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For other uses, see Scholastic (disambiguation).
Fourteenth century image of a school.
Fourteenth century image of a school.

Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' It was both a method and a system which aimed to reconcile the Christian theology of the Church Fathers with the Greek philosophy of Aristotle and his commentators. Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.

The main figures of scholasticism were Peter Abelard, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure and, above all, Thomas Aquinas, whose Summa Theologica is an ambitious synthesis of Greek philosophy and Christian doctrine. William of Ockham (also Occam, Hockham, or any of several other spellings ˈɒkəm (c Saint Bonaventure of Bagnoregio (San Bonaventura (1221 &ndash July 15, 1274) born John of Fidanza (Giovanni di Fidanza was the eighth Minister The Summa Theologica (or the Summa Theologiae or simply the Summa, written 1265 &ndash 1274) is the most famous In the Renaissance, the deductive and a priori methods of scholasticism were superseded by the inductive reasoning of modern science, while its theological basis was challenged by humanism. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal

The word Scholasticism is derived from the Latin word scholasticus, the latinized form of the Greek σχολαστικός (scholastikos, "scholastic"), literally "devoting one's leisure to learning, learned man, scholar"[1] (from σχολείον - scholeion, "school"). Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c A school (from Greek σχολεῖον - scholeion) is an Institution designed to allow and encourage Students (or "pupils"

Contents

History

Early Scholasticism

The first significant renewal of learning in the West came when Charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, and by imperial decree in 787 A. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Peter of Pisa ( 744 - 799) was a Grammarian of the Early middle ages. Alcuin of York (Alcuinus or Ealhwine, nicknamed Albinus or Flaccus (c D. established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name scholasticism is derived, became centres of medieval learning.

This period coincided with the growth of early Islamic philosophy (in the works of Alkindus, Alfarabi, Avicenna, Algazel and Averroes) and Jewish philosophy (especially in the case of Maimonides). Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and From the Eighth Century, the Mutazilite school of Islam, compelled to defend their principles against the more orthodox Ash'ari school, looked for support in philosophy. Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan They are among the first to pursue a rational theology, Ilm-al-Kalam, which can be seen as a form of scholasticism. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Later, the philosophical schools of Avicennism and Averroism exerted great influence on Scholasticism (see Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe). Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. Averroism is the term applied to either of two philosophical trends among scholastics in the late 13th century, the first of which was based on the Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe were numerous affecting such varied areas as art, architecture, medicine, argriculture, music

Anselm of Canterbury is sometimes misleadingly called the "Father of Scholasticism", owing to the prominence accorded to reason in his theology. Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033 &ndash April 21, 1109) was an Italian medieval Philosopher, theologian, and church official Rather than establish a position by appeal to authority, he used argument to demonstrate why what he believed on authority must be so.

The period also saw the beginning of the 'discovery' of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. The introduction of Greek philosophy and science into the culture of the Latin West in the Middle Ages was an event that transformed the intellectual life of As early as the 10th century, scholars in Spain had begun to gather translated texts, and in the latter half of that century began transmitting them to the rest of Europe. [2] After the Reconquista of the 12th century, however, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, who were now able to work in “friendly” religious territory. The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period [3] As these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, their previously-held fears turned to admiration, and from Spain came a wealth of Arab knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. [4]

At the same time Anselm of Laon systematised the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic (the middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard, and the production by Peter Lombard of a collection of Sentences or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. Anselm of Laon (died 1117 was a French theologian. Born of very humble parents at Laon before the middle of the 11th century he is said to have studied This article is about the literary term For other uses see Gloss (disambiguation. In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions In medieval universities, the trivium comprised the three subjects taught first Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. Peter Lombard or Petrus Lombardus; (c 1100 — July 20, 1160 in Paris) was a scholastic theologian and Bishop and author The Four Books of Sentences ( Libri Quattuor Sententiarum) is a book of theology written by Peter Lombard in the twelfth century

High Scholasticism

Aquinas
Aquinas

The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath travelled to Sicily and the Arab world, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid’s Elements. Adelard of Bath ( Latin: Adelardus Bathensis) (c 1080 &ndash c [5] Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige. [6] William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped in forming a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, and particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions they had previously relied on, and which had distorted or obscured the relation between Platonic and Aristotelian systems of philosophy[7]. Willem van Moerbeke, known in the English speaking world as William of Moerbeke (c His work formed the basis of the major commentaries that followed.

The universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects The two main orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The term Franciscan is commonly used to refer to members of Catholic The Order of Preachers ( Latin: Ordo Praedicatorum) after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is The Franciscans were founded by Francis of Assisi in 1209. For the opera by Olivier Messiaen see Saint-François d'Assise. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Saint Bonaventure of Bagnoregio (San Bonaventura (1221 &ndash July 15, 1274) born John of Fidanza (Giovanni di Fidanza was the eighth Minister Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith. Other important Franciscan writers were Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol and William of Ockham. Petrus Aureolus (c 1280 - January 10[[ 322]] was a scholastic philosopher and theologian William of Ockham (also Occam, Hockham, or any of several other spellings ˈɒkəm (c

By contrast, the Dominican order, founded by St Dominic in 1215 placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East, and Moorish Spain. Saint Dominic (Domingo also known as Dominic of Osma, often called Dominic de Guzmán and Domingo de Guzmán Garcés (1170 &ndash August 6 The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early Scholasticism. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commmentator Averroes. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European

Late Scholasticism

Main article: second scholasticism

Neo-Scholasticism

Main article: Neo-Scholasticism

Scholastic method

The scholastics would choose a book (say, the Bible) by a renowned scholar, auctor (author), as a subject for investigation. Second Scholasticism is a term applied to the revival of the scholastic system of Philosophy in the 16th century Neo-Scholasticism is the revival and development from the second half of the Nineteenth century of medieval Scholastic philosophy. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the auctor. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as sententiae. Sententiae are brief Apophthegms from ancient sources quoted without context

Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of dialectics, the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions This was done in two ways.

The first was through philological analysis. See Comparative linguistics for the narrower field of "comparative philology" Words were examined and argued to have multiple meanings. It was also considered that the auctor might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements.

The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal logic to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference.

Scholastic instruction

Scholastic schools had two methods of teaching. The first was the lectio: a teacher would read a text, expounding on certain words and ideas, but no questions were permitted; it was a simple reading of a text: instructors explained, and students listened in silence.

The second was the disputatio, which goes right to the heart of scholasticism. There were two types of disputationes: the first was the "ordinary" type, whereby the question to be disputed was announced beforehand; the second was the quodlibetal, whereby the students proposed a question to the teacher without prior preparation. The teacher advanced a response, citing authoritative texts such as the Bible to prove his position. Students then rebutted the response, and the quodlibetal went back and forth. Someone took notes on what was said, so the teacher could summarise all arguments and present his final position the following day, riposting all rebuttals.

References

Endnotes

  1. ^ cf Liddell
  2. ^ Lindberg 60-61
  3. ^ Lindberg 62-65, Palencia 270
  4. ^ watt
  5. ^ Clagett 356
  6. ^ Lindberg 70-72
  7. ^ Fryde

See also

External links

Dictionary

scholasticism

-noun

  1. a tradition or school of philosophy, originating in the Middle Ages, that combines classical philosophy with Catholic theology
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