| This article is part of the New Imperialism series. New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe 's powers and later Japan and the United States, during the 19th |
| Origins of New Imperialism |
| Imperialism in Asia |
| The Scramble for Africa |
| Theories of New Imperialism |
The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New Imperialism period, between the 1880s and World War I in 1914. New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe 's powers and later Japan and the United States, during the 19th World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
The last fifth of the 19th century saw the transition from "informal imperialism" of control through military influence and economic dominance to that of direct rule. [1] Attempts to mediate imperial competition, such as the Berlin Conference (1884 - 1885) between Britain, France and Germany, failed to establish definitively the competing powers' claims. See also Congress of Berlin (1878 and Berlin Conference of 1954 (Cold War The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification
Contents |
Opening of the continent
The opening of Africa to Western exploration and exploitation had begun in earnest at the end of the 18th century. By 1835, Europeans had mapped most of northwestern Africa. Among the most famous of the European explorers was David Livingstone, who charted the vast interior and Serpa Pinto, who crossed both Southern Africa and Central Africa on a difficult expedition, mapping much of the interior of the continent. Dr David Livingstone (19 March 1813 &ndash 1 May 1873 was a British Congregationalist pioneer medical Missionary with the London Missionary Society Alexandre Alberto da Rocha de Serpa Pinto (aka Serpa Pinto; April 10, 1846 &ndash December 28, 1900) was a Portuguese Southern Africa is the Southernmost Region of the African Continent, variably defined by Geography or Geopolitics. Central Africa is a core Region of the African Continent often considered to include Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad Arduous expeditions in the 1850s and 1860s by Richard Burton, John Speke and James Grant located the great central lakes and the source of the Nile. Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton KCMG FRGS (19 March 1821 &ndash 20 October 1890 was an English Explorer, Translator, writer John Hannington Speke ( May 4 1827 &ndash September 15 1864) was an officer in the British Indian army who made three voyages of exploration James Augustus Grant ( April 11, 1827 &mdash February 11, 1892) was a Scottish explorer of eastern equatorial Africa The Great Lakes of Africa are a series of Lakes in and around the geographic Great Rift Valley formed by the action of the tectonic East African The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River By the end of the century, Europeans had charted the Nile from its source, the courses of the Niger, Congo and Zambezi Rivers had been traced, and Europe then realized the vast resources of Africa. The Niger River (ˈnaɪdʒɚ NYE-jer) is the principal River of western Africa, extending about 4180 km (2600 miles The Congo River (for a time known as the Zaire River) is the largest River in Western Central Africa. The Zambezi (also spelled Zambesi) is the fourth-longest River in Africa and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean from Africa Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified ( natural) form However, on the eve of the scramble for Africa, Western nations controlled only 10 percent of the continent. The most important holdings were Algeria, held by France; the Cape Colony, held by the United Kingdom; and Angola and Mozambique, held by Portugal. French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962 under a variety of governmental systems The History of France from 1789 to 1914 ( The long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes The Cape Colony, part of modern South Africa, was established by the Dutch East India Company in 1652 with the founding of Cape Town. Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Technological advancement facilitated overseas expansionism. Industrialization brought about rapid advancements in transportation and communication, especially in the forms of steam navigation, railways, and telegraphs. is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving a Propeller "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. Medical advances also were important, especially medicines for tropical diseases. Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions The development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, enabled vast expanses of the tropics to be accessed by whites. Quinine (ˈkwaɪnaɪn kwɪˈniːn ˈkwiːniːn is a natural white Crystalline Alkaloid having Antipyretic (fever-reducing antimalarial, Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including
Causes of the Scramble for Africa
Africa and global markets
Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the last regions of the world largely untouched by "informal imperialism" and "civilization", was also attractive to Europe's ruling elites for economic and racial reasons. Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements During a time when Britain's balance of trade showed a growing deficit, with shrinking and increasingly protectionist continental markets due to the Long Depression (1873-1896), Africa offered Britain, Germany, France, and other countries an open market that would garner it a trade surplus: a market that bought more from the metropole than it sold overall. The balance of trade (or net exports, sometimes symbolized as NX) is the difference between the monetary value of Exports and imports in an For the protectionist Australian political party from the 1880s to 1909 see Protectionist Party The Long Depression ( 1873 &ndash 1896) affected much of the world and was contemporary with the Second Industrial Revolution. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe "[1] Britain, like most other industrial countries, had long since begun to run an unfavourable balance of trade (which was increasingly offset, however, by the income from overseas investments).
As Britain developed into the world's first post-industrial nation, financial services became an increasingly important sector of its economy. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. Invisible financial exports, as mentioned, kept Britain out of the red, especially capital investments outside Europe, particularly to the developing and open markets in Africa, predominantly white settler colonies, the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Oceania. Investment or investing is a term with several closely-related meanings in Business management, Finance and Economics, related to saving A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established permanent residence there often to colonize the area This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East.
In addition, surplus capital was often more profitably invested overseas, where cheap labor, limited competition, and abundant raw materials made a greater premium possible. Another inducement to imperialism, of course, arose from the demand for raw materials unavailable in Europe, especially copper, cotton, rubber, tea, and tin, to which European consumers had grown accustomed and upon which European industry had grown dependent. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50
However, in Africa — exclusive of what would become the Union of South Africa in 1909 — the amount of capital investment by Europeans was relatively small, compared to other continents, before and after the 1884-85 Berlin Conference. } The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day state of the Republic of South Africa. See also Congress of Berlin (1878 and Berlin Conference of 1954 (Cold War Consequently, the companies involved in tropical African commerce were relatively small, apart from Cecil Rhodes's De Beers Mining Company. Cecil John Rhodes, PC DCL (5 July 1853 &ndash 26 March 1902 was an English -born Businessman mining Magnate, and Politician De Beers and the various companies within the De Beers Family of Companies engage in exploration for diamonds, diamond mining diamond trading and industrial diamond manufacture Rhodes had carved out Rhodesia for himself, as Léopold II would later and with considerably greater brutality exploit the Congo Free State. Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence Leopold II (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor Leopold Lodewijk Filips Maria Victor (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909 was King of the Belgians. The Congo Free State was a Corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II King of the Belgians through a dummy non-governmental organization the These observations might detract from the pro-imperialist arguments of colonial lobbies such as the Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi or Jules Ferry, who argued that sheltered overseas markets in Africa would solve the problems of low prices and over-production caused by shrinking continental markets. Lobbying includes all attempts to influence Legislators and officials whether by other legislators constituents or organized groups Alldeutscher Verband ( German for "All-German Union" or "Pan-German League" was a German Far-right organization which promoted Francesco Crispi ( October 4 1819 &ndash August 12 1901) was a 19th-century Italian Politician of Albanian Arberesh Jules François Camille Ferry (5 April 1832 17 March 1893 was a French statesman and ardent imperialist Early life Born in Saint-Dié, However, according to the classic thesis of John A. Hobson, exposed in Imperialism (1902), which would influence authors such as Lenin's Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), Trotsky or Hannah Arendt's The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this shrinking of continental markets was a main factor of the global New Imperialism period. John Atkinson Hobson ( July 6, 1858 – April 1, 1940) commonly known as John A Imperialism A Study was a political-economic discourse written by John A Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt which classed Nazism and Stalinism as Totalitarian movements Later historians have noted that such statistics only obscured the fact that formal control of tropical Africa had great strategic value in an era of imperial rivalry, while the Suez Canal has remained a strategic location. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation The 1886 Witwatersrand Gold Rush, which led to the foundation of Johannesburg and was a major factor of the Second Boer War in 1899, accounted for the "conjunction of the superfluous money and of the superfluous manpower, which gave themselves their hand to quit together the country", which is in itself, according to Hannah Arendt, the new element of the imperialist era. The Witwatersrand Gold Rush was a Gold rush in 1886 that led to the establishment of Johannesburg, South Africa. Johannesburg ( Pronounced /jō-hān'ĭs-bûrg'/ is the largest city in South Africa. See also First Boer War,, South African Wars (1879-1915 The Second Boer War ( Dutch: Tweede Boerenoorlog, Afrikaans:
Strategic rivalry
While tropical Africa was not a large zone of investment, other regions overseas were. The vast interior — between the gold- and diamond-rich Southern Africa and Egypt, had, however, key strategic value in securing the flow of overseas trade. Southern Africa is the Southernmost Region of the African Continent, variably defined by Geography or Geopolitics. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Britain was thus under intense political pressure, especially among supporters of the Conservative Party, to secure lucrative markets such as British Raj India, Qing Dynasty China, and Latin America from encroaching rivals. The Conservative Party (officially the Conservative and Unionist Party) is a Political party in the United Kingdom. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Thus, securing the key waterway between East and West — the Suez Canal— was crucial. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation The rivalry between the UK, France, Germany and the other European powers account for a large part of the colonization. Thus, while Germany, which had been unified under Prussia's rule only after the 1866 Battle of Sadowa and the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, was hardly a colonial power before the New Imperialism period, it would eagerly participate in the race. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The Battle of Königgrätz (Schlacht von Königgrätz also known as the Battle of Sadowa, Sadová, or Hradec Králové, was the decisive Battle The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 A rising industrial power close on the heels of Britain, it hadn't yet had the chance to control oversea territories, mainly due to its late unification, its fragmentation in various states, and its absence of experience in modern navigation. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another This would change under Bismarck's leadership, who implemented the Weltpolitik (World Policy) and, after putting in place the bases of France's isolation with the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary and then the 1882 Triple Alliance with Italy, called for the 1884-85 Berlin Conference which set the rules of effective control of a foreign territory. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) The "Weltpolitik" (world policy strategy was adopted by Germany in the late 19th century replacing the earlier " Realpolitik " approach The Triple Alliance was a military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy that lasted from 1882 until the start of World War I Germany's expansionism would lead to the Tirpitz Plan, implemented by Admiral von Tirpitz, who would also champion the various Fleet Acts starting in 1898, thus engaging in an arms race with Britain. In general expansionism consists of expansionist policies While some have linked the term to promoting Economic growth (in contrast to no growth / Sustainable policies The Tirpitz Plan, formulated by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, was Germany 's strategic aim to build the second largest Navy in the world after the United Alfred von Tirpitz (March 19 1849 &ndash March 6 1930 was a German Admiral, Secretary of State of the Imperial Naval Office the powerful administrative branch The Fleet Acts were four separate laws passed by the German Empire, in 1898 1900 1908 and 1912 The term arms race, in its original usage describes a competition between two or more parties for real or apparent military supremacy By 1914, they had given Germany the second largest naval force in the world (roughly 40% smaller than the Royal Navy). The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) According to von Tirpitz, this aggressive naval policy was supported by the National Liberal Party rather than by the conservatives, thus demonstrating that the main supports of the European nation states' imperialism were the rising bourgeoisie classes. The National Liberal Party ( Nationalliberale Partei) was a German political party which flourished between 1867 and 1918 For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy [2]
Bismarck's Realpolitik
Germany began its world expansion in the 1880s under Bismarck's leadership, encouraged by the national bourgeoisie. Some of them, claiming themselves of Friedrich List's thought, advocated expansion in the Philippines and in Timor, other proposed to set themselves in Formosa (modern Taiwan), etc. Friedrich List ( August 6, 1789 – November 30, 1846) was a leading 19th Century German and American Economist who developed The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Timor is an Island at the south end of the Malay Archipelago, north of the Timor Sea. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. In the end of the 1870s, these isolated voices began to be relayed by a real imperialist policy, known as the Weltpolitik ("World Policy"), which was backed by mercantilist thesis. The "Weltpolitik" (world policy strategy was adopted by Germany in the late 19th century replacing the earlier " Realpolitik " approach Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices In 1881, Hübbe-Schleiden, a lawyer, published Deutsche Kolonisation, according to which the "development of national consciousness demanded an independent oversea policy". The politics of consciousness Consciousness typically refers to the idea of a being who is self-aware [3] Pan-germanism was thus linked to the young nation's imperialist drives. Pan-Germanism (Pangermanismus or Alldeutsche Bewegung was a political movement of the 19th century aiming for unity of the German -speaking peoples of Europe In the beginning of the 1880s, the Deutscher Kolonialverein was created, and got its own magazine in 1884, the Kolonialzeitung. This colonial lobby was also relayed by the nationalist Alldeutscher Verband. Alldeutscher Verband ( German for "All-German Union" or "Pan-German League" was a German Far-right organization which promoted
Germany thus became the third largest colonial power in Africa, acquiring an overall empire of 2. 6 million square kilometers and 14 million colonial subjects, mostly in its African possessions (Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika). The scramble for Africa led Bismarck to propose the 1884-85 Berlin Conference. Following the 1904 Entente cordiale between France and the UK, Germany tried to isolate France in 1905 with the First Moroccan Crisis. Flag of the United Kingdomsvg|right|70px]] The Entente cordiale is a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom The First Moroccan Crisis (also known as the Tangier Crisis) was the International crisis over the colonial status of Morocco between March 1905 and May This led to the 1905 Algeciras Conference, in which France's influence on Morocco was compensated by the exchange of others territories, and then to the 1911 Agadir Crisis. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 took place in Algeciras Spain, and lasted from January 16 to April 7. The Agadir Crisis, also called the Second Moroccan Crisis, was the international tension sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat ''Panther'' Along with the 1898 Fashoda Incident between France and the UK, this succession of international crisis proves the bitterness of the struggle between the various imperialisms, which ultimately led to World War I. The Fashoda Incident (1898 was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa. An international crisis is a Crisis between nations There are many definitions of an international crisis Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
Clash of rival imperialisms
While de Brazza was exploring the Kongo Kingdom for France, Stanley also explored it in the early 1880s on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, who would have his personal Congo Free State. Pietro Paolo Savorgnan di Brazzà, best known as Pierre Paul François Camille Savorgnan de Brazza ( January 26, 1852 - September 14, The Kingdom of Kongo (1400 – 1914 ( Kongo: Kongo dya Ntotila or Wene wa Kongo) was an African kingdom located in west central Africa in what Sir Henry Morton Stanley, GCB, born John Rowlands ( January 28 1841 &ndash May 10 1904) was a British journalist Leopold II (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor Leopold Lodewijk Filips Maria Victor (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909 was King of the Belgians. The Congo Free State was a Corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II King of the Belgians through a dummy non-governmental organization the While pretending to advocate humanitarianism and denounce slavery, Leopold II used the most inhumane tactics to exploit his newly acquired lands. Humanitarianism is an active belief in Humanism (the idea of the value of human life whereby Humans practice benevolent treatment and provide assistance to other humans As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another His crimes were revealed by 1905, but he remained in control until 1908, when he was forced to turn over control to the Belgian government.
France occupied Tunisia in May 1881 (and Guinea in 1884), which partly convinced Italy to adhere in 1882 to the German-Austrian Dual Alliance, thus forming the Triple Alliance. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was created by treaty on October 7, 1879. The Triple Alliance was a military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy that lasted from 1882 until the start of World War I The same year, Britain occupied the nominally Ottoman Egypt, which in turn ruled over the Sudan and parts of Somalia. In 1870 and 1882, Italy took possession of the first parts of Eritrea, while Germany declared Togoland, the Cameroons and South West Africa to be under its protection in 1884. Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Togoland was a German Protectorate in West Africa from 1884 to 1914 British Cameroons was a British Mandate territory in West Africa, now divided between Nigeria and Cameroon. South-West Africa (Afrikaans Suidwes-Afrika; German Südwestafrika) was the name of what is today the Republic of Namibia. French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa (AEF) in 1910. French West Africa ( Afrique occidentale française, AOF) was a Federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: French Equatorial Africa ( Afrique équatoriale française, AEF) was the federation of French colonial possessions in Middle Africa, extending
Italy continued its conquest to gain its "place in the sun". "A place in the sun" was a phrase coined by William II German Emperor on June 18 1901 to refer to Germany's colonial empire. Following the defeat of the First Italo–Ethiopian War (1895-96), it acquired Somaliland in 1899-90 and the whole of Eritrea (1899). The First Italo–Ethiopian War was fought between Italy and Ethiopia in 1895-1896 In 1911, it engaged in a war with the Ottoman Empire, in which it acquired Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya). The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (also known in Italy as guerra di Libia, "the Libyan war" and in Turkey as Trablusgarp Savaşı) was fought Tripolitaniajpg|thumb|250px|Tripolitania]] Tripolitania or Tripolitana ( Arabic: طرابلس, Transliterated: Tarābulus) is a historic Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Enrico Corradini, who fully supported the war, and later merged his group in the early fascist party (PNF), developed in 1919 the concept of Proletarian Nationalism, supposed to legitimize Italy's imperialism by a surprising mixture of socialism with nationalism: "We must start by recognizing the fact that there are proletarian nations as well as proletarian classes; that is to say, there are nations whose living conditions are subject. Enrico Corradini (1865 &mdash 1931 was an Italian Novelist Essayist journalist and nationalist political figure The National Fascist Party ( Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF was an Italian party created by Benito Mussolini as the political expression of Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation . . to the way of life of other nations, just as classes are. Once this is realized, nationalism must insist firmly on this truth: Italy is, materially and morally, a proletarian nation. "[4] The Second Italo-Abyssinian War (1935-36), ordered by Mussolini, would actually be one of the last colonial wars (that is, intended to colonize a foreign country, opposed to wars of national liberation), occupying Ethiopia for 5 years, which had remained the last African independent territory. See also First Italo-Ethiopian War. The Second Italo–Abyssinian War (also referred to as the Second Italo-Ethiopian War) was a Wars of national liberation are conflicts fought by indigenous military groups against an imperial power in the name of Self-determination, thus attempting NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The Spanish Civil War, marking for some the beginning of the European Civil War, would begin in 1936. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of The European Civil War is a period includes World War I, World War II and Inter-war period referring to the many major European regime changes
On the other hand, the British abandoned their splendid isolation in 1902 with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, which would enable the Empire of Japan to be victorious during the war against Russia (1904-05). Splendid Isolation was the Foreign policy pursued by Britain during the late 19th century under the Conservative premierships of Benjamin Disraeli The first was signed in London at what is now the Lansdowne Club on January 30 1902, by Lord Lansdowne (British foreign secretary) and The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku The Russo-Japanese War (日露戦争 Romaji: Nichi-Ro Sensō Русско-японская война Russko-Yaponskaya Voyna;, 10 February 1904 – 5 September The UK then signed the Entente cordiale with France in 1904, and, in 1907, the Triple Entente which included Russia, thus pitted against the Triple Alliance which Bismarck had patiently assembled. Flag of the United Kingdomsvg|right|70px]] The Entente cordiale is a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom The Triple Entente (" entente " — French for "agreement" was the name given to the loose alignment of the United Kingdom, the Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898)
The American Colonization Society and the foundation of Liberia
The United States took part, marginally, in this enterprise, through the American Colonization Society (ACS), established in 1816 by Robert Finley. The American Colonization Society (in full The Society for the Colonization of Free People of Color of America was an organization that helped in founding Liberia, a Colony Liberia was set up by citizens of the United States as a Colony for former African-American Slaves from the U The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The American Colonization Society (in full The Society for the Colonization of Free People of Color of America was an organization that helped in founding Liberia, a Colony Robert Finley (1772 &ndash October 3, 1817) was briefly the president of the University of Georgia. The ACS offered emigration to Liberia ("Land of the Free"), a colony founded in 1820, to free black slaves; emancipated slave Lott Carey actually became the first American Baptist missionary in Africa. Liberia, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the west coast of Africa, bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire Slavery in the United States began soon after English colonists first settled Virginia in 1607 and lasted until the passage of the Thirteenth Lott Cary ( 1780 - November 10, 1828) was an African American slave, born in Charles City County Virginia. Baptist is a term describing individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. This colonization attempt was resisted by the native people.
The American Colonization Society was led by Southerners, and its first president was James Monroe, from Virginia, who became the fifth president of the United States from 1817 to 1825. The Southern United States &mdashcommonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South &mdashconstitutes a large distinctive James Monroe (April 28 1758 – July 4 1831 was the fifth President of the United States (1817–1825 The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Thus, ironically one of the main proponents of American colonization of Africa was the same man who proclaimed, in his 1823 State of the Union address, the US opinion that European powers should no longer colonize the Americas or interfere with the affairs of sovereign nations located in the Americas. The start of the European colonization of the Americas is typically dated to 1492 although there was at least one earlier colonization effort A Gold Sovereign is a Gold coin first issued in 1489 for Henry VII of England and still in production as of 2008 In return, the US planned to stay neutral in wars between European powers and in wars between a European power and its colonies. However, if these latter type of wars were to occur in the Americas, the U. S. would view such action as hostile toward itself. This famous statement became known as the Monroe Doctrine and was the base of United States isolationism during the 19th century. The Monroe Doctrine is a US doctrine which on December 2 1823 stated that European powers were no longer to colonize or interfere with The diplomatic policy whereby a nation seeks to avoid alliances with other nations in order to avoid being drawn into wars not related to direct territorial self-defense has had a long history
Although the Liberia colony never became quite as big as envisaged, it was only the first step in the American colonization of Africa, according to its early proponents. Thus, Jehudi Ashmun, an early leader of the ACS, envisioned an American empire in Africa. Jehudi Ashmun ( April 21, 1794 &ndash August 25, 1828) was a religious leader and social reformer born in Champlain New York. Between 1825 and 1826, he took steps to lease, annex, or buy tribal lands along the coast and along major rivers leading inland. Like his predecessor Lt. Robert Stockton, who in 1821 established the site for Monrovia by "persuading" a local chief referred to as "King Peter" to sell Cape Montserado (or Cape Mesurado) by pointing a pistol at his head, Ashmun was prepared to use force to extend the colony's territory. Robert Field Stockton ( 20 August 1795 7 October 1866) was an United States naval commodore, notable in For alternate meanings see Monrovia (disambiguation. Monrovia, is the Capital city of the West African nation of Liberia Cape Mesurado is a headland on the coast of Liberia near the capital Monrovia and the mouth of the Saint Paul River. In a May 1825 treaty, King Peter and other native kings agreed to sell land in return for 500 bars of tobacco, three barrels of rum, five casks of powder, five umbrellas, ten iron posts, and ten pairs of shoes, among other items. In March 1825, the ACS began a quarterly, The African Repository and Colonial Journal, edited by Rev. Ralph Randolph Gurley (1797-1872), who headed the Society until 1844. Ralph Randolph Gurley ( May 26, 1797 - July 30, 1872) was a clergyman an advocate of the separation of the races and a major force in the Conceived as the Society's propaganda organ, the Repository promoted both colonization and Liberia.
The Society controlled the colony of Liberia until 1847 when, under the perception that the British might annex the settlement, Liberia was proclaimed a free and independent state, thus becoming the first African decolonised state. Decolonization refers to the undoing of Colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by another country or jurisdiction By 1867, the Society had sent more than 13,000 emigrants. After the American Civil War (1861-1865), when many blacks wanted to go to Liberia, financial support for colonization had waned. Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South During its later years the society focused on educational and missionary efforts in Liberia rather than further emigration.
A succession of crises in the period to World War I
The colonization of the Congo
David Livingstone's explorations, carried on by Henry Morton Stanley excited European imaginations. Dr David Livingstone (19 March 1813 &ndash 1 May 1873 was a British Congregationalist pioneer medical Missionary with the London Missionary Society Sir Henry Morton Stanley, GCB, born John Rowlands ( January 28 1841 &ndash May 10 1904) was a British journalist But at first, Stanley's grandiose ideas for colonization found little support owing to the problems and scale of action required, except from Léopold II of Belgium, who in 1876 had organized the International African Association. Leopold II (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor Leopold Lodewijk Filips Maria Victor (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909 was King of the Belgians. The Association Internationale Africaine was an organization created by King Léopold II of Belgium to further Humanitarian projects in the area of From 1879 to 1884, Stanley was secretly sent by Léopold II to the Congo region, where he made treaties with several African chiefs along the Congo River and by 1882 had sufficient territory to form the basis of the Congo Free State. The Congo River (for a time known as the Zaire River) is the largest River in Western Central Africa. The Congo Free State was a Corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II King of the Belgians through a dummy non-governmental organization the Léopold II personally owned the colony from 1885 and exploited it for ivory and rubber. Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus,
While Stanley was exploring Congo on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, the Franco-Italian marine officer Pierre de Brazza travelled into the western Congo basin and raised the French flag over the newly founded Brazzaville in 1881, thus occupying today's Republic of the Congo. Pietro Paolo Savorgnan di Brazzà, best known as Pierre Paul François Camille Savorgnan de Brazza ( January 26, 1852 - September 14, ||-||} Brazzaville is the Capital and largest city of the Republic of the Congo and is located on the Congo River. The Republic of the Congo (République du Congo Kongo: Repubilika ya Kongo; Lingala: Republiki ya Kongó) also known as Congo-Brazzaville Portugal, which also claimed the area due to old treaties with the native Kongo Empire, made a treaty with Britain on February 26, 1884 to block off the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic. The Kingdom of Kongo (1400 – 1914 ( Kongo: Kongo dya Ntotila or Wene wa Kongo) was an African kingdom located in west central Africa in what Events 747 BC - Epoch (origin of Ptolemy 's Nabonassar Era 364 - Valentinian I is proclaimed Year 1884 ( MDCCCLXXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year
By 1890 the Congo Free State had consolidated its control of its territory between Leopoldville and Stanleyville and was looking to push south down the Lualaba River from Stanleyville. Kinshasa (formerly French: Léopoldville, formerly Dutch: Leopoldstad, German: Leopoldstadt) is the Capital Kisangani, formerly Stanleyville or Stanleystad, (population 500000 is a City in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in Central Africa The Lualaba River is the greatest Headstream of the Congo River by volume of water At the same time the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes (who once declared, "all of these stars. The British South Africa Company (BSAC was established by Cecil Rhodes through the amalgamation of the Central Search Association and the Exploring Company Ltd Cecil John Rhodes, PC DCL (5 July 1853 &ndash 26 March 1902 was an English -born Businessman mining Magnate, and Politician . . these vast worlds that remain out of reach. If I could, I would annex other planets. "[5]) was expanding north from the Limpopo River. The Limpopo River rises in central southern Africa, and flows generally eastwards to the Indian Ocean. Attention was drawn to the land where their expansions would meet: Katanga, site of the Yeke Kingdom of Msiri. Katanga is a southern province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Yeke Kingdom (also called the Garanganze or Garenganze kingdom of the Garanganze people in Katanga, DR Congo was short-lived Msiri (c 1830 - December 20, 1891) founded and ruled the Yeke Kingdom (also called the Garanganze or Garenganze kingdom As well as being the most powerful ruler militarily in the area, Msiri traded large quantities of copper, ivory and slaves, and rumours of gold reached European ears. The scramble for Katanga was a prime example the period. Rhodes and the BSAC sent two expeditions to Msiri in 1890 led by Alfred Sharpe, who was rebuffed, and Joseph Thomson who failed to reach Katanga. Sir Alfred Sharpe (1853—1935 was a professional hunter who became a British colonial administrator and Commissioner (a De facto Governor) Joseph Thomson ( February 14, 1858 - August 2, 1895) was a Scottish Geologist and Explorer who played an In 1891 Leopold sent four CFS expeditions. The Le Marinel Expedition could only extract a vaguely-worded letter. The Delcommune Expedition was rebuffed. The well-armed Stairs Expedition had orders to take Katanga with or without Msiri's consent; he refused, was shot, and the expedition cut off his head and stuck it on a pole as a 'barbaric lesson' to the people. The Stairs Expedition to Katanga of 1891−1892 led by Captain William Stairs was the winner in a race between two imperial powers to seize Katanga The Bia Expedition finished off the job of establishing an administration of sorts and a 'police presence' in Katanga.
The half million square kilometres of Katanga came into Leopold's possession and brought his African realm up to 2,300,000 km², about 75 times larger than Belgium. The Congo Free State imposed such a terror regime on the colonized people, including mass killings with millions of victims, and slave labour, that Belgium, under pressure from the Congo Reform Association, ended Leopold II's rule and annexed it in 1908 as a colony of Belgium, known as the Belgian Congo. State terrorism refers to acts of Terrorism conducted by governments The Congo Reform Association exposed gross and rampant abuses of labor and by public servants in King Leopold II of Belgium 's Congo Free State, leading to the annexation The Belgian Congo ( Dutch: Belgisch Kongo French: Congo Belge German: Belgisch Kongo was the formal title of present-day Democratic Republic Estimates of the total death toll vary considerably. As the first census did not take place until 1924, it is difficult to quantify the population loss of the period. Casement's report set it at three million, ascribing the depopulation to four main causes: indiscriminate war, starvation, reduction of births, and tropical diseases. The Casement Report was a 1904 document by British diplomat Roger Casement (1864-1916 detailing abuses in the Congo Free State which was under the private ownership War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of The total fertility rate ( TFR, sometimes also called the fertility rate, period total fertility rate (PTFR or total Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions [1] See Congo Free State for further details including numbers of victims. The Congo Free State was a Corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II King of the Belgians through a dummy non-governmental organization the
Suez Canal
Ferdinand de Lesseps had obtained many concessions from Isma'il Pasha, the ruler of Egypt, in 1854-56, to build the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation Ferdinand Marie Vicomte de Lesseps, GCSI ( November 19[[ 805]]&ndash December 7[[ 894]] was the French developer of the Suez Canal, Isma'il Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (إسماعيل باشا ( December 31, 1830 &ndash March 2, 1895) was Wāli Some sources estimate the workforce at 30,000,[6] but others estimate that 120,000 workers died over the ten years of construction due to malnutrition, fatigue and disease, especially cholera. Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium [7] Shortly before its completion in 1869, Isma'il Pasha, the ruler of Egypt, borrowed enormous sums from French and English bankers at high rates of interest. Isma'il Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (إسماعيل باشا ( December 31, 1830 &ndash March 2, 1895) was Wāli Pharaonic Dynasties (3100 BC – 30 BC See also List of pharaohs Roman Province (30 BC – 323 AD See also List of By 1875, he was facing financial difficulties and was forced to sell his block of shares in the Suez Canal. The shares were snapped up by the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Benjamin Disraeli, who sought to give his country practical control in the management of this strategic waterway. The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the political leader of the United Kingdom Benjamin Disraeli 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS (born Benjamin D'Israeli; 21 December 1804 &ndash 19 April 1881 was When Isma'il Pasha repudiated Egypt's foreign debt in 1879, Britain and France assumed joint financial control over the country, forcing the Egyptian ruler to abdicate. The Egyptian ruling classes did not relish foreign intervention. The Urabi Revolt broke out against the Khedive and European influence in 1882, a year after the Mahdist revolt. The Urabi Revolt or Orabi Revolt (ˈʕoɾɑːˌbi also known as the Orabi Revolution, was an uprising in Egypt in 1879-82 against the Khedive For the HMS Khedive, see ''USS'' Cordova. Khedive (from Persian for "lord" was a title first Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah (otherwise known as The Mahdi or Muhammad Ahmed Al Mahdi Arabic:محمد أحمد المهدي ( August Muhammad Ahmad, who had proclaimed himself the Mahdi, redeemer of Islam, in 1881, led the rebellion and was defeated only by Kitchener in 1898. Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah (otherwise known as The Mahdi or Muhammad Ahmed Al Mahdi Arabic:محمد أحمد المهدي ( August In Islamic eschatology the Mahdi ( ar مهدي, also Mehdi; "Guided One" is the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will stay on earth For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. This is a list of Revolutions and Rebellions BC 499 BC - 493 BC: Ionian Revolt. Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener 1st Earl Kitchener, KG, KP, GCB, OM Britain then assumed responsibility for the administration of the country.
Berlin Conference
The occupation of Egypt and the acquisition of the Congo were the first major moves in what came to be a precipitous scramble for African territory. See also Congress of Berlin (1878 and Berlin Conference of 1954 (Cold War In 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened the 1884-85 Berlin Conference to discuss the Africa problem. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) The diplomats put on a humanitarian façade by condemning the slave trade, prohibiting the sale of alcoholic beverages and firearms in certain regions, and by expressing concern for missionary activities. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another A firearm is a Tool that projects either single or multiple Projectiles at high velocity through a controlled explosion More importantly, the diplomats in Berlin laid down the rules of competition by which the great powers were to be guided in seeking colonies. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. They also agreed that the area along the Congo River was to be administered by Léopold II of Belgium as a neutral area, known as the Congo Free State, in which trade and navigation were to be free. Leopold II (Léopold Louis Philippe Marie Victor Leopold Lodewijk Filips Maria Victor (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909 was King of the Belgians. The Congo Free State was a Corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II King of the Belgians through a dummy non-governmental organization the No nation was to stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers of its intentions. No territory could be formally claimed prior to being effectively occupied. However, the competitors ignored the rules when convenient and on several occasions war was only narrowly avoided.
Britain's occupation of Egypt and South Africa
Britain's occupations of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile River. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Cape Colony, part of modern South Africa, was established by the Dutch East India Company in 1652 with the founding of Cape Town. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River Egypt was occupied by British forces in 1882 (although not formally declared a protectorate until 1914, and never a colony proper); Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 1900s; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighbouring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their own republics. Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south The Republic of Uganda is a Landlocked country in East Africa. The Cape Colony, part of modern South Africa, was established by the Dutch East India Company in 1652 with the founding of Cape Town. The term Afrikaner people refers to white Afrikaans -speaking people who have been established in Southern Africa since the 17th century and are mainly of northwestern In 1877, Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic (or Transvaal — independent from 1857 to 1877) for the British. Sir Theophilus Shepstone ( January 8, 1817 - June 23, 1893) was a British South African Statesman who was responsible This article is about the former country in Africa For the present-day country see South Africa; for the region where both are located see Southern Africa The UK consolidated its power over most of the colonies of South Africa in 1879 after the Anglo-Zulu War. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The Anglo-Zulu War was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Empire. The Boers protested and in December 1880 they revolted, leading to the First Boer War (1880-1881). See also Second Boer War,, South African Wars (1879-1915 The First Boer War ( Dutch: Eerste Boerenoorlog, Afrikaans: British Prime Minister William Gladstone signed a peace treaty on March 23, 1881, giving self-government to the Boers in the Transvaal. This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 1881 ( MDCCCLXXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Boer (ˈbuːr in Dutch ˈbʊɚ/ /boʊɚ or /ˈbɔr/ in English is the Dutch word for Farmer which came to denote the descendants of the proto Afrikaans The Second Boer War was fought between 1899 to 1902; the independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and of the South African Republic (Transvaal) were this time defeated and absorbed into the British empire. See also First Boer War,, South African Wars (1879-1915 The Second Boer War ( Dutch: Tweede Boerenoorlog, Afrikaans: The Republic of the Orange Free State (Oranje-Vrystaat Dutch: Oranje-Vrijstaat) was an independent Boer republic in southern Africa
Fashoda Incident
The 1898 Fashoda Incident was one of the most crucial conflicts on Europe's way of consolidating holdings in the continent. The Fashoda Incident (1898 was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa. It brought Britain and France to the verge of war but ended in a major strategic victory for Britain, and provided the basis for the 1904 Entente Cordiale between the two rival countries. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe Flag of the United Kingdomsvg|right|70px]] The Entente cordiale is a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom It stemmed from battles over control of the Nile headwaters, which caused Britain to expand in the Sudan.
The French thrust into the African interior was mainly from West Africa (modern day Senegal) eastward, through the Sahel along the southern border of the Sahara, a territory covering modern day Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Chad. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. Senegal (le Sénégal officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country south of the Sénégal River in western Africa. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil Senegal (le Sénégal officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country south of the Sénégal River in western Africa. Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. Their ultimate aim was to have an uninterrupted link between the Niger River and the Nile, thus controlling all trade to and from the Sahel region, by virtue of their existing control over the Caravan routes through the Sahara. The Niger River (ˈnaɪdʒɚ NYE-jer) is the principal River of western Africa, extending about 4180 km (2600 miles The British, on the other hand, wanted to link their possessions in Southern Africa (modern South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland, and Zambia), with their territories in East Africa (modern Kenya), and these two areas with the Nile basin. Southern Africa is the Southernmost Region of the African Continent, variably defined by Geography or Geopolitics. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The Republic of Botswana (Lefatshe la Botswana is a Landlocked nation in Southern Africa. See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election Lesotho (lɪˈsuːtuː) officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a Landlocked country and Enclave — entirely surrounded by the Republic of South The Kingdom of Swaziland is a country located in Southern Africa centred at approximately 26o49'S 31o38'E The Republic of Zambia (ˈzæmbɪə is a Landlocked country in Southern Africa. East Africa is the Easternmost Region of the African Continent. The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south Sudan (which in those days included modern day Uganda) was obviously key to the fulfilment of these ambitions, especially since Egypt was already under British control. Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. This 'red line' through Africa is made most famous by Cecil Rhodes. Cecil John Rhodes, PC DCL (5 July 1853 &ndash 26 March 1902 was an English -born Businessman mining Magnate, and Politician Along with Lord Milner (the British colonial minister in South Africa), Rhodes advocated such a "Cape to Cairo" empire linking by rail the Suez Canal to the mineral-rich Southern part of the continent. Alfred Milner 1st Viscount Milner, KG, GCB, GCMG, PC (23 March 1854&ndash13 May 1925 was a controversial German-born British Though hampered by German occupation of Tanganyika until the end of World War I, Rhodes successfully lobbied on behalf of such a sprawling East African empire. Tanganyika is the name of an East African territory lying between the largest of the African great lakes Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
If one draws a line from Cape Town to Cairo (Rhodes' dream), and one from Dakar to the Horn of Africa (now Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia), (the French ambition), these two lines intersect somewhere in eastern Sudan near Fashoda, explaining its strategic importance. Cape Town (Kaapstad Xhosa: Ikapa) is the second most populous city in South Africa, forming part of the metropolitan municipality of the Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. For the Dakar Rally see Dakar Rally. For the Israeli submarine see INS Dakar. The Horn of Africa (alternatively Northeast Africa, and sometimes Somali Peninsula; shortened to HOA) is a Peninsula in East Africa NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Djibouti ( جيبوتي Jībūtī, Somali: Jabuuti) officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known The Fashoda Incident (1898 was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa. In short, Britain had sought to extend its East African empire contiguously from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope, while France had sought to extend its own holdings from Dakar to the Sudan, which would enable its empire to span the entire continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. The Cape of Good Hope ( Afrikaans: Kaap die Goeie Hoop, Kaap de Goede Hoop Cabo da Boa Esperança Persian Language: دماغه امید نیک Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia.
A French force under Jean-Baptiste Marchand arrived first at the strategically located fort at Fashoda soon followed by a British force under Lord Kitchener, commander in chief of the British army since 1892. Major Jean-Baptiste Marchand ( November 2 1863 &ndash January 13 1934) was a French emissary in Africa Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener 1st Earl Kitchener, KG, KP, GCB, OM The French withdrew after a standoff, and continued to press claims to other posts in the region. In March 1899 the French and British agreed that the source of the Nile and Congo Rivers should mark the frontier between their spheres of influence. The Congo River (for a time known as the Zaire River) is the largest River in Western Central Africa.
Moroccan Crisis
Although the 1884-85 Berlin Conference had set the rules for the scramble for Africa, it hadn't weakened the rival imperialisms. The First Moroccan Crisis (also known as the Tangier Crisis) was the International crisis over the colonial status of Morocco between March 1905 and May The Agadir Crisis, also called the Second Moroccan Crisis, was the international tension sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat ''Panther'' The 1898 Fashoda Incident, which had seen France and the UK on the brink of war, ultimately led to the signature of the 1904 Entente cordiale, which reversed the influence of the various European powers. Flag of the United Kingdomsvg|right|70px]] The Entente cordiale is a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom As a result, the new German power decided to test the solidity of the influence, using the contested territory of Morocco as a battlefield. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa
Thus, on March 31, 1905 Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangiers and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence, challenging French influence in Morocco. Events 307 - After divorcing his wife Minervina, Constantine marries Fausta, the daughter of the retired Roman Emperor Year 1905 ( MCMV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Tangier or Tangiers ]] ( Tanja طنجة in Berber and Arabic, Tánger in Spanish France's influence in Morocco had been reaffirmed by Britain and Spain in 1904. The Kaiser's speech bolstered French nationalism and with British support the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, took a defiant line. Kaiser is the German title meaning " Emperor " with Kaiserin being the female equivalent " Empress " The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Théophile Delcassé ( 1 March 1852 – 22 February 1923) was a French Statesman. The crisis peaked in mid-June 1905, when Delcassé was forced out of the ministry by the more conciliation minded premier Maurice Rouvier. Maurice Rouvier (17 April 1842 - 7 June 1911 was a French Statesman. But by July 1905 Germany was becoming isolated and the French agreed to a conference to solve the crisis. Both France and Germany continued to posture up to the conference, with Germany mobilizing reserve army units in late December and France actually moving troops to the border in January 1906.
The 1906 Algeciras Conference was called to settle the dispute. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 took place in Algeciras Spain, and lasted from January 16 to April 7. Of the thirteen nations present the German representatives found their only supporter was Austria-Hungary. France had firm support from Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain, and the U. S. The Germans eventually accepted an agreement, signed on May 31, 1906, where France yielded certain domestic changes in Morocco but retained control of key areas. Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. Year 1906 ( MCMVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting
However, five years later the second Moroccan crisis (or Agadir Crisis) was sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat Panther, to the port of Agadir on July 1, 1911. The Agadir Crisis, also called the Second Moroccan Crisis, was the international tension sparked by the deployment of the German gunboat ''Panther'' See also Agadir Crisis List of naval ships of Germany Agadir ( Arabic ~since it is not an Arabic word it is modified as follows أڴادير or أغادير, Berber (Amazigh) is a city in "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 1911 ( MCMXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Germany had started to attempt to surpass Britain's naval supremacy — the British navy had a policy of remaining larger than the next two naval fleets in the world combined. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The British Royal Navy was formally created after the Union between England and Scotland in 1707 which merged the English Navy with the Royal Scots Navy When the British heard of the Panther's arrival in Morocco, they wrongly believed that the Germans meant to turn Agadir into a naval base on the Atlantic.
The German move was aimed at reinforcing claims for compensation for acceptance of effective French control of the North African kingdom, where France's pre-eminence had been upheld by the 1906 Algeciras Conference. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan In November 1911 a convention was signed under which Germany accepted France's position in Morocco in return for territory in the French Equatorial African colony of Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo). French Equatorial Africa ( Afrique équatoriale française, AEF) was the federation of French colonial possessions in Middle Africa, extending The Republic of the Congo (République du Congo Kongo: Repubilika ya Kongo; Lingala: Republiki ya Kongó) also known as Congo-Brazzaville The Republic of the Congo (République du Congo Kongo: Repubilika ya Kongo; Lingala: Republiki ya Kongó) also known as Congo-Brazzaville
France subsequently established a full protectorate over Morocco (March 30, 1912), ending what remained of the country's formal independence. In International law, a protectorate is a autonomous territory that is "protected" by a stronger state or entity hense the protector which engages to protect Events 240 BC - 1st recorded Perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. Year 1912 ( MCMXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting Furthermore, British backing for France during the two Moroccan crises reinforced the Entente between the two countries and added to Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions which would culminate in World War I.
Colonial encounter
Colonial consciousness and exhibitions
The colonial lobby
In its early stages imperialism was mainly the act of individual explorers and some adventurous merchantmen. The metropoles were a long way from approving without any dissent the expensive adventures carried out abroad, and various important political leaders such as Gladstone opposed colonization in its first years. The metropole, from the Greek Metropolis 'mother city' (polis being a city state hence also used for any colonizing 'mother country' in ecclesiastical languages an archbishopric having However, during his second premiership in 1880–1885 he could not resist the colonial lobby, and thus did not execute his electoral promise to disengage from Egypt. Although Gladstone was personally opposed to imperialism, the social tensions caused by the Long Depression pushed him to favor jingoism: the imperialists had become the "parasites of patriotism" (Hobson[8]). Class conflict, also class war or class warfare, is both the friction that accompanies social relationships between members or groups of different The Long Depression ( 1873 &ndash 1896) affected much of the world and was contemporary with the Second Industrial Revolution. Jingoism is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "extreme Patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy" Patriotism is commonly defined as love of and/or devotion to one's country John Atkinson Hobson ( July 6, 1858 – April 1, 1940) commonly known as John A In France, then Radical politician Georges Clemenceau also adamantly opposed himself to it: he thought colonization was a diversion from the "blue line of the Vosges" mountains, that is revanchism and the patriotic urge to reclaim the Alsace-Lorraine region which had been annexed by the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The Radical Party ( Parti Radical, Rad also known as Parti radical valoisien) is a liberal and centrist political party in France Georges Benjamin Clemenceau ( Mouilleron-en-Pareds ( Vendée) 28 September 1841 24 November 1929 was a French statesman physician and Journalist The Vosges (voːʒ or Vosges Mountains are a Mountain range in eastern France, stretching along the west side of the Rhine valley Revanchism (from French revanche " Revenge " is a term used since the 1870s to describe a political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 The Treaty of Frankfurt (Le traité de Francfort Friede von Frankfurt was a Peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, at the end of Clemenceau actually made Jules Ferry's cabinet fall after the 1885 Tonkin disaster. Jules François Camille Ferry (5 April 1832 17 March 1893 was a French statesman and ardent imperialist Early life Born in Saint-Dié, The Sino-French War ( Chinese:, French: Guerre franco-chinoise, Vietnamese: Chiến tranh Pháp-Thanh) was a limited conflict fought According to Hannah Arendt's classic The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), this unlimited expansion of national sovereignty on oversea territories contradicted the unity of the nation-state which provided citizenship to its population. The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt which classed Nazism and Stalinism as Totalitarian movements Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy Thus, a tension between the universalist will to respect human rights of the colonized people, as they may be considered as "citizens" of the nation-state, and the imperialist drives to cynically exploit populations deemed inferior began to surface. Moral universalism (or universal morality) is the meta-ethical position that some system of ethics or a universal ethic applies universally, that Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled The term " exploitation " may carry two distinct meanings The act of utilizing something for any purpose Some rare voices in the metropoles opposed what they saw as unnecessary evils of the colonial administration, left to itself and described in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness (1899) — contemporary of Kipling's The White Man's Burden — or in Céline's Journey to the End of the Night (1932). Joseph Conrad (born Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski, 3 December 1857 – 3 August 1924 was a Polish-born English novelist Heart of Darkness is a Novella written by Polish-born writer Joseph Conrad (born Józef Teodor Konrad Korzeniowski) Joseph Rudyard Kipling (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936 was an English Author and poet " The White Man's Burden " is a poem by the English poet Rudyard Kipling. Louis-Ferdinand Céline was the Pen name of French writer and doctor Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (27 May 1894 &ndash 1 July 1961 Journey to the End of the night is a 2006 film starring Brendan Fraser.
Thus, colonial lobbies were progressively set up to legitimize the Scramble for Africa and other expensive oversea adventures. Lobbying includes all attempts to influence Legislators and officials whether by other legislators constituents or organized groups In Germany, in France, in Britain, the bourgeoisie began to claim strong oversea policies to insure the market's growth. In 1916, Lenin would publish his famous Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism to explain this phenomenon. Imperialism the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916 by Vladimir Lenin is a classic Marxist theoretical treatise on the relationship between Capitalism Even in lesser powers, voices like Corradini began to claim a "place in the sun" for so-called "proletarian nations", bolstering nationalism and militarism in an early prototype of fascism. Enrico Corradini (1865 &mdash 1931 was an Italian Novelist Essayist journalist and nationalist political figure The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology
Colonial propaganda and jingoism
Colonial exhibitions
However, by the end of World War I the colonized empires had become very popular almost everywhere: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All That the manufacture of consent is capable of great refinements no one I think denies Colonial exhibitions had been instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists. A colonial exhibition was a type of international exhibition intended to boost trade and bolster popular support for the various colonial empires during Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people Thus, the conquest of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes. The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical Karl Hagenbeck, a German merchant in wild animals and future entrepreneur of most Europeans zoos, thus decided in 1874 to exhibit Samoa and Sami people as "purely natural" populations. A zoological garden, shortened to zoo, is an institution in which living animals are exhibited in captivity Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa, is a country governing the western part of the Samoan Islands Archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean The Sami people are the Indigenous people of northern Europe inhabiting Sápmi, which today encompasses parts of northern Sweden, Norway In 1876, he sent one of his collaborators to the newly conquered Egyptian Sudan to bring back some wild beasts and Nubians. The Nubians (Arabic نوبي Nuubi are an ethnic group originally from northern Sudan, now inhabiting East Africa and some parts of Northeast Africa in southern Egypt Presented in Paris, London and Berlin, these Nubians were very successful. Such "human zoos" could be found in Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York, Warsaw, etc. Human zoos (also called "ethnological expositions" or " Negro Villages" were 19th and 20th century public exhibits of human beings usually in a "natural" , with 200,000 to 300,000 visitors attending each exhibition. Tuaregs were exhibited after the French conquest of Timbuktu (discovered by René Caillé, disguised as a Muslim, in 1828, who thus won the prize offered by the French Société de Géographie); Malagasy after the occupation of Madagascar; Amazons of Abomey after Behanzin's mediatic defeat against the French in 1894. The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic Timbuktu ( Timbuctoo; Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu; French: Tombouctou) is a city in Tombouctou Region, in the West African René Caillié ( September 19, 1799 - May 17, 1838) was a French explorer and the first European to return alive from the Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The Dahomey Amazons or Mino were a Fon all-female military regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey (now Benin) which lasted until end of the 19th Abomey is a town in Benin, formerly the capital of the ancient kingdom of Dahomey. Béhanzin ( 1844 - December 10 1906, in Blida, Algeria) is considered the eleventh (if Adandozan is not counted King . . Not used to the climatic conditions, some of the indigenous exposed died, such as some Galibis in Paris in 1892. The Galibi were a Cariban-speaking people who lived in the Lesser Antilles and northern South America ( French Guiana) at the time of European [9]
Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, director of the Parisian Jardin d'acclimatation, decided in 1877 to organize two "ethnological spectacles", presenting Nubians and Inuit. Inuit (plural the singular Inuk, means "man" or "person" is a general term for a group of culturally similar Indigenous peoples inhabiting The public of the Jardin d'acclimatation doubled, with a million paying entrances that year, a huge success for these times. Between 1877 and 1912, approximatively thirty "ethnological exhibitions" were presented at the Jardin zoologique d'acclimatation. [10] "Negro villages" would be presented in Paris's 1878 and 1879 World's Fair; the 1900 World's Fair presented the famous diorama "living" in Madagascar, while the Colonial Exhibitions in Marseilles (1906 and 1922) and in Paris (1907 and 1931) would also display human beings in cages, often nudes or quasi-nudes. The word diorama can refer either to a nineteenth century mobile theatre device or in modern usage a three-dimensional model usually enclosed in a glass showcase for a museum [11] Nomadic "Senegalese villages" were also created, thus displaying the power of the colonial empire to all the population. Senegal (le Sénégal officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country south of the Sénégal River in western Africa.
In the U.S., Madison Grant, head of the New York Zoological Society, exposed Pygmy Ota Benga in the Bronx Zoo alongside the apes and others in 1906. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Madison Grant ( November 19, 1865 &ndash May 30, 1937) was an American Lawyer, known primarily for his work as a The Wildlife Conservation Society ( WCS) endeavors to save Wildlife and wild lands though careful use of science conservation around the world education Pygmies (singular Pygmy) refers to a member of any human group whose adult males grow to less than 150 cm (4 feet 11 inches in average height or less than 155 cm Ota Benga (c1881 or 1884 &ndash March 20, 1916) was a Congolese Pygmy who was featured in a 1906 Human zoo exhibit at the This article is about the zoo for the TV series see The Bronx Zoo (TV series; for the book "The Bronx Zoo" about the Yankees see Sparky Lyle, its At the behest of Grant, a prominent scientific racist and eugenicist, zoo director Hornaday, placed Ota Benga in a cage with an orangutan and labeled him "The Missing Link" in an attempt to illustrate Darwinism, and in particular that Africans like Ota Benga were closer to apes than were Europeans. Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention Darwinism is a term used for various different movements or concepts related to a greater or lesser extent to Charles Darwin 's work on Evolution.
Such colonial exhibitions, which include the 1924 British Empire Exhibition and the successful 1931 Paris Exposition coloniale, were doubtlessly a key element of the colonisation project and legitimized the ruthless Scramble for Africa, in the same way that the popular comic-strip The Adventures of Tintin, full of clichés, were obviously carrier of an ethnocentric and racist ideology which was the condition of the masses' consent to the imperialist phenomenon. The British Empire Exhibition was a Colonial exhibition held at Wembley, Middlesex in 1924 and 1925 The Adventures of Tintin (Les Aventures de Tintin is a series of Comic strips created by Belgian artist Hergé, the pen name of Georges Remi A cliché (from French, klɪ'ʃe or cliche is a phrase expression or idea that has been overused to the point of losing its intended force Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own Culture. List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics Hergé's work attained summits with Tintin in the Congo (1930-31) or The Broken Ear (1935). Georges Prosper Remi ( May 22, 1907 - March 3, 1983) better known by the Pen name Hergé, was a Belgian Tintin in the Congo ( Tintin au Congo) is the second of The Adventures of Tintin, a series of classic comic-strip albums written and illustrated The Broken Ear ( French: L'Oreille cassée) is the sixth of The Adventures of Tintin, a series of classic comic-strip
While comic-strips played the same role as westerns to legitimize the Indian Wars in the United States, colonial exhibitions were both popular and scientific, being an interface between the crowds and serious scientific research. The Western is a fiction Genre seen in Film, Television, Radio, Literature, Painting and other Visual arts. Thus, anthropologists such as Madison Grant or Alexis Carrel built their pseudo-scientific racism, inspired by Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-55). Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Madison Grant ( November 19, 1865 &ndash May 30, 1937) was an American Lawyer, known primarily for his work as a Alexis Carrel ( June 28, 1873 - November 5, 1944) was a French surgeon biologist and Eugenicist, who was awarded the Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau ( July 14, 1816 — October 13, 1882) was a French Aristocrat, novelist and man of An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853&ndash1855 by Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau is a voluminous work while originally intended as a work of Human zoos provided both a real-size laboratory for these racial hypothesis and a demonstration of their validity: by labelling Ota Benga as the "missing link" between apes and Europeans, as was done in the Bronx Zoo, social Darwinism and the pseudo-hierarchy of races, grounded in the biologization of the notion of "race", were simultaneously "proved", and the layman could observe this "scientific truth. A laboratory (informally lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific Research, Experiments and Ota Benga (c1881 or 1884 &ndash March 20, 1916) was a Congolese Pygmy who was featured in a 1906 Human zoo exhibit at the The European peoples are the various Nations and Ethnic groups of Europe. Social Darwinism is a theory that competition among all individuals groups nations or ideas drives Social evolution in human societies In biology a race is any inbreeding group including taxonomic subgroups such as Subspecies, taxonomically subordinate to a Species and superordinate to a subrace "
Anthropology
Anthropology, the daughter of colonisation, participated in this so-called scientific racism based on social Darwinism by supporting, along with social positivism and scientism, the claims of the superiority of the Western civilization over "primitive cultures". Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Social Darwinism is a theory that competition among all individuals groups nations or ideas drives Social evolution in human societies This article describes the term 'positivism' as used in social sciences especially within the science of sociology The term scientism can be used as a neutral term to describe the view that Natural science has authority over all other interpretations of life such as philosophical In older Anthropology texts and discussions a primitive culture is one that lacks major signs of Economic development or Modernity. However, the discovery of ancient cultures would dialectically lead anthropology to criticize itself and revalue the importance of foreign cultures. In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions Thus, the 1897 Punitive Expedition led by the British Admiral Harry Rawson captured, burned, and looted the city of Benin, incidentally bringing to an end the highly sophisticated West African Kingdom of Benin. Admiral Sir Harry Holdsworth Rawson, GCB, GCMG RN ( England, November 5, 1843, – November 3, 1910 Benin City, a city (2006 est pop 1147188 in Edo State, southern Nigeria, is a city approximately twenty-five miles North of the Benin River. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. The Benin Empire or Edo Empire (1440-1897 was a large pre-colonial African state of modern Nigeria. However, the sack of Benin distributed the famous Benin bronzes and other works of art into the European art market, as the British Admiralty auctioned off the confiscated patrimony to defray costs of the Expedition. The Benin Bronzes are a collection of more than 1000 Brass plaques from the royal palace of the Kingdom of Benin. The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy. Most of the great Benin bronzes went first to purchasers in Germany, though a sizable group remain in the British Museum. The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. The Benin bronzes then catalysed the beginnings of a long reassessment of the value of West African culture, which had strong influences on the formation of modernism. Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century
Several contemporary studies have thus focused on the construction of the racist discourse in the 19th century and its propaganda as a precondition of the colonization project and of the Scramble of Africa, made with total disconcern for the local population, as exemplified by Stanley, according to whom "the savage only respects force, power, boldness, and decision. Sir Henry Morton Stanley, GCB, born John Rowlands ( January 28 1841 &ndash May 10 1904) was a British journalist " Anthropology, which was related to criminology, thrived on these explorations, as had geography before them and ethnology — which, along with Claude Lévi-Strauss' studies, would theorize the ethnocentric illusion — afterwards. Schools of thought In the mid-18th century criminology arose as social philosophers gave thought to crime and concepts of law Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and Claude Lévi-Strauss (klod levi stʁos born 28 November 1908 is a French Anthropologist. According to several historians, the formulation of this racist discourse and practices would also be a precondition of "state racism" (Michel Foucault) as incarnated by the Holocaust (see also Olivier LeCour Grandmaison's description of the conquest of Algeria and Sven Lindqvist, as well as Hannah Arendt). State racism is a Concept used by French Philosopher Michel Foucault to designate the reappropriation of the historical and political Discourse Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Olivier LeCour Grandmaison ( September 19, 1960, Paris) is a French Historian. French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962 under a variety of governmental systems Dr Sven Lindqvist (born April 28, 1932) is a Swedish author Sven Lindqvist was born in Stockholm in 1932 The invention of concentration camps during the Second Boer War would also be an innovation used by the Third Reich. Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people commonly in large groups without trial The term innovation means a new way of doing something It may refer to incremental radical and revolutionary changes in thinking products processes or organisations Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers
The extermination of the Namaqua and the Herero
In 1985, the United Nations' Whitaker Report recognized Germany's turn of the century attempt to exterminate the Herero and Namaqua peoples of South-West Africa as one of the earliest attempts at genocide in the 20th century. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The Herero are a people belonging to the Bantu group with about 240000 members alive today Nama (in older sources also called Namaqua) are an African Ethnic group of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. South-West Africa (Afrikaans Suidwes-Afrika; German Südwestafrika) was the name of what is today the Republic of Namibia. Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group The twentieth century of the Common Era began on In total, some 65,000 Herero (80 percent of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Namaqua (50 percent of the total Namaqua population) were killed between 1904 and 1907. Characteristic of this genocide was death by starvation and the poisoning of wells for the Herero and Namaqua population who were trapped in the Namib Desert. The Namib Desert is a Desert in Namibia and southwest Angola which forms part of the Namib-Naukluft National Park.
Conclusions
During the New Imperialism period, by the end of the century, Europe added almost 9 million square miles (23,000,000 km²) — one-fifth of the land area of the globe — to its overseas colonial possessions. Europe's formal holdings now included the entire African continent except Ethiopia, Liberia, and Saguia el-Hamra, the latter of which would be integrated into Spanish Sahara. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Liberia, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the west coast of Africa, bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire Saguia el-Hamra, in Arabic الساقية الحمراء al-Saqiyah al-Hamra'a ("Red Canal" is with Río de Oro, one of the two territories Spanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was ruled as a territory by Spain between 1884 and 1975 Between 1885 and 1914 Britain took nearly 30% of Africa's population under its control, to 15% for France, 9% for Germany, 7% for Belgium and only 1% for Italy. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Nigeria alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of French West Africa or the entire German colonial empire. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal French West Africa ( Afrique occidentale française, AOF) was a Federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: It was paradoxical that Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to its long-standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the "scramble for Africa", reflecting its advantageous position at its inception. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British In terms of surface area occupied, the French were the marginal victors but much of their territory consisted of the sparsely-populated Sahara. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest
The political imperialism followed the economic expansion, with the "colonial lobbies" bolstering chauvinism and jingoism at each crisis in order to legitimize the colonial enterprise. Chauvinism (ˈʃoʊvɨnɪzəm is extreme and unreasoning Partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred Jingoism is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "extreme Patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy" The tensions between the imperial powers led to a succession of crisis, which finally exploded in August 1914, when previous rivalries and alliances created a domino situation that drew the major European nations into the war. Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia to avenge the murder by Serbian agents of Austrian crown prince Francis Ferdinand, Russia would mobilize to assist its Slavic brothers in Serbia, Germany would intervene to support Austria-Hungary against Russia. Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Since Russia had a military alliance with France against Germany, the German General Staff, led by General von Moltke decided to realize the well prepared Schlieffen Plan to invade France and quickly knock her out of the war before turning against Russia in what was expected to be a long campaign. The German General Staff ( Großer Generalstab literally Great General Staff) was an institution whose rise and development gave the German military a decided Helmuth Johann Ludwig von Moltke ( May 25 1848 &ndash June 18 1916) also known as Moltke the Younger, was a nephew of For the French counter-plan see Plan XVII The Schlieffen Plan was the German General Staff 's early 20th century overall strategic This required an invasion of Belgium which brought Britain into the war against Germany, Austria-Hungary and their allies. An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all or large parts of the Armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory German U-Boat campaigns against ships bound for Britain eventually drew the United States into what had become the First World War. U-boat is the anglicized version of the German word, itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot ( undersea boat) and refers The United States of America —commonly referred to as the World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Moreover, using the Anglo-Japanese Alliance as an excuse, Japan leaped onto this opportunity to conquer German interests in China and the Pacific to become the dominating power in Western Pacific, setting the stage for the Second Sino-Japanese War (starting in 1937) and eventually the Second World War. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions The Second Sino-Japanese War ( July 7, 1937 to September 9, 1945) was a major war fought between the Republic of China and the World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including
African colonies listed by colonizing power
Belgium
- Congo Free State and Belgian Congo (comprising nowadays Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of the Congo)
France
- Morocco
- French West Africa
- Mauritania
- Senegal
- Cameroon
- French Sudan (now Mali)
- Guinea
- Ivory Coast
- Niger
- Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso)
- Dahomey (now Benin)
- French Equatorial Africa
- Gabon
- Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo)
- Oubangi-Chari (now the Central African Republic)
- Chad
- French Somaliland (now Djibouti)
- Madagascar
- Comoros
Germany
- German Kamerun (now Cameroon and part of Nigeria)
- German East Africa (now part of Tanzania)
- German South-West Africa (now Namibia)
- German Togoland (now Togo)
Italy
- Italian North Africa (now Libya)
- Eritrea
- Italian Somaliland (now part of Somalia)
Portugal
- Portuguese West Africa (now Angola)
- Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique)
- Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau)
- Cape Verde Islands
- São Tomé e Príncipe
Spain
- Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara, composed of:)
- Spanish Morocco
- Spanish Guinea (now Equatorial Guinea, composed of:)
United Kingdom
The British were primarily interested in maintaining secure communication lines to India, which led to initial interest in Egypt and South Africa. The Congo Free State was a Corporate state privately controlled by Leopold II King of the Belgians through a dummy non-governmental organization the The Belgian Congo ( Dutch: Belgisch Kongo French: Congo Belge German: Belgisch Kongo was the formal title of present-day Democratic Republic The Republic of Rwanda (ruːˈændə or /rəˈwɑːndə/ in English ɾwanda or in Kinyarwanda is a small Landlocked country in the Burundi (buˈɾundi officially the Republic of Burundi, is a small country in the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa bordered by Rwanda The Democratic Republic of the Congo (République démocratique du Congo often referred to as DR Congo, DRC or RDC, and formerly known or referred to Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa French West Africa ( Afrique occidentale française, AOF) was a Federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country Senegal (le Sénégal officially the Republic of Senegal, is a country south of the Sénégal River in western Africa. The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. French Sudan (Soudan was a Colony in French West Africa that had two separate periods of existence first from 1890 to 1899 then from 1920 to 1960 when the Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Guinea, officially Republic of Guinea (pronounced /ˈgɪni/ République de Guinée is a country in West Africa, formerly known as French Guinea Côte d'Ivoire (ˌkoʊt divˈwɑː(r ' in English, kot diˈvwaʀ in French) or Ivory Coast, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Upper Volta (Haute-Volta was a colony of French West Africa established on March 1, 1919 from territories that had been part of the Burkina Faso (bɚˌkiːnəˈfɑːsoʊ burr-KEE-na FAH-soh) also known by its short-form name Burkina, is a Landlocked nation in West Africa Benin (bə'nɪn officially the Republic of Benin, and also known as Benin Republic, is a country in Western Africa. French Equatorial Africa ( Afrique équatoriale française, AEF) was the federation of French colonial possessions in Middle Africa, extending Gabon (gəˈbɒn or /gaˈbõ/ in French) is a country in west central Africa sharing borders with Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Republic The Republic of the Congo (République du Congo Kongo: Repubilika ya Kongo; Lingala: Republiki ya Kongó) also known as Congo-Brazzaville The Republic of the Congo (République du Congo Kongo: Repubilika ya Kongo; Lingala: Republiki ya Kongó) also known as Congo-Brazzaville Oubangui-Chari, or Ubangi-Shari, was a French territory in central Africa which later became the independent country of the Central African Central Africa|Central African FederationThe Central African Republic ( CAR) République Centrafricaine ʀepyblik sɑ̃tʀafʀikɛn or Centrafrique) is a Landlocked Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. Djibouti ( جيبوتي Jībūtī, Somali: Jabuuti) officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Djibouti ( جيبوتي Jībūtī, Somali: Jabuuti) officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The Comoros (ˈkɒməroʊz; جزر القمر Juzur al-Qumur) officially the Union of the Comoros (Union des Comores الإتّحاد القمريّ Kamerun was an African colony of the German Empire from 1884 to 1916 in the region of today's Republic of Cameroon. The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal German East Africa (Deutsch-Ostafrika was a German Colony in East Africa, including what is now Burundi, Rwanda and Tanganyika Tanzania ˌtænzəˈniːə officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya German South West Africa ( German: Deutsch-Südwestafrika, DSWA) was a Colony of Germany from 1884 until 1915 when it was taken Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast Togoland was a German Protectorate in West Africa from 1884 to 1914 TOGO was a Japanese roller coaster design company famous for inventing the Stand-up roller coaster. Italian North Africa ( Africa Settentrionale Italiana, or ASI was the aggregate of territories and colonies controlled by Italy in North Africa from Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Italian Somalia (also known as Italian Somaliland) was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy ( Regno d'Italia) from the 1880s until 1942 in the territory Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known Angola was the name of the Portuguese overseas colonies and later a Portuguese overseas province on the south-west African coast which now form the republic of Angola Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central Mozambique was a string of Portuguese overseas colonies and later a Portuguese overseas province along the south-east African coast which now form the republic of Mozambique Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa Portuguese Guinea was the name for what is today Guinea-Bissau from 1446 to September 10, 1974. The Republic of Guinea-Bissau (ˈgɪni bɨˈsaʊ República da Guiné-Bissau ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɐ giˈnɛ biˈsau is a country in Western Africa, and one of the smallest The Republic of Cape Verde ( Portuguese: Cabo Verde, 'kabu 'veɾdɨ is a Republic located on an Archipelago in the Macaronesia São Tomé and Príncipe, officially the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, is an Island nation in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western equatorial Spanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was ruled as a territory by Spain between 1884 and 1975 Western Sahara ( Arabic: الصحراء الغربية; transliterated: as-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah; Sahara Occidental is a territory Río de Oro ( Spanish for " Gold River" Arabic: وادي الذهب wādī-að-ðahab, often transliterated as Oued Edhahab is with Saguia el-Hamra, in Arabic الساقية الحمراء al-Saqiyah al-Hamra'a ("Red Canal" is with Río de Oro, one of the two territories Spanish protectorate of Morocco (حماية إسبانيا في المغرب (Protectorado español de Marruecos was the area of Morocco under colonial rule by the Cape Juby ( رأس جوبي, pronounced Ra's Juby in Arabic is a cape on the coast of southern Morocco, near its border with Ifni was a Spanish province on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, south of Agadir and across from the Canary Islands. Spanish Guinea was an African Colony of Spain that became the independent nation of Equatorial Guinea. The Republic of Equatorial Guinea ( República de Guinea Ecuatorial,) is a country in Central Africa. Bioko (spelled also Bioco) is an island off the west coast of Africa in the Gulf of Guinea, part of Equatorial Guinea. Río Muni (called Mbini in Fang) is the Continental Region of Equatorial Guinea, and comprises the mainland geographical region covering Annobón (or Annabon or Anabon; from Ano bom Portuguese for Good Year) also known as Pagalu or Pigalu, is an Once these two areas were secure, it was the intent of British colonialists such as Cecil Rhodes to establish a Cape-Cairo railway. Cecil John Rhodes, PC DCL (5 July 1853 &ndash 26 March 1902 was an English -born Businessman mining Magnate, and Politician It is also important to stress that the United Kingdom had perhaps the most valuable possession in Africa: the Nile. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River
- Egypt
- Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (now Sudan)
- British East Africa
- Zanzibar
- British Somaliland (now part of Somalia)
- Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe)
- Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia)
- Bechuanaland (now Botswana)
- Orange Free State (now part of South Africa)
- British South Africa
- The Gambia
- Sierra Leone
- Nigeria
- Cameroon (western provinces)
- British Gold Coast (now Ghana)
- Nyasaland (now Malawi)
Independent states
- Liberia, founded by the United States' American Colonization Society in 1821. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan referred to the manner by which Sudan was administered between 1899 and 1956, when it was a condominium of Egypt Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. British East Africa was an area of East Africa controlled by the British in the late 19th century which became a Protectorate covering roughly the area of present-day The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south The Republic of Uganda is a Landlocked country in East Africa. Zanzibar ( is part of the East African republic of Tanzania. It consists of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the British Somaliland was a British Protectorate in the north part of the Horn of Africa. Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known Southern Rhodesia was the name of the British Colony situated north of the Limpopo River and the Union of South Africa, and known today as Zimbabwe See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election Northern Rhodesia was a territory in south central Africa initially administered under charter by the British South Africa Company and formed by it in 1911 by The Republic of Zambia (ˈzæmbɪə is a Landlocked country in Southern Africa. The Bechuanaland Protectorate (BP was a protectorate established on March 31, 1885, by the United Kingdom in Southern Africa. The Republic of Botswana (Lefatshe la Botswana is a Landlocked nation in Southern Africa. The Republic of the Orange Free State (Oranje-Vrystaat Dutch: Oranje-Vrijstaat) was an independent Boer republic in southern Africa The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa } The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day state of the Republic of South Africa. Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. This article is about the British colony in west Africa 1821-1957 The Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa. It borders Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast to the west Burkina Faso to the north Togo to the The History of Malawi covers the area of present-day Malawi. The region was once part of the Maravi Empire. The Republic of Malawi (məˈlɑːwi or; formerly Nyasaland) is in southern Africa. Liberia, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the west coast of Africa, bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The American Colonization Society (in full The Society for the Colonization of Free People of Color of America was an organization that helped in founding Liberia, a Colony Year 1821 ( MDCCCXXI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year Declared independence in 1847. Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common
- Ethiopia (Abyssinia), had its borders re-drawn with Italian Eritrea and French Somaliland (modern Djibouti), briefly occupied by Italy from 1936-1941 during World War II's Abyssinia Crisis
- Sudan, independent under Mahdi rule between 1885-1899
See also
- African Atlantis
- Chronology of colonialism
- Colonialism
- Decolonization of Africa
- Global Empire
- Human Zoo
- Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization
- Pseudo-scientifical racial theories
- White African
- World War I
- Congo Reform Association
References
- ^ a b Kevin Shillington, History of Africa: Revised Second Edition, (New York: Macmillian Publishers Limited, 2005), 301
- ^ Alfred von Tirpitz, Erinnerungen (1919), quoted by Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, section on Imperialism, chapter I, part 3
- ^ German colonial imperialism: a late and short-term phenomenon (PDF) by Bernard Poloni, in "Imperialism, hegemony, leadership", March 26, 2004 Conference in the Sorbonne University, Paris (French)
- ^ Enrico Corradini, Report to the First Nationalist Congress: Florence, December 3, 1919. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Abyssinia Crisis was a diplomatic crisis during the interwar period originating in the conflict between Kingdom of Italy and the Empire of Ethiopia Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah (otherwise known as The Mahdi or Muhammad Ahmed Al Mahdi Arabic:محمد أحمد المهدي ( August Year 1885 ( MDCCCLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1899 ( MDCCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The African Atlantis was a civilization thought to have once existed in southern Africa, initially proposed by German philosopher Leo Frobenius This is a non-exhaustive Chronology of Colonialism -related events which may recensed political events cultural events as well as important global events which have See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism A global empire involves the extension of a state's sovereignty over territories all around the World. Human zoos (also called "ethnological expositions" or " Negro Villages" were 19th and 20th century public exhibits of human beings usually in a "natural" Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The Congo Reform Association exposed gross and rampant abuses of labor and by public servants in King Leopold II of Belgium 's Congo Free State, leading to the annexation Alfred von Tirpitz (March 19 1849 &ndash March 6 1930 was a German Admiral, Secretary of State of the Imperial Naval Office the powerful administrative branch The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt which classed Nazism and Stalinism as Totalitarian movements The historic University of Paris (Université de Paris first appeared in the second half of the 13th century Enrico Corradini (1865 &mdash 1931 was an Italian Novelist Essayist journalist and nationalist political figure
- ^ S. Gertrude Millin, Rhodes, London, 1933, p. Sarah Gertrude Millin, née Liebson ( March 19, 1889 – July 6, 1968) was a Kimberley South African born writer 138
- ^ L'Aventure Humaine: Le canal de Suez, Article de l'historien Uwe Oster.
- ^ BBC News website:The Suez Crisis — Key maps.
- ^ John A. Hobson, Imperialism, 1902, p. John Atkinson Hobson ( July 6, 1858 – April 1, 1940) commonly known as John A Imperialism A Study was a political-economic discourse written by John A 61 (quoted by Arendt)
- ^ From human zoos to colonial apotheoses: the era of exhibiting the Other, by Pascal Blanchard, Nicolas Bancel, and Sandrine Lemaire
- ^ "These human zoos of the Colonial Republic", Le Monde diplomatique, August 2000, (French) (Translation (English))
- ^ February 2003, the end of an era
Further reading
- Arendt, Hannah. Le Monde diplomatique (nicknamed "Le Diplo" by its French readers is a monthly publication offering analysis and opinion on politics culture and current affairs The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951, second section on imperialism) ISBN 0-15-670153-7
- Sections of The Age of Empire Eric Hobsbawm
- Lindqvist, Sven. The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt which classed Nazism and Stalinism as Totalitarian movements Dr Sven Lindqvist (born April 28, 1932) is a Swedish author Sven Lindqvist was born in Stockholm in 1932 Exterminate All the Brutes (Utrota varenda jävel, 1992)
- Pakenham, Thomas. Thomas Francis Dermot Pakenham 8th Earl of Longford, born 14 August 1933 known simply as Thomas Pakenham, is an Anglo-Irish historian and Arborist who The Scramble for Africa. There are a number of books bearing the title "Scramble for Africa" including The Scramble for Africa The White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 Abacus, 1991 ISBN 0-349-10449-2
- Maria Petringa. Brazza, A Life for Africa. AuthorHouse, 2006. ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0
- Rodney, Walter. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, London and Tanzanian Publishing House, Dar-Es-Salaam 1973.
Primm, JT. "Causes/Effects of Imperialism" DK Publications, 1999.
- Wesseling, Henk Divide and Rule. Henk Wesseling was born in 1937 in The Hague, the Netherlands The Partition of Africa, 1880-1914. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 1996 (Translation of Verdeel en Heers: De Deling van Afrika, 1880-1914. 1991)
External links
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