman populace derided the Cunctator, and at the elections of 216 BC elected as consuls Caius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus, both of whom advocated pursuing a much more aggressive war strategy. Gaius Terentius Varro (fl 3rd century BC was a Roman Consul and commander There have been several people named Lucius Aemilius Paul ( l) us: Lucius Aemilius Paullus (consul 219 BC Lucius Aemilius
In the campaign of 217 BC Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the Italics; in the following year he had an opportunity to turn the tide in his favour. Events By place Roman Republic Gaius Flaminius Nepos is re-elected Consul with Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, in what is Ancient peoples of Italy are all those peoples that lived in Italy (including the islands of Sicily and Sardinia) before the Roman domination In the spring of 216 B. C. , Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain. Thus, by seizing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial source of supply. The Roman Senate authorised the raising of double-sized armies by consuls Varro and Aemilius Paullus. By some estimates, the Romans raised a force as large as 100,000 men, though this figure cannot be completely validated.
Consuls Aemilius Paulus and Varro resolved to confront Hannibal and marched southward to Apulia. Apulia ( Italian: Puglia) is a region in southeastern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east the Ionian Sea After a two days’ march, they found him on the left bank of the Aufidus River, and encamped six miles away. Hannibal capitalized on Varro's eagerness and drew him into a trap by using an envelopment tactic which eliminated the Roman numerical advantage by shrinking the surface area where combat could occur. Hannibal drew up his least reliable infantry in a semicircle in the centre with the wings composed of the Gallic and Numidian horse. The Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's weak centre but the Libyan Mercenaries on the wings swung around their advance, menacing their flanks. The onslaught of Hannibal's cavalry was irresistible, and Hasdrubal, his brother, who commanded the left, routed the Roman cavalry on the Roman right wing and then swept around the rear of the Roman line and attacked Varro's cavalry on the Roman left, and then the legions, from behind. As a result, the Roman army was surrounded with no means of escape. Due to these brilliant tactics, Hannibal, with much inferior numbers, managed to destroy all but a small remnant of this force. Depending on the source, it is estimated that 50,000–70,000 Romans were killed or captured at Cannae.
As Polybius notes, “How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, than those which preceded it can be seen by the behaviour of Rome’s allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman power. ”. [13] During that same year, the Greek cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control, while the Macedonian king, Philip V pledged his support to Hannibal – thus initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome. Philip V ( Greek Φίλιππος Ε΄) (238 BC - 179 BC was King of Macedon from 221 BC to 179 BC The First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Hannibal also secured an alliance with newly appointed King Hieronymous of Syracuse, and Tarentum also came over to him around that time. Hieronymus comes from the Ancient Greek and means "sacred name Syracuse (Siracusa Sicilian: Sarausa, Classical Greek: / transliterated Syrakousai) is a historic City in Not to be confused with Toronto. Taranto ( Ancient Greek: Tarās; Modern Greek: Tarantas) is a coastal city in Hannibal now had the resources and personnel needed to launch a successful attack on the City of Rome. However, he was uncertain of the feasability of such an attack and spent a great deal of time pondering it. While he hesitated, the Romans were able to regroup, and the opportunity was lost. The Romans looked back on Hannibal's indecision as what saved Rome from certain defeat. The only other notable event of 216 BC was the defection of Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made his new base. Events By place Roman Republic The Carthaginian general Hannibal, moves his forces southward through Italy and seizes the large Capua is a city in the Province of Caserta, Campania, Italy situated 25 km (16 mi north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of Yet even this defection failed to satisfy him as only a few of the Italian city-states which he had expected to gain as allies agreed to join him. Furthermore, the Macedonian navy was no match for the Roman navy, so they were unable to help him directly.
Hannibal sent a delegation to Rome to negotiate a peace and another one offering to release his Roman prisoners of war for ransom, but Rome rejected all offers.
Establishing an allied base
| “I have not come to fight Italians, but on behalf of the Italians against Rome. ” |
| Livy, Hannibal after the battle of Lake Trasimene |
After Cannae several south Italian allies went at once over to Hannibal: the Apulian towns of Salapia, Arpi and Herdonia and many of the Lucanians. Apulia ( Italian: Puglia) is a region in southeastern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east the Ionian Sea Arpi was an ancient city of Apulia, Italy, 20 mi W of the sea coast and 5 M Lucania was an ancient district of southern Italy, extending from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto. Mago marched south with an army detachment and some weeks later the Bruttians joined him. The Bruttii ( Greek:, Italian: Bruzi were an ancient Italic people who inhabited the southern extremity of Italy, from the frontiers of Simultaneously, Hannibal marched north with part of his forces and was joined by the Hirpini and the Caudini, two of the three Samnite cantons. The Hirpini ( Greek:, Pol;, Strab, App) were an ancient people of central Italy, of Samnite race and who were often The Caudini were a Samnite tribe that lived among the mountains ringing Campania and in the valleys of the Isclero and Volturnus rivers The greatest gain was the second largest city of Italy, Capua, when Hannibal's army marched into Campania in 216 BC. Capua is a city in the Province of Caserta, Campania, Italy situated 25 km (16 mi north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 The inhabitants of Capua held limited Roman citizenship and the aristocracy was linked to the Romans via marriage and friendship, but the possibility of becoming the supreme city of Italy after the evident Roman disasters proved too strong a temptation. The treaty between them and Hannibal can be described as an agreement of friendship since the Capuans had no obligations, but provided the harbour through which Hannibal was reinforced. [14] By 215 BC Hannibal's alliance system covered the bulk of southern Italy, save for the Greek cities along the coast (except Croton that was conquered by his allies), Rhegium, and the Latin colonies Beneventum, Luceria in Samnium, Venusia in Apulia, Brundisium and Paestum. The independent Gaul he had established in northern Italy was still out of Roman control. [15]
Hannibal had been able to win over a major allied base by his tremendous military success. He also regarded it as essential to take the city of Nola, a Roman fortress in Campania, a region that linked his various allies geographically and contained his most important harbour for supply. Nola is a city of Campania, Italy, in the Province of Naples, situated in the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines. Prior to his first attempt the pro-Punic faction in the city had been eliminated by the Romans, so there was no chance of the city being betrayed. Hannibal tried three times, by assault or siege, to take this city, which was defended by Marcus Claudius Marcellus in the battle of Nola (216 BC), Battle of Nola (215 BC) and battle of Nola (214 BC), but failed each time. Marcus Claudius Marcellus (ca 268 BC-208 BC was a Roman general one of the commanders of the Roman Army during the Second Punic War and the conqueror of Syracuse The First Battle of Nola was fought in 216 BC between the forces of Hannibal and a Roman force led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. The Second Battle of Nola was fought in 215 BC between Hannibal 's army and a Roman Army under Marcus Claudius Marcellus. The Third Battle of Nola was fought in 214 BC between Hannibal and a Roman army led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. At least in 215 Hannibal was able to take Casilinum, the other important site for controlling Campania. Casilinum (modern Capua) an ancient city of Campania, Italy, 3 m
While it was not directly connected with the Italian peninsula, Syracuse on Sicily was important for securing the searoutes for supply, since Lilybaeum remained in Roman hands. Syracuse, as a place name may refer to In Italy Syracuse Sicily the Province of Syracuse In the United States Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Marsala is a seaport city located in the Province of Trapani on the island of Sicily in Italy. Hannibal was aided by the fact that Hiero II, the old tyrant of Syracuse and a staunch Roman ally, had died and his successor Hieronymous was discontented with his position in the Roman alliance. Hieron II, king of Syracuse from 270 to 215 BC was the illegitimate son of a Syracusan noble Hierocles, who claimed descent from Gelon He was a former Hieronymus comes from the Ancient Greek and means "sacred name Hannibal despatched two of his lieutenants, who were of Syracusian origin; he succeeded in winning Syracuse over, at the price, however, of making the whole of Sicily a Syracusan possession. The Syracusans' ambitions were great, but the army they fielded was no match for the arriving Roman force, leading to the siege of Syracuse from 214 BC onwards. During this siege the ingenuity of Archimedes' machines defeated all Roman attacks.
The essence of Hannibal's campaign in Italy was to fight the Romans with indigenous resources. His subordinate Hanno was able to raise troops in Samnium, but the Romans intercepted these new levies in the Battle of Beneventum (214 BC) and eliminated them before they came under the feared leadership of Hannibal. Samnium ( Oscan: Safinim; Italian Sannio) is a historical region of the south central Apennines in Italy, that was home to the The Battle of Beneventum was fought in 214 BC near modern Benevento during the Second Punic War. Hannibal could win allies, but defending them against the Romans was a new and difficult problem, as the Romans could still field multiple armies greatly outnumbering his own forces. Thus Fabius was able to take the Punic ally Arpi in 213 BC.
Eastern Mediterranean and Ionian Sea (218 BC - 213 BC)
217 letter from Hannibal after Battle of Lake Trasimene leading to war preparations 217–216 BC Philip V of Macedon building a fleet of 100 lembi 216 BC ambassadors to Hannibal after Battle of Cannae 214 Second Macedonian War officially starts 214 naval expeditions from Macedonia 213 land expedition to Lissus
Rome takes key cities (212 BC - 207 BC)
Western Mediterranean(212 BC - 207 BC)
Defeat of the first expedition
In Iberia, the Scipio brothers had hired 20,000 Celtiberian mercenaries to reinforce their army of 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse. The First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against The Battle of Lake Trasimene ( June 24, 217 BC, April on the Julian calendar) was a Roman defeat in the Second Punic War between the Carthaginians Philip V ( Greek Φίλιππος Ε΄) (238 BC - 179 BC was King of Macedon from 221 BC to 179 BC A lembus was an ancient Illyrian Galley, with a single bank of oars and no sails For the 11th century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018. The Second Macedonian War ( 200 &ndash 197 BC) was fought between Macedon, led by Philip V of Macedon, and Rome, allied with Pergamon Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183 Capua is a city in the Province of Caserta, Campania, Italy situated 25 km (16 mi north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of Observing that the Carthaginian armies were deployed separately from each other, with Hasdrubal Barca and 15,000 troops near Amtorgis, and Mago Barca, Hasdrubal Gisco with 10,000 troops each further to the West of Hasdrubal, the Scipio brothers planned to split their forces. Publius Scipio decided to take 20,000 Roman and allied soldiers and attack Mago Barca near Castulo, while Gnaeus Scipio took one double legion (10,000 troops) and the mercenaries to attack Hasdrubal Barca. This stratagem would lead to 2 battles, the Battle of Castulo and the Battle of Ilorca to take place within a few days of each other, usually combined as Battle of the Upper Baetis (211 BC). The Battle of the Upper Baetis was fought in 211 BC between a Carthaginian force led by Hasdrubal Barca ( Hannibal 's brother and Roman force led by Both battles ended in clear defeats for the Romans because Hasdrubal bribed the Roman mercenaries to desert and return home without a fight.
As a result of the battle the Romans were forced to retreat to their stronghold of Northern Iberia from which the Carthaginians could not expel them. It is notable that the Roman soldiers decided to elect a new leader since both commanders had been killed, a practice hitherto known only in Punic or Hellenistic armies.
Second Roman expedition to Iberia
In 210 BC Scipio Aemelianus arrived in Iberia on the Senate's orders to avenge his father and uncle. 210 Scipio Africanus lands in Iberia In the Battle of Baecula (208 BC) he defeated Hasdrubal, but was not able to prevent him from continuing his march to Italy in order to reinforce his brother Hannibal. The Battle of Baecula was Scipio Africanus ’s first major field battle after he had taken command of Roman interests in Iberia during the Second Punic War In a brilliant assault Scipio succeeded in capturing the centre of Punic power in Iberia, Cartagena, in 207 BC. Battle of Cartagena (207 BC)
Central Mediterranean(212 BC - 207 BC)
Climax and fall of Hannibal's alliance
The climax of Carthaginian expansion was reached when the biggest Greek city in Italy, Tarentum, switched sides in 212 BC. Drachma, pl drachmas or drachmae (δραχμή pl δραχμές or δραχμαί (until 1982 is the name of An ancient currency unit found in many Syracuse (Siracusa Sicilian: Sarausa, Classical Greek: / transliterated Syrakousai) is a historic City in Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer Not to be confused with Toronto. Taranto ( Ancient Greek: Tarās; Modern Greek: Tarantas) is a coastal city in The Battle of Tarentum (212 BC) was a carefully planned coup by Hannibal and members of the city's democratic faction. The Battle of Tarentum of 212 BC was a battle in the Second Punic War. There were two separate successful assaults on the gates of the city. This enabled the Punic army, which had approached unobserved behind a screen of marauding Numidian horsemen, to enter the city by surprise and take all but the citadel where the Romans and their supporting faction were able to rally. The Carthaginians failed to take the citadel, but subsequent fortifications around this enemy stronghold enabled the city remain under Punic control. However, the harbour was blocked and warships had to be transported overland to be launched at sea.
The Battle of Capua (212 BC) was a stalemate since neither side could defeat the other. The First Battle of Capua was fought in 212 BC between Hannibal and two Roman consular armies The Romans decided to withdraw and break off the siege of Capua. As a result the cavalry of Capua was reinforced with half of the available Numidian cavalry, 2,000 riders.
In the battle of Beneventum (212 BC) Hanno the Elder was again defeated, this time by Quintus Fulvius Flaccus who also captured his camp. Hanno the Elder was again defeated this time by Quintus Fulvius Flaccus who also captured his camp Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, son of Marcus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 264 BC, Quintus was Consul in 237 BC, fighting the Gauls in northern Italy
Next came the Battle of the Silarus in 212 BC, where the Romans under Marcus Centenius were ambushed and lost all but 1,000 of their 16,000 effectives. The Battle of the Silarus was fought in 212 BC between Hannibal 's army and a Roman force led by praetor Marcus Centenius Penula.
The Battle of Herdonia (212 BC) was another Roman defeat when only 2,000 Romans out of force of 18,000 survived a direct attack by Hannibal's numerically superior forces combined with an ambush cutting off the Roman line of retreat. The first Battle of Herdonia was fought in 212 BC during the Second Punic War between Hannibal 's Carthaginian army and Roman forces led by Preator
This phase of the war was marked by the fall of major and minor cities to the Romans, although Hannibal was still able to prevail on the battlefield and thus lift some sieges.
The Siege of Syracuse (212 BC) from 214 BC onwards was marked by Archimedes' ingenuity in inventing war machines that made it impossible for the Romans to make any gains with traditional methods of siege warfare. A Carthaginian army of 20,000 had been sent to relieve the city, but suffered more heavily than the Romans from pestilence and was thus forced to retreat to Agrigentum. The fall of Syracuse was finally achieved by a Roman attack that was treacherously helped to enter the city by a Syracusan pro-Roman faction and resulted in the death of Archimedes.
In the Battle of Capua (211 BC) Hannibal again tried to relieve his main harbour as in 212 BC by luring the Romans into a pitched battle. The Second Battle of Capua was fought in 211 BC when the Romans besieged Capua. He was unsuccessful, and was also unable to lift the siege by assaulting the besiegers' defences. So he tried a strategem of staging a march towards Rome, hoping in this way to compel the enemy to abandon the siege and rush to defend their home city. However, only part of the besieging force left for Rome and under continued siege Capua fell soon afterwards. Near Rome he fought another pitched battle.
The Battle of Herdonia (210 BC) was another battle to lift the Roman siege of an allied city. The second battle of Herdonia took place in 210 BC during the so called Second Punic War. Hannibal caught the proconsul Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus off guard during his siege of Herdonia and destroyed his army in a pitched battle with up to 13,000 Romans dead out of less than 20,000.
The defection of Salapia in Apulia in 210 BC was achieved by treachery: the inhabitants massacred the Numidian garrison and went over to the Romans.
In 210 BC the Battle of Numistro between Marcellus and Hannibal was inconclusive, but the Romans stayed on his heels until the also inconclusive Battle of Canusium in 209 BC. The Battle of Numistro was fought in 210 BC between Hannibal 's army and a Roman army led by consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus. The Battle of Canusium was a three day engagement between forces of Rome and Carthage that took place in Apulia during the summer of 209 BC, In the meantime, this battle enabled another Roman army under Fabius to approach Tarentum and take it by treachery in the Battle of Tarentum (209 BC). The Battle of Tarentum of 209 BC was a battle in the Second Punic War. Hannibal at that time had been able to disengage from Marcellus and was only 5 miles away when the city, under the command of Carthalo (who was bound to Fabius by an agreement of hospitality), fell.
Hasdrubal's failed reinforcement
The Battle of Grumentum was an inconclusive fight in 207 BC between Gaius Claudius Nero and Hannibal. The Battle of Grumentum was fought in 207 BC between Romans led by Gaius Claudius Nero, and Hannibal 's Carthaginian army Gaius Claudius Nero was a Roman Consul who fought in the Battle of the Metaurus (207 BC In the aftermath of the battle Nero was able to trick Hannibal into believing that the whole Roman army was still in camp. In the meantime Nero marched with a selected corps north and reinforced the Romans there to fight the Battle of the Metaurus against Hasdrubal. The Battle of the Metaurus was a pivotal battle in the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage, fought in 207 BC near the Metaurus River The Carthaginian force under Hasdrubal had left Iberia a year ago after the defeat at the Battle of Baecula and had been reinforced by Gallic and Ligurian mercenaries and allies. The Battle of Baecula was Scipio Africanus ’s first major field battle after he had taken command of Roman interests in Iberia during the Second Punic War It is notable that they took the same route as Hannibal 10 years previously, but suffered less casualties, being rather better supported by mercenaries from the mountain tribes.
Naval raids and expeditions
210 Second expedition to Sardinia 210 Naval expedition to Tarent Roman raids on Africa
Eastern Mediterranean and Ionian Sea (212 BC - 207 BC)
211 Romans counters Macedonian threat with a Greek alliance of the Aetolians, Elis, Sparta, Messenia and Attalus I of Pergamon, as well as two Roman clients, the Illyrians Pleuratus and Scerdilaidas. The First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Aetolia is a mountainous region of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth forming the eastern part of the modern prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania Elis, or Eleia ( Greek, Modern Ήλιδα Ilida, Ancient Ēlis, Doric: Alis, Elean: Walis) is an ancient The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη Messenia or Messinia (Μεσσηνία is a prefecture in the Peloponnese, a region of Greece. Attalus I ( surnamed Soter ( "Savior" 269 BC &ndash 197 BC ruled Pergamon, a Greek Polis in what is now Turkey Pleuratus was an Illyrian dynastic name borne by a number of Illyrians of the royal house of the Ardiaei among others Scerdilaidas ( Skerdilaidas) was an Illyrian ruler From before 218 BC Scerdilaidas was an ally of Philip V of Macedon, although his support for Macedon [16]
209 Illyri attack on Macedonia 209 Punic naval expedition to Corcyra 209 First Battle of Lamia 209 Second Battle of Lamia 208 BC Roman and Pergamese attack on Lemnos
Seeking peace (206 BC - 201 BC)
Western Mediterranean(206 BC - 201 BC)
Carthage's last stand in Iberia
At the Battle of Ilipa large numbers of Celtiberian mercenaries in Carthaginian service confronted a mixed army of Romans and Iberians. The First Battle of Lamia was fought in 209 BC between the forces of Philip V of Macedon and the Aetolians led by Phyrrhias. The Second Battle of Lamia was fought in 209 BC between the forces of Philip V of Macedon and Phyrrhias, a general from Aetolia The Battle of Ilipa was arguably Scipio Africanus ’s most brilliant victory in his military career during the Second Punic War. Scipio Africanus Major employed a clever ruse. Every day for several days, he drew up his army for battle with the Romans stationed in the centre of the line and their Iberian on the wings. But when the enemy offered battle, he would eventually decline it. By this stratagem he convinced the Punic commanders Mago and Hasdrubal Gesco that they could expect the Romans to hold the centre of their line. On the day of the battle the Roman force deployed earlier in the day and with the Romans posted on the wings of the line. In the rush to respond, the Carthaginians placed their best forces in the centre as usual, failing to spot the unusual Roman deployment. Thus the inferior Carthaginian mercenaries on the wings were severely beaten by the Romans. The Celtiberians deserted the Carthaginian camp that night. This catastrophic defeat sealed the fate of the Carthaginian presence in Iberia. It was followed by the Roman capture of Gades in 206 BC after the city had already rebelled against Carthaginian rule. Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight A last attempt was made by Mago in 205 BC to recapture New Carthage while the Roman presence was shaken by a mutiny and an Iberian uprising against their new overlords. But the attack was repulsed. So in the same year he left Iberia, setting sail from the Balearic islands to Italy with his remaining forces.
The Numidian struggle
206 BC there was a quick succession of kings in Eastern Numidia that temporarily ended with the division of the land between Carthage and the Western Numidian king Syphax, a former Roman ally. Constantine ( Latin: Cōnstantīnus, Greek:) is a given name and surname derived from the Latin word constans, meaning constant or For this bargain Syphax was to marry Sophonisba, daughter of Hasdrubal Gisco. For the Renaissance painter Sofonisba Anguissola (ca 1532-1625 see Sofonisba Anguissola. Hasdrubal Gisco or Hasdrubal son of Gisco (died 202 BC was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia ( Hispania) and Massinissa, who had thus lost his fiancee went over to the Romans with whom he had already established contact during his military service in Iberia. Masinissa or Massinissa (c 240 or 238 BC - c 148 BC was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of Ancient Libyan tribes NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS***************
Central Mediterranean(206 BC - 201 BC)
Last stands in Italy
205 Mago lands in Italy 205 Mago is defeated in the Po Valley Raid 204 Battle of Crotona 203 Battle of Crotona
Carrying the war to Africa
Scipio Africanus Major was given command of the legions in Sicily and was allowed to levy volunteers for his plan to end the war by an invasion of Africa. The Raid of the Po Valley in 203 BC was the culmination of a major diversion carried out by the Carthaginian commander Mago, son of Hamilcar Barca, at the end of the The battle or more precisely the battles of Croton in 204 and 203 BC were as well as the raid in Cisalpine Gaul, the last larger scale engagements between the Romans and the The battle or more precisely the battles of Croton in 204 and 203 BC were as well as the raid in Cisalpine Gaul, the last larger scale engagements between the Romans and the Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183 The legions in Sicily were mainly the survivors of Cannae who were not allowed home until the war was finished. Scipio was also one of the survivors and had served during the siege of Syracuse with them, but unlike the ordinary soldiers he then had been allowed home, had run successfully for public office and had been given command of the troops in Iberia.
Within a year of his landing in Africa, Scipio twice routed the regular Carthaginian forces under Hasdrubal Gisco and his Numidian allies. The Battle of Utica was fought in 203 BC between armies of Rome and Carthage during their second war for dominance over the Western The Battle of the Great plains (also known as Battle of Campi Magni, Battle of Bagrades) was a battle fought between Scipio Africanus of Rome Hasdrubal Gisco or Hasdrubal son of Gisco (died 202 BC was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia ( Hispania) and Numidia (202 BC – 46 BC was an ancient Berber kingdom in present-day Algeria and part of Tunisia ( North Africa) that later alternated The main native supporter of the Carthaginians, king Syphax of the Massaesylians (western Numidians), was defeated and taken prisoner. For the Canadian mountain see Mount Syphax. For the mythological figure see Sufax. Masinissa, a Numidian rival of Syphax and at that time an ally of the Romans, seized a large part of his kingdom with their help. These setbacks persuaded some of the Carthaginians that it was time to sue for peace. Others pleaded for the recall of the sons of Hamilcar Barca, Hannibal and Mago, who were still fighting the Romans in Bruttium and Cisalpine Gaul respectively. Hamilcar Barca or Barcas (ca 275 &ndash 228 BC was a Carthaginian general and statesman leader of the Barcid family and father of Hannibal Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash Mago son of Hamilcar Barca, (also spelled Magon; 243 BC - 203 BC short form Mago) was a member of the Barcid family and played an important Calabria ( Latin: Brutium) is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later
In 203 BC, while Scipio was carrying all before him in Africa and the Carthaginian peace party were arranging an armistice, Hannibal was recalled from Italy by the war party at Carthage. Events By place Carthage The Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio, while undertaking peace negotiations with the Carthaginians Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183 An armistice is a situation where the warring parties agree to stop fighting After leaving a record of his expedition engraved in Punic and Greek upon bronze tablets in the temple of Juno at Crotona, he sailed back to Africa. The Punics, (from Latin pūnicus meaning Phoenician were a group of Western Semitic speaking peoples originating from Carthage Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Juno was the protector and special counselor of the Roman state Croton may also refer to a plant genus See Croton (genus. Or to the NY village Croton-on-Hudson. These records were later quoted by Polybius. Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories Hannibal's arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war party, who placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and his mercenaries from Italy. But Hannibal was opposed to this policy and tried to convince them not to send the untrained African levies into battle. In 202 BC, Hannibal met Scipio in a peace conference. Events By place Carthage Accused of treason by the Carthaginians after being defeated by the Romans at the Battle of the Despite the two generals' mutual admiration, negotiations floundered, according to the Romans due to "Punic faith", meaning bad faith. This Roman expression referred to the alleged breach of protocols which ended the First Punic War by the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, as well as Hannibal's perceived breaches of the idealised Roman military etiquette (i. e. Hannibal's numerous ambuscades). These allegations were obviously distortions of Roman propaganda.
203 Battle of Utica (203 BC) 203 Battle of the Great Plains 203 Battle of Cirta
Broken armistice and final peace treaty
The decisive battle soon followed. The Battle of Utica was fought in 203 BC between armies of Rome and Carthage during their second war for dominance over the Western The Battle of the Great plains (also known as Battle of Campi Magni, Battle of Bagrades) was a battle fought between Scipio Africanus of Rome The Battle of Cirta was a battle during the Second Punic War between the forces of the Roman Republic under Publius Cornelius Scipio and Carthage Unlike most battles of the Second Punic War, the Romans had superiority in cavalry and the Carthaginians had superiority in infantry. The Roman army was generally better armed and a head taller than the Carthaginian. Hannibal had refused to lead this army into battle because he did not expect them to be able to stand their ground. There had been very bitter arguments between him and the oligarchy. His co-general Hasdrubal Gisco was forced to commit suicide by a violent mob after he spoke in support of Hannibal's view that such troops should not be led into battle. Hasdrubal Gisco or Hasdrubal son of Gisco (died 202 BC was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia ( Hispania) and Before the battle Hannibal gave no speech to his new troops, only to his veterans. The new troops proved as cowardly and inexperienced as he had expected.
The Roman cavalry won an early victory, and Scipio had devised tactics for defeating Carthaginian war elephants. However, the battle remained closely fought, and at one point it seemed that Hannibal was on the verge of victory. However, Scipio was able to rally his men, and his cavalry attacked Hannibal's rear. This two-pronged attack caused the Carthaginian formation to disintegrate and collapse. After their defeat, Hannibal convinced the Carthaginians to accept peace. Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash Notably, he broke the rules of the assembly by forcibly removing a speaker who supported continued resistance. Afterwards he was obliged to apologize for his behaviour.
202 Battle of Zama
Eastern Mediterranean and Ionian Sea (206 BC - 201 BC)
206 the Aetolians make peace with Macedonia 205 Rome lands with 11,000 men and 35 ships in Durrës but achieve no military objective 205 The First Macedonian war ends with the peace Treaty of Phoenice. The Battle of Zama, fought around October 19 of 202 BC, marked the final and decisive end of the Second Punic War. The First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against The First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against The Treaty of Phoenice, also known as the Peace of Phoenice, was a treaty ending the First Macedonian War.
Rome and Carthage after the war
Carthage lost Hispania forever, and it was reduced to a client state. A war indemnity of 10,000 talents was imposed, her navy was limited to 10 ships to ward off pirates, and she was forbidden from raising an army without Rome's permission. The talent ( Latin: talentum, from Ancient Greek: "scale balance" is an ancient unit of Mass. The Numidians took the opportunity to capture and plunder Carthaginian territory. Half a century later, when Carthage raised an army to defend itself from these incursions, it was destroyed by Rome in the Third Punic War. The Third Punic War ( 149 BC to 146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage Rome on the other hand, by her victory, had taken a key step towards domination of the Mediterranean world.
The end of the war was not universally welcomed in Rome, for reasons of both politics and morale. When the Senate decreed upon a peace treaty with Carthage, Quintus Caecilius Metellus, a former consul, said he did not look upon the termination of the war as a blessing to Rome, since he feared that the Roman people would now sink back again into its former slumbers, from which it had been roused by the presence of Hannibal. The Caecilii Metelli were one of the most important and wealthiest families in the Roman Republic. (Valerius Maximus vii. Valerius Maximus was a Latin writer and author of a collection of historical anecdotes 2. §3. ). Others, most notably Cato the Elder, feared that if Carthage was not completely destroyed it would soon regain its power and pose new threats to Rome, and pressed for harsher peace conditions. Marcus Porcius Cato ( Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO (234 BC Tusculum &ndash149 BC was a Roman statesman surnamed the Censor
Archeology has discovered that the famous circular military harbour at Carthage, the Cothon, received a significant buildup after this war. A cothon (Greek κώθων "drinking vessel" is an artificial protected inner Harbor such as that in Carthage during the Punic Wars c It could house and quickly deploy about 200 triremes, and was shielded from external sight. Trireme ( τριήρης sing τριήρεις pl triremis sing This is a surprising development, as after the war, the Carthaginian fleet was restricted to only ten triremes as one of the terms of surrender. One possible explanation: as has been pointed out for other Phoenician cities, privateers with warships played a significant role besides trade, even when the Roman Empire was fully established and officially controlled all coasts. In this case it is not clear whether the treaty included private warships. The only reference to Punic privateers is from the First Punic War: one of them, Hanno the Rhodian, owned a quinquireme (faster than the serial production models which the Romans had copied), manned with about 500 men and then among the heaviest warships in use. A quinquereme (Latin or penteres (Greek is a type of ancient oar-propelled warship that was used by the Greeks of the Hellenistic period and later by the Carthaginians Later pirates in Roman waters are all reported with much smaller vessels, that could outrun naval vessels, but operated with lower personnel costs. Thus, piracy was probably highly developed in Carthage and the state did not have a monopoly of military forces. Pirates probably played an important role in capturing slaves, one of the most profitable trade goods, but merchant ships with tradeable goods and a crew were also their targets. There is no source about the fate of Punic privateers in the periods between the Punic Wars.
Hannibal became a businessman for several years and later enjoyed a leadership role in Carthage. However, the Carthaginian nobility was upset by his policy of democratisation and struggle against corruption. They persuaded the Romans to force him into exile in Asia Minor, where he again led armies against the Romans and their allies on the battlefield. He eventually committed suicide to avoid capture.
Carthage and Numidia after the war
Between Carthage and Numidia there was constant low-level warfare, but by the time of the Third Punic War, most of Carthage's African territories had been lost and the Numidians traded independently with Greeks.
Primary sources
See also
- Hannibal Barca
- Scipio Africanus Major
- War elephants
- Barcid
- List of battles of the Second Punic War
- Polybius wrote a detailed history, showing contemporary insight into the political process of this time. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183 A war elephant is an Elephant trained and guided by humans for combat The Barcid family was a notable family in the ancient city of Carthage; many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic. This is an incomplete list of battles of the Second Punic War, showing the battles on the Italian peninsula and some in Africa, in Sicily and Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories
- Silius Italicus, who dramatised the war in his poem Punica
- Petrarch, who wrote an epic on the war entitled Africa
- Plutarch's Lives for lives of two of the Roman generals, Fabius Maximus and Gaius Flaminius. Silius Italicus, in full Tiberius Catius Silius Italicus (25 or 26 - 101 was a Latin epic Poet. Francesco Petrarca ( July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374) known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar Africa is an epic poem in Latin Hexameters by the 14th century Italian poet Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca Plutarch 's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly called Parallel Lives or Plutarch's Lives, is a series of Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (ca 280 BC-203 BC called Cunctator ( the Delayer) was a Roman politician and General born in Rome around 280 BC and Gaius Flaminius Nepos was a Politician and Consul of the Roman Republic in the 3rd century BC Plutarch's life of Scipio Africanus is lost. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183
References
- Bagnall, Nigel, The Punic Wars, 1990, ISBN 0-312-34214-4
- Lazenby, John Francis, Hannibal's War, 1978
- Robert E. Field Marshal Sir Nigel Thomas Bagnall GCB, CVO, MC ( 10 February 1927 - 8 April 2002) was Chief A. Palmer, Rome and Carthage at Peace, Stuttgart 1997
- [German] Barceló, Pedro A. Karthago und die iberische Halbinsel vor den Barkiden: Studien zur karthagischen Präsenz im westlichen Mittelmeerraum von der Gründung von Ebusus bis zum Übergang Hamilkars nach Hispanien, Bonn 1988, ISBN 3-7749-2354-X
- [German] Ameling, Walter Karthago: Studien zu Militär, Staat und Gesellschaft, München 1993, ISBN 3-406-37490-5
Notes
- ^ http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro retrieved 13 February 2008
- ^ Lazenby 41
- ^ Hoyos 139
- ^ Livy XXI,21
- ^ Livy XXI,22
- ^ Livy XXI,25
- ^ Goldsworthy, Adrian, The Fall of Carthage, p 151 id = ISBN 0-304-36642-0
- ^ Livy XXI,32-38
- ^ Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, XXI. 63
- ^ Liddell Hart, Basil, Strategy, New York City, New York, Penguin Group, 1967
- ^ Goldsworthy (2000) 49, 52
- ^ Livy A. Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart ( 31 October 1895 &ndash 29 January 1970) usually known before his knighthood as U. C. XXII. 9
- ^ Healy, Mark, Cannae: Hannibal Smashes Rome's Army, Steerling Heights, Missouri, Osprey
- ^ Hoyos 122f
- ^ Hoyos 132
- ^ Livy, 26.40. According to Walbank, p. 84, note 2, "Livy accidentally omits Messenia and erroneously describes Pleuratus as king of Thrace. "
External links
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic