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Scorpion
Asian forest scorpion (Heterometrus spinifer) in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand
Asian forest scorpion (Heterometrus spinifer) in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Subclass: Dromopoda
Order: Scorpiones
C. L. Koch, 1837
Superfamilies

Pseudochactoidea
Buthoidea
Chaeriloidea
Chactoidea
Iuroidea
Scorpionoidea
See classification for families. Khao Yai National Park ( Thai เขาใหญ่ is a national park in Thailand. Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " The subphylum Chelicerata constitutes one of the major subdivisions of the phylum Arthropoda including the Arachnids Horseshoe crabs and related forms Arachnids are a class ( Arachnida) of joint-legged Invertebrate Animals in the subphylum Chelicerata. Dromopoda is a Subclass of the arachnids, including the Opiliones (harvestmen Scorpions Pseudoscorpions and Solifugae Carl Ludwig Koch ( September 21, 1778 - August 23, 1857) was a German Entomologist, specializing in Arachnology.

For other uses see Scorpion (disambiguation) and Scorpio (disambiguation).

Scorpions are eight-legged carnivorous arthropods, members of the order Scorpiones within the class Arachnida. A carnivore (ˈkɑrnɪvɔər meaning 'meat eater' ( Latin carne meaning 'flesh' and vorare meaning 'to devour' is any animal with a diet consisting Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " Arachnids are a class ( Arachnida) of joint-legged Invertebrate Animals in the subphylum Chelicerata. There are about 2000 species of scorpions, found widely distributed south of 49° N, except New Zealand and Antarctica. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island The northernmost part of the world where scorpions live in the wild is Sheerness on the Isle of Sheppey in the UK, where a small colony of Euscorpius flavicaudis has been resident since the 1860s. Sheerness (ˈʃɪərnɪs is a town located beside the mouth of the River Medway on the northwest corner of the Isle of Sheppey in north Kent, England This article is about the Isle of Sheppey in northern Kent not to be confused with Shepway in south-eastern Kent The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located [1][2]

Contents

Anatomy

The body of a scorpion is divided into two parts: the cephalothorax (also called the prosoma) and the abdomen (opisthosoma). The cephalothorax (call prosoma in some groups is an anatomical term used in Arachnids and Malacostracan Crustaceans for the In Vertebrates such as Mammals the abdomen (belly constitutes the part of the body between the Thorax (chest and Pelvis. The abdomen consists of the mesosoma and the metasoma. The mesosoma is the middle part of the body or tagma, of Arthropods whose body is composed of three parts the other two being the Prosoma and the The metasoma is the posterior part of the body or tagma, of Arthropods whose body is composed of three parts the other two being the Prosoma and the

Cephalothorax

The cephalothorax, also called the prosoma, is the scorpion's “head”, comprising the carapace, eyes, chelicerae (mouth parts), pedipalps (claws) and four pairs of walking legs. A carapace is a dorsal section of an Exoskeleton or shell in a number of animal groups Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain The Chelicerae are mouth parts of the Chelicerata, an Arthropod Subphylum that includes Arachnids, Merostomata Pedipalps, are the second pair of Appendages of the Prosoma in the subphylum Chelicerata. A claw is a curved pointed appendage found at the end of a toe or finger in most Mammals, Birds, and some Reptiles. The arthropod leg is a form of jointed Appendage of Arthropods usually used for Walking. The scorpion's exoskeleton is thick and durable, providing good protection from predators.

Mesosoma

The mesosoma, the front half of the abdomen, is made up of six segments. The first segment contains the sexual organs as well as a pair of vestigial and modified appendages forming a structure called the genital operculum. A sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, as narrowly defined is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute The second segment bears a pair of featherlike sensory organs known as the pectines; the final four segments each contain a pair of book lungs. A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument A book lung is a type of Respiration organ used for atmospheric gas exchange and is found in Arachnids such as Scorpions and Spiders Each of these The mesosoma is armored with chitinous plates, known as tergites on the upper surface and sternites on the lower surface. Armour (or armor) is protective covering most commonly manufactured from metals to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact Chitin ( C 8 H 13 O 5 N)n (ˈkaɪtən is a long-chain Polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine A tergum (plural terga, associated adjective tergal) is the dorsal portion of an Arthropod segment other than the head The sternum (pl "sterna" is the Ventral portion of a segment of an Arthropod Thorax or Abdomen.

Metasoma

The metasoma, the scorpion's tail, comprises six segments (the first tail segment looks like a last mesosoman segment), the last containing the scorpion's anus and bearing the telson (the sting). The tail is the section at the rear end of an Animal 's Body; in general the term refers to a distinct flexible Appendage to the Torso. The anus is an opening at the opposite end of an Animal 's Digestive tract from the Mouth. The telson is the last division of the body of a Crustacean. It is not considered a true segment because it does not arise in the embryo from teloblast areas A stinger (a Colloquialism for the term "sting" is a common term for a sharp organ or body part found in various Animals (typically Arthropods The telson, in turn, consists of the vesicle, which holds a pair of venom glands, and the hypodermic aculeus, the venom-injecting barb. A vesicle is a small bubble of liquid within a cell A more formal definition in Cell biology, would be that a vesicle is a relatively small intracellular membrane-enclosed This article is about the class of Biotoxins For other uses see Venom (disambiguation and Venomous (disambiguation.

E. mingrelicus
E. mingrelicus

On rare occasions, scorpions can be born with two metasomata (tails). The tail is the section at the rear end of an Animal 's Body; in general the term refers to a distinct flexible Appendage to the Torso. Two-tailed scorpions are not a different species, merely a genetic abnormality. [1]

Reproduction

Most scorpions reproduce sexually, and most species have male and female individuals. However, some species, such as Hottentotta hottentotta, Hottentotta caboverdensis, Liocheles australasiae, Tityus columbianus, Tityus metuendus, Tityus serrulatus, Tityus stigmurus, Tityus trivittatus, and Tityus urugayensis, reproduce through parthenogenesis, a process in which unfertilized eggs develop into living embryos. Parthenogenesis (from the Greek παρθένος parthenos, "virgin" + γένεσις genesis, "creation" is an asexual form An embryo (from Greek:, plural, lit "that which grows" from en- "in" + bryein "to swell be full" is a multicellular Parthenogenic reproduction starts following the scorpion's final moult to maturity and continues thereafter.

Sexual reproduction is accomplished by the transfer of a spermatophore from the male to the female; scorpions possess a complex courtship and mating ritual to effect this transfer. A spermatophore is a capsule or mass created by males of various Animal species containing Spermatozoa and transferred in entirety to the female's Ovipore Male (♂ refers to the sex of an organism or part of an organism which produces small mobile Gametes called spermatozoa. Female (♀ is the Sex of an Organism, or a part of an organism which produces ova (egg cells Courtship is the traditional dating period before engagement and marriage In Biology, mating is the pairing of opposite- Sex or hermaphroditic Organisms for copulation and in Social animals also to raise their Mating starts with the male and female locating and identifying each other using a mixture of pheromones and vibrational communication; once they have satisfied each other that they are of opposite sex and of the correct species, mating can commence. Male (♂ refers to the sex of an organism or part of an organism which produces small mobile Gametes called spermatozoa. Female (♀ is the Sex of an Organism, or a part of an organism which produces ova (egg cells A pheromone (from Greek φέρω phero "to bear" + ‘ορμόνη " Hormone " is a Chemical that triggers a natural Oscillation is the repetitive variation typically in Time, of some measure about a central value (often a point of Equilibrium) or between two or more different states

The courtship starts with the male grasping the female’s pedipalps with his own; the pair then perform a "dance" called the "promenade à deux". In reality this is the male leading the female around searching for a suitable place to deposit his spermatophore. A spermatophore is a capsule or mass created by males of various Animal species containing Spermatozoa and transferred in entirety to the female's Ovipore The courtship ritual can involve several other behaviours such as juddering and a cheliceral kiss, in which the male's chelicerae--clawlike mouthparts--grasp the female's in a smaller more intimate version of the male's grasping the female's pedipalps and in some cases injecting a small amount of his venom into her pedipalp or on the edge of her cephalothorax,[2] probably as a means of pacifying the female.

When he has identified a suitable location, he deposits the spermatophore and then guides the female over it. This allows the spermatophore to enter her genital opercula, which triggers release of the sperm, thus fertilizing the female. The mating process can take from 1 to 25+ hours and depends on the ability of the male to find a suitable place to deposit his spermatophore. If mating goes on for too long, the female may eventually lose interest, breaking off the process.

Once the mating is complete, the male and female will separate. The male will generally retreat quickly, most likely to avoid being cannibalized by the female, although sexual cannibalism is infrequent with scorpions. Cannibalism (from Spanish es ''caníbal'' in connection with cannibalism among the Antillean Caribs, also called anthropophagy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος

Birth and development

Compsobuthus werneri female with young
Compsobuthus werneri female with young

Unlike the majority of arachnid species, scorpions are viviparous. Arachnids are a class ( Arachnida) of joint-legged Invertebrate Animals in the subphylum Chelicerata. A viviparous Animal is an animal employing vivipary: the embryo develops inside the body of the mother as opposed to outside in an egg ( Ovipary The young are born one by one, and the brood is carried about on its mother's back until the young have undergone at least one moult. Ecdysis is the Molting of the Cuticula in Arthropods and related groups ( Ecdysozoa) Before the first moult, scorplings cannot survive naturally without the mother, since they depend on her for protection and to regulate their moisture levels. Especially in species which display more advanced sociability (e. g Pandinus spp. ), the young/mother association can continue for an extended period of time. The size of the litter depends on the species and environmental factors, and can range from two to over a hundred scorplings. The average litter however, consists of around 8 scorplings. [3]

The young generally resemble their parents. Growth is accomplished by periodic shedding of the exoskeleton (ecdysis). Ecdysis is the Molting of the Cuticula in Arthropods and related groups ( Ecdysozoa) A scorpion's developmental progress is measured in instars (how many moults it has undergone). An instar is a developmental stage of Arthropods, such as Insects, between each moult ( ecdysis) until sexual maturity is reached Scorpions typically require between five and seven moults to reach maturity. Moulting is effected by means of a split in the old exoskeleton which takes place just below the edge of the carapace (at the front of the prosoma). An exoskeleton is an external Skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body in contrast to the internal Endoskeleton of for example a Human. The scorpion then emerges from this split; the pedipalps and legs are first removed from the old exoskeleton, followed eventually by the metasoma. The metasoma is the posterior part of the body or tagma, of Arthropods whose body is composed of three parts the other two being the Prosoma and the When it emerges, the scorpion’s new exoskeleton is soft, making the scorpion highly vulnerable to attack. An exoskeleton is an external Skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body in contrast to the internal Endoskeleton of for example a Human. The scorpion must constantly stretch while the new exoskeleton hardens to ensure that it can move when the hardening is complete. The process of hardening is called sclerotization. A sclerite ( Greek skleros meaning " hard " is a hardened body part The new exoskeleton does not fluoresce; as sclerotization occurs, the fluorescence gradually returns. A sclerite ( Greek skleros meaning " hard " is a hardened body part

Life and habits

Scorpions have quite variable lifespans and the actual lifespan of most species is not known. The age range appears to be approximately 4-25 years (25 years being the maximum reported life span in the species Hadrurus arizonensis). Lifespan of Hadogenes species in the wild is estimated at 25-30 years.

Scorpions prefer to live in areas where the temperatures range from 20°C to 37°C (68°F to 99°F), but may survive from freezing temperatures to the desert heat. [4] Scorpions of the genus Scorpiops living in high Asian mountains, bothriurid scorpions from Patagonia and small Euscorpius scorpions from middle Europe can all survive winter temperatures of about -25°C. Euscorpius is a genus of Scorpions commonly called small wood-scorpions.

They are nocturnal and fossorial, finding shelter during the day in the relative cool of underground holes or undersides of rocks and coming out at night to hunt and feed. As an Animal behavior, nocturnality describes sleeping during the Daytime and being active at Night - the opposite of the diurnal A fossorial is an Organism adapted to digging and life underground such as the Badger, the Naked mole rat, and the mole salamanders Ambystomatidae Scorpions exhibit photophobic behavior, primarily to evade detection by their predators such as birds, centipedes, lizards, mice, possums, and rats. Photophobia is a Symptom of excessive sensitivity to Light and the aversion to Sunlight or well-lit places [5]

Scorpions are opportunistic predators of small arthropods and insects. They use their chelae (pincers) to catch the prey initially. Depending on the toxicity of their venom and size of their claws, they will then either crush the prey or inject it with neurotoxic venom. Neurotoxicity occurs when the exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances which are called Neurotoxins alters the normal activity of the Nervous system in This will kill or paralyze the prey so the scorpion can eat it. Scorpions have a relatively unique style of eating using chelicerae, small claw-like structures that protrude from the mouth that are unique to the Chelicerata among arthropods. The Chelicerae are mouth parts of the Chelicerata, an Arthropod Subphylum that includes Arachnids, Merostomata The subphylum Chelicerata constitutes one of the major subdivisions of the phylum Arthropoda including the Arachnids Horseshoe crabs and related forms The chelicerae, which are very sharp, are used to pull small amounts of food off the prey item for digestion. Scorpions can only digest food in a liquid form; any solid matter (fur, exoskeleton, etc) is disposed of by the scorpion. An exoskeleton is an external Skeleton that supports and protects an animal's body in contrast to the internal Endoskeleton of for example a Human.

Venom

All scorpion species possess venom. This article is about the class of Biotoxins For other uses see Venom (disambiguation and Venomous (disambiguation. In general, scorpion venom is described as neurotoxic in nature. A neurotoxin is a Toxin that acts specifically on nerve cells ( Neurons, usually by interacting with Membrane proteins such as Ion channels One exception to this generalization is Hemiscorpius lepturus which possesses cytotoxic venom. Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells Examples of toxic agents are a Chemical substance, an Immune cell or some types of Venom The neurotoxins consist of a variety of small proteins as well as sodium and potassium cations, which serve to interfere with neurotransmission in the victim. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge Scorpions use their venom to kill or paralyze their prey so that it can be eaten; in general it is fast-acting, allowing for effective prey capture. The effects of the sting can be severe.

Scorpion venoms are optimized for action upon other arthropods and therefore most scorpions are relatively harmless to humans; stings produce only local effects (such as pain, numbness or swelling). Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus A few scorpion species, however, mostly in the family Buthidae, can be dangerous to humans. Buthidae is the largest family of Scorpions containing about 80 Genera and over 800 Species as of mid-2008 Among the most dangerous are Leiurus quinquestriatus, otherwise ominously known as the deathstalker, which has the most potent venom in the family, and members of the genera Parabuthus, Tityus, Centruroides, and especially Androctonus, which also have powerful venom. The deathstalker ( Leiurus quinquestriatus) is a Species of Scorpion, a member of the Buthidae family. Centruroides is a Genus of Scorpions the typical bark scorpions. Fattail scorpion or fat-tailed scorpion is the common name given to Scorpions of the Genus Androctonus, which is one of the most The scorpion which is responsible for the most human deaths is Androctonus australis, or the yellow fat-tailed scorpion, of North Africa. Fattail scorpion or fat-tailed scorpion is the common name given to Scorpions of the Genus Androctonus, which is one of the most North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The toxicity of A. australis's venom is roughly half that of L. quinquestriatus, but despite a common misconception A. australis does not inject noticeably more venom into its prey. The higher death count is simply due to its being found more commonly, especially near humans. Human deaths normally occur in the young, elderly, or infirm; scorpions are generally unable to deliver enough venom to kill healthy adults. Some people, however, may be allergic to the venom of some species. Allergy is a disorder of the Immune system often also referred to as Atopy. Depending on the severity of the allergy, the scorpion's sting may cause anaphylaxis and death. Anaphylaxis is an acute systemic (multi-system and severe Type I Hypersensitivity allergic reaction in humans and other Mammals A primary symptom of a scorpion sting is numbing at the injection site, sometimes lasting for several days. Scorpions are generally harmless and timid, and only voluntarily use their sting for killing prey, defending themselves or in territorial disputes with other scorpions. Generally, they will run from danger or remain still.

It should be noted that the family Buthidae, while containing perhaps the highest number of dangerous species, also contains many species that are not thought to be medically significant.

Scorpions are able to regulate how much venom is injected with each sting using striated muscles in the stinger, the usual amount being between 0. 1 and 0. 6 mg. There is also evidence to suggest that scorpions restrict the use of their venom using it only to subdue large prey, or prey that struggles. It has been found that scorpions have two types of venom: a translucent, weaker venom designed to stun only, and an opaque, more potent venom designed to kill heavier threats. This is likely because it is expensive in terms of energy for a scorpion to produce venom, and because it may take several days for a scorpion to replenish its venom supply once it has been exhausted. [6][7]

There is currently no scorpion equivalent of the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, because nobody has yet classified the levels of pain inflicted by different scorpion stings. The Schmidt Sting Pain Index or the Justin O Schmidt Pain Index is a Pain scale rating the relative pain caused by different Hymenopteran stings This is probably because of the risk involved with some species, such as Androctonus australis or Leiurus quinquestriatus. Fattail scorpion or fat-tailed scorpion is the common name given to Scorpions of the Genus Androctonus, which is one of the most The deathstalker ( Leiurus quinquestriatus) is a Species of Scorpion, a member of the Buthidae family. However, envenomation by a mildly venomous species like Pandinus imperator is similar to a bee sting in terms of the pain and swelling that results. The emperor scorpion or imperial scorpion ( Pandinus imperator) is a Species of Scorpion native to Africa. A sting on the thumb from a relatively non-dangerous scorpion often feels like the victim has accidentally struck their thumb with a hammer whilst driving in a nail. The thumb is the medial -most digit of the hand The English adjective for thumb is pollical A sting on the thumb from a truly dangerous scorpion can feel much worse, as though the victim had hammered a nail right through their thumb. It should be noted that the physical effects of a sting from a medically significant scorpion are not limited to the pain inflicted: there can be bradycardia, tachycardia or in severe cases pulmonary edema. Bradycardia, as applied to adult medicine is defined as a resting Heart rate of under 60 beats per minute though it is seldom symptomatic until the rate drops below 50 beat/min Pulmonary Edema (American English or oedema (British English is swelling and/or fluid accumulation in the Lungs It leads to impaired gas exchange and may cause

The stings of North American scorpions are rarely serious and usually result in pain, minimal swelling, tenderness, and warmth at the sting site. However, the Arizona bark scorpion Centruroides sculpturatus, which is found in Arizona and New Mexico and on the California side of the Colorado River, has a much more toxic sting. The Arizona bark scorpion ( Centruroides sculpturatus, included in Centruroides exilicauda) is a small light brown Scorpion common to the The sting is painful, sometimes causing numbness or tingling in the area around the sting. Serious symptoms are more common in children and include abnormal head, eye, and neck movements; increased saliva production; sweating; and restlessness. Some people develop severe involuntary twitching and jerking of muscles. Breathing difficulties may occur.

The stings of most North American scorpions require no special treatment. Placing an ice cube on the wound reduces pain, as does an ointment containing a combination of an antihistamine, an analgesic, and a corticosteroid. Centruroides stings that result in serious symptoms may require the use of sedatives, such as midazolam, given intravenously. Centruroides antivenom rapidly relieves symptoms, but it may cause a serious allergic reaction or serum sickness. The antivenom is available only in Arizona. In Trinidad the leaf juice of Eclipta prostrata is used for scorpion stings. Any effect of plants that are used against scorpion stings may be due to symptomatic relief – analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipruritic effects, in addition to other biological activities. Some compounds from plants used for general inflammation also inhibit enzymes (like phospholipase A2) from snake and scorpion venom. Some of these plant compounds are hypolaetin-8-glucoside and related flavanoids.

Professor Moshe Gueron was the first to investigate the cardiovascular effects of a severe scorpion sting. Professor Moshe Gueron (b May 20, 1926) is a cardiologist and researcher [8] Thousands of stung patients were reviewed. Thirty-four patients with severe scorpion stings were reviewed and pertinent data related to the cardiovascular system such as hypertension, peripheral vascular collapse, congestive heart failure or pulmonary edema were analyzed. The electrocardiograms of 28 patients were reviewed; 14 patients showed "early myocardial infarction-like" pattern. The urinary catecholamine metabolites were investigated in 12 patients with scorpion sting. Vanylmandelic acid was elevated in seven patients and the total free epinephrine and norepinephrine in eight. Six of these 12 patients displayed the electrocardiographic "myocardial infarction-like" pattern. Nine patients died and the pathologic lesions of the myocardium were reviewed in seven. Also, Gueron reported five cases of Severe Myocardial damage and heart failure in Scorpion sting from Beer-Sheba, Israel. Beersheba (בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע Be'er Sheva, بئر السبع, Birüssebi is the largest City in the Negev desert of southern For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. He described hypertension, pulmonary oedema with hypertension, hypotension, pulmonary oedema with hypotension and rhythm disturbances as five different syndromes that may dominate the clinical picture in scorpion sting victim. He suggested that all patients with cardiac symptoms should be admitted to an intensive cardiac unit. A few years later, in 1990, he reported poor contractility with low ejection fraction, decreased systolic left ventricular performance, lowered fractional percentage shortening observed in echocardiographic and radionuclide angiographic study. Gueron was questioned regarding the value of giving antivenom, and he replied that although it is freely available, all cases of scorpion sting are treated without it, and there had not been a single fatality in 1989. [9]

Fossil record

Scorpions have been found in many fossil records, including marine Silurian deposits, coal deposits from the Carboniferous Period and in amber. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. The Silurian is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Ordovician period about 443 The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian period about 359 Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty They are thought to have existed in some form since about 425–450 million years ago. They are believed to have an oceanic origin, with gills and a claw-like appendage that enabled them to hold onto rocky shores or seaweed, although the assumption that the oldest scorpions were aquatic has been questioned. Seaweed is a loose colloquial term encompassing macroscopic Multicellular, benthic marine Algae. Currently, 111 fossil species of scorpion are known. Unusually for arachnids, there are more species of Palaeozoic scorpion than Mesozoic or Cenozoic ones. The Paleozoic or Palaeozoic Era (from the Greek palaio (παλαιο "old" and zoe (ζωη "life" meaning "ancient life" The Mesozoic Era is one of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic eon. The Cenozoic (also Caenozoic or Cainozoic) Era (ˌsiːnəˈzoʊɪk/ /ˌsɛn- (meaning "new life" ( Greek ( kainos) "new"

The eurypterids, marine creatures which lived during the Paleozoic era, share several physical traits with scorpions and may be closely related to them. The eurypterids (sea scorpions include the largest known Arthropod that ever lived (with the possible exception of Arthropleuridae) Marine is an Umbrella term. As an adjective it is usually applicable to things relating to the Sea or Ocean, such as Marine biology, Marine The Paleozoic or Palaeozoic Era (from the Greek palaio (παλαιο "old" and zoe (ζωη "life" meaning "ancient life" Various species of Eurypterida could grow to be anywhere from 10 cm (4 in) to 3 m (9. 75 ft) in length. However, they exhibit anatomical differences marking them off as a group distinct from their Carboniferous and Recent relatives. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Despite this, they are commonly referred to as "sea scorpions. "[10] Their legs are thought to have been short, thick, tapering and to have ended in a single strong claw; it appears that they were well-adapted for maintaining a secure hold upon rocks or seaweed against the wash of waves, like the legs of shore-crab. Crabs are decapod Crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (βραχύ / brachy

Geographical distribution

Hadrurus spadix - Caraboctonidae, Hadrurinae
Hadrurus spadix - Caraboctonidae, Hadrurinae

Scorpions are almost universally distributed south of 49° N, and their geographical distribution shows in many particulars a close and interesting correspondence with that of the mammals, including their entire absence from New Zealand. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island The facts of their distribution are in keeping with the hypothesis that the order originated in the northern hemisphere and migrated southwards into the southern continent at various epochs, their absence from the countries to the north of the above-mentioned latitudes being due, no doubt, to the comparatively recent glaciation of those areas. Northern Hemisphere is the half of a Planet that is North of the Equator —the word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. When they reached Africa, Madagascar was part of that continent; but their arrival in Australia was subsequent to the separation of New Zealand from the Austro-Malayan area to the north of it. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics.

In the United States, scorpions are most common in southern Arizona and in a swath of land extending through central Texas and central Oklahoma. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. Oklahoma ( is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. The common striped scorpion, Centruroides vittatus, reaches from northwest Mexico to southern Colorado, Kansas, southern Missouri, and Mississippi and Louisiana. The striped bark scorpion ( Centruroides vittatus) is an extremely common Scorpion found throughout the midsection of the United States and northern The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. The State of Colorado ( or chiefly by nonresidents) is a state located in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States of America. Kansas ( is a Midwestern state in the central region of the United States of America, an area often referred to as the American " Missouri ( or) is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee Mississippi ( is a state located in the Deep South of the United States The State of Louisiana ( or, État de Louisiane, pronounced) is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America Species of the genus Vaejovis are found from Florida north to Maryland, the Carolinas, and Tennessee, and as far west as Oregon and California. Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the Tennessee ( is a state located in the Southern United States. Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Paruroctonus boreus is found through the Northwest U. S. and into Canada (Southern Saskatchewan, Southern Alberta and the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia). Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Scorpions can be found in 31 different states in the U. S. , including Hawaii (Isometrus maculatus). The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the

Five colonies of scorpions (Euscorpius flavicaudis) have established themselves in southern England having probably arrived with imported fruit from Africa, but the number of colonies could be lower now because of the destruction of their habitats. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland This scorpion species is small and completely harmless to humans.

Suicide misconception

The belief that scorpions commit suicide by stinging themselves to death when surrounded by fire (or when given alcohol) is of considerable antiquity and is often prevalent where these animals exist. Fire is the heat and light energy released during a Chemical reaction, in particular a combustion reaction. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon It is nevertheless untrue since the venom has no effect on the scorpion itself, nor on any member of the same species (unless the venom is injected directly into the scorpion's nerve ganglion—quite an unlikely event outside of the laboratory). The misconception may derive from the fact that scorpions are poikilotherms (cold-blooded): when exposed to intense heat their metabolic processes malfunction. Cold-blooded organisms (called poikilotherms - "of varying temperature" maintain their body temperatures in ways different from Mammals and Birds This causes the scorpion to spasm wildly and this spasming may appear as if the scorpion is stinging itself.

Ultraviolet light

A scorpion under a blacklight. In normal lighting this scorpion appears black.
A scorpion under a blacklight. A Black light or UV Light is a lamp emitting Electromagnetic radiation that is almost exclusively in the soft near ultraviolet range and emits In normal lighting this scorpion appears black.

Scorpions are also known to glow when exposed to certain wavelengths of ultraviolet light such as that produced by a blacklight, due to the presence of fluorescent chemicals in the cuticle. Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays A Black light or UV Light is a lamp emitting Electromagnetic radiation that is almost exclusively in the soft near ultraviolet range and emits These have been stated to be quinones, but Stachel et al (1999) identified beta carboline as a principal fluorescent component. A hand-held UV lamp has long been a standard tool for nocturnal field surveys of these animals (eg Hadley & Williams 1968).

Classification

This classification is based on that of Soleglad & Fet (2003),[11] which replaced the older, unpublished classification of Stockwell. [12] Additional taxonomic changes are from Soleglad et al. (2005). [13]

Cultural symbolism

Bowl depicting scorpions. Excavated at Halilrud area. 3rd Millennium BC, Jiroft Kingdom, Iran
Bowl depicting scorpions. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Carl Ludwig Koch ( September 21, 1778 - August 23, 1857) was a German Entomologist, specializing in Arachnology. Buthidae is the largest family of Scorpions containing about 80 Genera and over 800 Species as of mid-2008 Carl Ludwig Koch ( September 21, 1778 - August 23, 1857) was a German Entomologist, specializing in Arachnology. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Robert Mitchell is the name of Robert Mitchell (Prince Edward Island politician, Canadian politician Robert C Tord Tamerlan Teodor Thorell ( May 3, 1830 - December 22, 1901) was a Swedish Arachnologist. Tord Tamerlan Teodor Thorell ( May 3, 1830 - December 22, 1901) was a Swedish Arachnologist. Tord Tamerlan Teodor Thorell ( May 3, 1830 - December 22, 1901) was a Swedish Arachnologist. Pierre André Latreille ( November 20, 1762 - February 6, 1833) was a French entomologist. Pierre André Latreille ( November 20, 1762 - February 6, 1833) was a French entomologist. Pierre André Latreille ( November 20, 1762 - February 6, 1833) was a French entomologist. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Hemiscorpiidae is a family of Scorpions with 72 described species in 12 genera. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Reginald Innes Pocock FRS ( March 4, 1863 - August 9, 1947) was a British Zoologist. Excavated at Halilrud area. 3rd Millennium BC, Jiroft Kingdom, Iran

The scorpion has had various meanings and representations in different cultures in history:

See also

Several species bear the name "scorpion" but do not belong to the order Scorpiones:

References

  1. ^ Pepe
  2. ^ Hickman, Roberts, Larson, L'anson, Integrated Principles of Zoology, 13th ed. Also see Scorpions and List of common names for non-scorpion arachnids commonly called scorpions. This article is about the taxonomic rank for the sequence of species in a taxonomic list see Taxonomic order In scientific classification used Also see Arachnids false scorpion, also known as book scorpion micro whip scorpion solifugid scorpion, also known McGraw Hill pp. 380
  3. ^ Lourenco W. R. , 2000, Reproduction in scorpions, with special reference to parthenogenesis, European Arachnology, pp. 71-85
  4. ^ http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/53/3/547.pdf http://www.scielo.br/pdf/jvatitd/v12n1/28301.pdf
  5. ^ Scorpions
  6. ^ Scorpion Sting
  7. ^ Sting Use In Two Species of Parabuthus Scorpions (Buthidae)
  8. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Gueron
  9. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=2xOnnQUZ97sC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=moshe+gueron+%2B+scorpion&source=web&ots=YBwy5IWrGq&sig=HXCIJlSAniPgbkL3L_HW8iDrW84#PPA23,M1
  10. ^ Eurypterida
  11. ^ Soleglad, M. E. & V. Fet. 2003. High-level systematics and phylogeny of the extant scorpions (Scorpiones: Orthosterni). Euscorpius, 11, pp. 1-175. (download from http://www.science.marshall.edu/fet/euscorpius/pubs.htm)
  12. ^ Scott A. Stockwell, 1989. Revision of the Phylogeny and Higher Classification of Scorpions (Chelicerata). Ph. D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley
  13. ^ Soleglad, M. E. ; Fet, V. ; Kova{v{r. {{{title}}}.  ík, F. | year = 2005 | title = The Systematic Position of the Scorpion Genera Heteroscorpion Birula, 1903 and Urodacus Peters, 1861 (Scorpiones: Scorpionoidea) | publisher = Marshall University | isbn = }}

Hadley NS & William SC (1968). Surface activity of some north american scoripions in relation to feeding. Ecology 49, 726-735. Stachel SJ, Stockwell SA, Van Vranken DL (1999). The fluorescence of scorpions and cataractogenesis. Chemistry and Biology 6, 531-539.

External links

im anutcase. com

Dictionary

scorpion

-noun

  1. Any of various arachnids of the order Scorpiones, related to the spiders, characterised by two large front pincers and a curved tail with a poisonous sting in the end.

Scorpion

-adjective

  1. (astrology) Of, or pertaining to, the Scorpio star sign

-noun

  1. Someone with the Scorpio star sign
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