A scale model is a representation or copy of an object that is larger or smaller than the actual size of the object . Very often the scale model is smaller than the original and used as a guide to making the object in full size. Scale models are built or collected for many reasons.

Professional modelmakers often create models for the below professions:

• For engineers who require scale models to test the likely performance of a particular design at an early stage of development without incurring the full expense of a full-sized prototype.
• For architects who require architectural models to evaluate and sell the look of a new construction before it is built.
• For filmmakers who require scale models of objects or sets that cannot be built in full size.
• For salesmen who require scale models to promote new products such as heavy equipment and automobiles and other vehicles.

Hobbyists or amateur modelmakers make die-cast models, injection molded, model railroads, remote control vehicles, wargaming and fantasy collectibles, model ships and ships in bottles for their own enjoyment.

Scale models can also be objects of art, either being created by artists or being rediscovered and transformed into art by artists.

Contents 1 Types of scale models 1.1 Model aircraft 1.1.1 Static model aircraft 1.1.2 Flying model aircraft 1.2 Model buildings 1.3 Architectural Models 1.4 Dolls' Houses 1.5 House Portrait Models 1.6 Model buses and trucks 1.7 Model cars 1.8 Model construction vehicles 1.9 Model railways 1.10 Model robots 1.11 Model rockets and spacecraft 1.12 Model living creatures 1.13 Model ships and naval wargaming 1.14 Manned ship models 1.15 Model tanks and wargaming 2 Scales 3 History of the scales 3.1 Before the plastic model kit industry 3.2 Comparing scales 3.3 Origins of the plastic model kit 3.4 Terminology 3.5 Rational choice of scales 3.6 Miniatures in Contemporary Art 4 Cultural References 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

Types of scale models

Some modelers build and collect models made from a certain medium (wood, plastic, paper, etc). Others build and collect models based on the types of object being modeled.

Model aircraft

Main article: Model aircraft

Model aircraft are divided into two main groups: static and flying models. Model aircraft are flying or non-flying models of existing or imaginary Aircraft, often scaled down versions of full size planes using materials such as balsa WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

Static model aircraft

Static model aircraft are commonly built using plastic, but wood, metal and paper also make nice models. Models are sold painted and assembled, painted but not assembled (snap-fit) or unpainted and not assembled. The most popular types of aircraft to model are commercial airliners and military aircraft. Fewer manufacturers exist today than in the 1970s, but many of the older kits are occasionally available to purchase. Aircraft can be modeled at many scales. Popular scales are, in order of size, 1:144, 1:72 (the most numerous), 1:48 (sometimes referred to as quarter scale because a quarter inch represents one foot) 1:32 and 1:24. 172 scale is a scale used for Scale models most commonly Model aircraft, corresponding to one sixth of an Inch representing one foot 148 scale is popular among modelers both as Diecast models, Plastic models made from kits and Construction toys It is especially popular with manufacturers 132 scale is a traditional scale for models and miniatures in which one unit (such as an inch or a centimeter on the model represents 32 units on the actual object 124 scale is a traditional scale (proportion for models and miniatures in which 24 units (such as inches or centimeters on the original is represented by one unit on the Some European models are available at more metric scales such as 1:50. 150 scale is a popular size for Diecast models from European manufacturers such as Conrad, Tekno and NZG. The highest quality models are made from injection-molded plastic or cast resin. Injection molding (British moulding Models made from Vacuum formed plastic are generally for the more skilled builder. Vacuum forming, commonly known as vacuforming, is a simplified version of Thermoforming, whereby a sheet of Plastic is heated to a forming temperature More inexpensive models are made from heavy paper or card stock. A paper plane, paper aeroplane, paper Glider, paper airplane or paper dart is a toy plane made out of paper Ready-made die-cast metal models are also very popular. As well as the traditional scales, die-cast models are available in 1:200, 1:250, 1:350, 1:400, and 1:600. These scales are usually reserved for civil airliners. Static aircraft scale modeling falls broadly into 3 categories: kit assembly, scratch-building, and collection of ready-made models. Scratch-builders tend to be the top echelon in terms of skill and craftsmanship; they tend to be the most discerning when it comes to accuracy and detail and they spend far more time on far fewer models than a kit assembler. Kit assemblers fall roughly into 2 categories: OOB (Out of Box) and Modified. Out of Box refers to the act of assembling a kit only from what is contained in the box supplied, whereas a Modifier will employ after-market products such as alternative decals, photo-etched metal detail parts, and cast resin detail or conversion parts to enhance or change the model in some way. Collectors are concerned purely with the issue of theme, and are not really interested in personal construction as such. Obviously aircraft modelers will often fall into more than one category as fancy takes them. The overwhelming majority of aircraft modelers concern themselves with depiction of real-life aircraft, but there is a smaller cadre of modelers who derive additional fun by 'bending' history a little by making models of aircraft that either never actually flew or existed, or by painting them in a color scheme that did not actually exist. This is commonly referred to as 'What-if' or 'Alternative' modeling, and the most common theme is 'Luftwaffe 1946' or 'Luftwaffe '46'. This theme stems from idea of modeling German secret projects that never saw the light of day due to the close of World War II. This concept has been extended to include British, Russian, and US experimental projects that never made it into production.

Flying model aircraft

Main article: Radio-controlled aircraft

Flying models are usually what is meant by the term aeromodelling. A radio-controlled aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is a Model aircraft that is controlled remotely typically with a hand-held Most flying model aircraft can be placed in one of three groups: free flight, control line and radio controlled. The segment of model aviation known as free flight is the original form of the hobby extending back centuries Control line (also called U-Control in some countries is a simple and light way of controlling a flying Model aircraft. A radio-controlled aircraft (often called RC aircraft or RC plane) is a Model aircraft that is controlled remotely typically with a hand-held Some flying models are realistic representation of full-sized aircraft, while others are built with no intention of looking like piloted aircraft. Flying models are often constructed like vintage full-sized aircraft. They can be built from scratch or from kits. Scratch building is the process of building a Scale model from raw materials rather than building it from a commercial kit Kitbashing or buying it pre-assembled Some kits take many hours to put together and some kits are almost ready to fly or ready to fly. Almost Ready to Fly (or ARF or ARTF) is a term used for Radio-controlled airplane Kits that come partially built usually just requiring assembly For the Amy Pearson song see Ready to Fly (song. Ready to Fly (or RTF) is a term used to describe Radio controlled airplanes or Radio-controlled

Model buildings

Main article: Building model

Most hobbyist who build models of buildings do so as part of a diorama to enhance their other models such as a model railroad or model war machines. Building models are Scale models of structures They are commonly used in Model railroading as well as Wargaming and Diorama making The word diorama can refer either to a nineteenth century mobile theatre device or in modern usage a three-dimensional model usually enclosed in a glass showcase for a museum Model railroading (US or Railway modelling (UK Australia and Canada is a Hobby in which Rail transport systems are modeled at a reduced scale As a stand-alone hobby, building models are probably most popular among enthusiasts of construction toys such as Erector, Lego and K'nex. Erector Set is the trade name of a toy Construction set that was wildly popular in the United States during much of the 20th century Lego, officially trademarked LEGO, is a line of construction Toys manufactured by the Lego Group, a privately K'NEX is a brand name of a Construction toy system invented by Joel Glickman designed and produced by K'NEX Industries Inc Famous landmarks such as the Empire State Building, Big Ben and the White House are common subjects. Standard scales have not emerged in this hobby. Model railroaders use railroad scales for their buildings: HO scale (1:87), N scale (1:160), and O scale (1:43). N scale is a popular Model railway scale/track gauge Depending upon the manufacturer (or country the scale ranges from 1148 to 1160 0 scale (or 0 gauge) is a scale commonly used for Toy trains and model railroading. Lego builders use miniland scale (1:20) and minifig scale (1:48) and micro scale (1:192)^[1] Generally, the larger the building, the smaller the scale. Legoland is a chain of Lego themed Theme parks Legoland Billund ( Billund Denmark) Legoland Windsor ( Minifigures are small Plastic figural Toys produced by Danish toy manufacturer Lego, which are customarily sold with Lego sets as characters Model buildings are made from plastic, foam, balsa wood or paper. Card models are published in the form of a book, and some models are manufactured like 3-D puzzles. Professionally, building models are used by architects and salesmen. .

Architectural Models

Main article: Architectural model

Architecture firms usually employ model makers to make models of projects to sell their designs to builders and investors. Not be confused with Software Architectural Model An architectural model is a type of a Scale model, tangible (also called sometimes These models are traditionally hand-made, but it can also be a computer-generated image. Typical scales are 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, etc.

Dolls' Houses

Main article: Doll's house

Dolls' houses are usually built to a scale of 1:12. A dollhouse is a Toy home made in miniature For the last century dollhouses have primarily been the domain of children but their collection and crafting have also fascinated Interior and exterior fittings, furniture, wallpaper etc are available in a huge array of styles, from simple toys to hand-crafted artifacts costing as much as full-scale items.

House Portrait Models

Main article: Model house

Typically found in 1:50 scale and also called Model House, Model Home or Display House. 150 scale is a popular size for Diecast models from European manufacturers such as Conrad, Tekno and NZG. This type of model is usually found in stately homes or specially designed houses. Sometimes this kind of model is commissioned to mark a special date like an anniversary or the completion of the architecture, or these models might be used by salesmen selling homes in a new neighborhood.

Model buses and trucks

Main article: Model commercial vehicle

Typically found in 1:50 scale, most manufacturers of commercial vehicles and heavy equipment will commission scale models made of diecast metal as promotional items to be given to prospective customers. 164 scale is the approximate size of the popular Matchbox model cars A Model commercial vehicle is a Scale model or Die-cast toy that represents a commercial vehicle Truck (lorry Bus, etc 150 scale is a popular size for Diecast models from European manufacturers such as Conrad, Tekno and NZG. Engineering vehicles, known by the other terms construction Equipment, earth movers heavy equipment or just plain equipment are machines specifically designed to execute These are also popular children's toys and collectibles. The major manufacturers of these items are Conrad and NZG in Germany. Conrad GmbH is a German manufacturer of Diecast Scale models primarily in 150 scale for use both as toys and promotional models by heavy equipment manufacturers NZG (Nürnberger Zinkdruckguß-Modelle GmbH is a German manufacturer of Diecast Scale models primarily in 150 scale for use both as toys and promotional Corgi also makes some 1:50 models, as well as Dutch maker Tekno. For tekno music see Techno Tekno is a toy maker from Denmark.

Trucks are also found as diecast models in 1:43 scale and injection molded kits (and children's toys) in 1:24 scale. 143 scale is an extremely popular size of Die-cast model for adult collectors in Europe Asia and the US 124 scale is a traditional scale (proportion for models and miniatures in which 24 units (such as inches or centimeters on the original is represented by one unit on the

Recently some manufacturers have appeared in 1:64 scale like Code 3. 164 scale is the approximate size of the popular Matchbox model cars

Model cars

Main article: Model car

Although the British scale for 0 gauge was first used for model cars comprised of rectilinear and circular parts, it was the origin of the European scale for cast or injection moulded model cars. 124 scale is a traditional scale (proportion for models and miniatures in which 24 units (such as inches or centimeters on the original is represented by one unit on the A model car is a miniature representation or Scale model, of an Automobile or similar powered vehicle generally reproducing the shapes of actually-produced A model car is a miniature representation or Scale model, of an Automobile or similar powered vehicle generally reproducing the shapes of actually-produced MOROP's specification of 1:45 scale for European 0 will not alter the series of cars in 1:43 scale, as it has the widest distribution in the world. 143 scale is an extremely popular size of Die-cast model for adult collectors in Europe Asia and the US

In America, a series of cars was developed from at first cast metal and later styrene models ("promos") offered at new-car dealerships to drum up interest. The firm Monogram, and later Tamiya, first produced them in a scale derived from the Architect's scale: 1:24 scale, while the firms AMT, Jo-Han, and Revell chose the scale of 1:25. For the film music composer see Graeme Revell. Revell was a company originally founded in 1943 in Venice California. 124 scale is a traditional scale (proportion for models and miniatures in which 24 units (such as inches or centimeters on the original is represented by one unit on the Aluminum Metal Toys, or AMT for short is a Troy Michigan -based company that manufactures various plastic models from the late 1950s Jo-Han (JoHan is a manufacturer of plastic Scale model kits based in Covington KY. For the film music composer see Graeme Revell. Revell was a company originally founded in 1943 in Venice California. Monogram later switched to this scale after the firm was purchased by Revell. Some cars are also made in 1:32 scale, and rolling toys are often made on the scale 1:64 scale. 132 scale is a traditional scale for models and miniatures in which one unit (such as an inch or a centimeter on the model represents 32 units on the actual object 164 scale is the approximate size of the popular Matchbox model cars Chinese die-cast manufacturers have recently introduced 1/72 scale into their range.

Model cars are also used in car design. A model car is a miniature representation or Scale model, of an Automobile or similar powered vehicle generally reproducing the shapes of actually-produced

Model construction vehicles

A model construction vehicle (or engineering vehicle) is a scale model or Die-cast toy that represents a construction vehicle such as an excavator, crane, concrete pump, backhoe, etc. A Model construction vehicle (or Engineering vehicle) is a Scale model or Die-cast toy that represents a construction vehicle such as an excavator Engineering vehicles, known by the other terms construction Equipment, earth movers heavy equipment or just plain equipment are machines specifically designed to execute The term die-cast toy here refers to any toy or collectible model produced by using the Die casting method

Construction vehicle models are almost always made in 1:50 scale, particularly because the cranes at this scale are often three to four feet tall when extended and larger scales would be unsuited for display on a desk or table. 150 scale is a popular size for Diecast models from European manufacturers such as Conrad, Tekno and NZG. These models are popular as children's toys in Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. In the US they are commonly sold as promotional models for new construction equipment, commissioned by the manufacturer of the prototype real-world equipment. The major manufacturers in Germany are Conrad and NZG, with some competition from Chinese firms that have been entering the market.

Model railways

Main article: Rail transport modelling

Model trains come in a variety of scales, from 1:8 on the large end and 1:220 on the small. Model railroading (US or Railway modelling (UK Australia and Canada is a Hobby in which Rail transport systems are modeled at a reduced scale Model railroading (US or Railway modelling (UK Australia and Canada is a Hobby in which Rail transport systems are modeled at a reduced scale Each scale has its own strengths and weaknesses, and fills a different niche in the hobby. The largest models are as much as 3 meters long, the smallest a few centimeters. The most popular size is H0 scale (1:87) and second is N scale (1:160). N scale is a popular Model railway scale/track gauge Depending upon the manufacturer (or country the scale ranges from 1148 to 1160

Model railways originally used the term "gauge", which refers to the distance between the rails, just as full-size railways do. Rail gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the two parallel rails that make up a railway track. "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. Although model railways were also built to different gauges, 'standard gauge' means 2 1/8 in (54 mm) between the inside surfaces of the rails. The standard gauge (also named the Stephenson gauge after George Stephenson, or Normal gauge) is a widely-used Rail gauge.

Now it is more typical to refer to the scale of the model, and the term scale has replaced "gauge" in most usages. The concept of scale is applicable if a system is represented proportionally by another system This is despite considerable confusion between countries as to the definition of 0 scale and N scale. N scale is a popular Model railway scale/track gauge Depending upon the manufacturer (or country the scale ranges from 1148 to 1160

The gauges for model railways were first measured in inches, but later they were standardized to metric units, even for companies which put models in traditional Architect's scale proportions on such metric tracks. A range of accepted gauges were accepted by model railroaders for each scale for convenience's sake.

Considerable confusion often arises when referring to "scale" and "gauge", especially as some misinformed individuals tend to use the words interchangeably. The word "scale" only ever refers to the proportional size of the model, the word "gauge" only ever applies to the measurement between the inside faces of the rails. To highlight this difference, consider the various gauges used in H0 scale; A gauge of 16. 5 mm is used to represent the "Standard gauge" of 4 ft 8½ in (1,435 mm) (H0 scale), a gauge of 12 mm is used to represent 1,000 mm (3 ft 3⅜ in) gauge (H0m) and the "Cape gauge" of 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) (H0n3-1/2) and a gauge of 9 mm is used to represent a prototype gauge of 2 ft (610 mm). The standard gauge (also named the Stephenson gauge after George Stephenson, or Normal gauge) is a widely-used Rail gauge. Rail gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the two parallel rails that make up a railway track. It is completely incorrect to refer to the mainstream scales as "H0 gauge", "N gauge" or "Z gauge"

The most popular scale to go with a given gauge was often derived at by the following roundabout process. German artisans would take strips of metal of standard metric size to make things to blueprints whose dimensions were in inches: hence "4 mm to the foot" yields the 1:76. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. 2 size of the "00 scale". This British scale is anomalously used on the standard H0 scale (16. 5 mm gauge from 3. 5 mm/foot scale) tracks, however, because early electric motors weren't available commercially in smaller sizes.

The Germans have a more developed terminology, which can explain this a bit better. Baugrösse (English: "building size") is the alphanumeric designation, which is used in place of a numeric scale ratio. It's used for scale, as in "0 scale", "H0 scale", or "Z scale". Until the 2006 announcement of T scale, Z scale (1220 was the smallest commercially available Model railway scale with a track gauge of 6 Maßstab (English: "measure") is the proportion, with a colon, as in the corresponding terms "1:43", "1:87. 1", and "1:220". Spurweite (English: "track width") is the distance between the rails, or correspondingly "32mm", "16. 5 mm", and "6. 5 mm", and again gauge is used for this in English. One might add to these the old use of the term scale, of "7mm to the foot" and "3. 5 mm to the foot" for the first two, while the last really isn't expressible in this manner. Early 1900s German mass-produced toys had a measured gauge from rail centre to rail centre of rolled tinplate rail, with much latitude between flange & rail.

There are three different standards for the "0" scale, each of which uses tracks of 32 mm for the standard gauge. The American version continues a dollhouse scale of 1:48. It is sometimes called "quarter-gauge", as in "one-quarter-inch to the foot". The British version continued the pattern of sub-contracting to Germans; so, at 7 mm to the foot, it works out to a scale of 1:43. 5. Later, MOROP, the European authority of model railroad firms, declared that the "0" gauge (still 32 mm) must use the scale of 1:45. That is, in Europe the below-chassis dimensions have to be slightly towards 4 ft. 6 inches, to allow wheel/tyre/splasher clearance for smaller than realistic curved sections.

"Live steam" railways, that you actually ride on, are built in many scales, such as 1-1/2", 1", and 3/4" to the foot. Live steam is Steam under pressure obtained by heating water in a Boiler. Common gauges are 7-1/2" (Western US) and 7-1/4" (Eastern US & rest of the world), 5", 4-3/4". Smaller Live Steam gauges do exist, but as the scale gets smaller, the pulling power decreases. One of the smallest gauges on which a live steam engine can pull a passenger is the now almost defunct 2-1/2" gauge.

Model robots

Main article: Model robot

Japanese firms have marketed toys and models of what are often called mecha, nimble humanoid fighting robots. Model robots is an area of modeling with its origin in the fictional Japanese Anime Genre of Mecha. Word origin and usage The term "mecha" is derived from the Japanese abbreviation for the English word " mechanical " The robots which appear in animated shows, or anime are often depicted at a size between 15-20m in height, and so scales of 1:100 and 1:144 are common for these subjects, though other scales such as 1:72 are commonly used for robots and related subjects of different size. (anime in Japanese, 172 scale is a scale used for Scale models most commonly Model aircraft, corresponding to one sixth of an Inch representing one foot

The most prolific manufacturer of mecha models is Bandai, whose Gundam kit lines were a strong influence in the genre in the 1980s. is a Japanese Toy making company as well as the producer of a large number of Plastic model kits Gundam Models refers to Plastic and non-plastic model kits depicting the Mecha, vehicles and characters of the fictional Mobile Suit Gundam universe Even today, Gundam kits are the most numerous in the mecha modeling genre, usually with dozens of new releases every year. The features of modern Gundam kits, such as color molding and snap-fit construction, have become the standard expectations for other mecha model kits.

Due to the fantasy nature of most anime robots, and the necessary simplicity of cel-animated designs, mecha models lend themselves well to stylized work, improvisations, and simple scratchbuilds. One of Gundam's contributions to the genre was the use of a gritty wartime backstory as a part of the fantasy, and so it is almost equally fashionable to build the robots in a weathered, beaten style, as would often be expected for AFV kits as to build them in a more stylish, pristine manner. is a Metaseries of English Anime, featuring tiny robots or " Kounans " created by Sunrise studios An armoured fighting vehicle ( AFV) is a military Vehicle, protected by armour and armed with Weapons Most AFVs are equipped for driving in rugged

Model rockets and spacecraft

Main article: Model rocket

Model rocket kits began as a development of model aircraft kits, yet the scale of 1:72 [V. A Model rocket is a small Rocket capable of being launched vertically by a hobbyist or amateur to generally low altitudes (usually to around 300-500 m (1000-1500 ft for A Model rocket is a small Rocket capable of being launched vertically by a hobbyist or amateur to generally low altitudes (usually to around 300-500 m (1000-1500 ft for close to 4 mm. ::1foot] never caught on. Scales 1:48 and 1:96 are used. There are some rockets of scales 1:128, 1:144, and 1:200, but Russian firms put their large rockets in 1:288. Heller is maintaining its idiosyncratic standard by offering some models in the scale of 1:125.

Science fiction space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community. Models based on ships from such franchises as Star Trek, Star Wars, and Battlestar Galactica are regularly sold and created in scales ranging from 1:24 to 1:1400 to 1:2500 to 1:10000 for the larger Star Wars ships. Star Wars is an epic Space opera franchise initially conceived by George Lucas during the 1970s and significantly expanded Battlestar Galactica is a franchise of Science fiction Films and television series, the first of which was produced in 1978 Finemolds in Japan have recently released a series of high quality injection molded Star Wars kits in 1:72, and this range is supplemented by resin kits from Fantastic Plastic.

Model living creatures

Scale models of people and animals are found in a wide variety of venues, and may be either single-piece objects or kits which must be assembled, usually depending on the purpose of the model itself. For instance, models of people as well as both domestic and wild animals are often produced for display in model cities or railroads to provide a measure of detail or realism, and scaled relative to the trains, buildings, and other accessories of a certain line of models. If a line of trains or buildings does not feature models of living creatures, those who build the models will often buy these items separately from another line in the interest of featuring people or animals. In other cases, scale model lines will feature living creatures exclusively, often focusing on educational interests. Sometimes animal figurines will not adhere to a particular scale, but some companies endeavor to produce models that are as accurately scaled as possible. One of the foremost producers of such scale models is Safari, Ltd. , known for such lines as the Carnegie Collection, a line of dinosaur replicas that adheres to a 1:40 scale, and the Vanishing Wild Collection, featuring mammal figures on a scale of 1:15. The Carnegie Collection is a series of authentic Replicas based on Dinosaurs and other extinct Prehistoric creatures using Fossils featured at Another to specialize in this field is Tamiya, who produce dinosaurs in 1/35 scale.

Models of living creatures requiring assembly are not as common as single-piece units, but certainly not unheard of. One of the most prolific kinds of kits requiring assembly that feature living creatures are models of human and animal skeletons. Like their single-piece counterparts, such kits are often touted as being educational activities. Skeleton kits often have unique features such as glow-in-the-dark pieces or attachable internal organs. Again, dinosaurs are a popular subject for such models.

Model ships and naval wargaming

Main article: Ship model

In the first half of the twentieth century, navies used hand-made models of warships for identification and instruction in a variety of scales. Pendon Museum, located in Long Wittenham near Didcot, Oxfordshire, England, displays typical scenes on the Great Western Railway (GWR The term die-cast toy here refers to any toy or collectible model produced by using the Die casting method This article is concerned primarily with static models For operating models see Model yachting or Radio-controlled boat, Ship models or The twentieth century of the Common Era began on That of 1:500 was called "teacher scale. " Besides models made in 1:1200 and 1:2400 scales, there were also ones made to 1:2000 and 1:5000. Some, made in Britain, were labelled "1 inch to 110 feet," which would be 1:1320 scale, but aren't necessarily accurate. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located
Michele Morciano says small scale ship models were produced in about 1905 linked to the wargaming rules and other publications of Fred T Jane. The company that standardised on 1:1200 was Basset-Lowke in 1908. The British Admiralty subsequently contracted with Basset-Lowke and other companies and individual craftsmen to produce large numbers of recognition models, to this scale, in 1914-18. ^[2]
Just before the Second World War, the American naval historian (and science fiction author) Fletcher Pratt published a book on naval wargaming as could be done by civilians using ship models cut off at the waterline to be moved on the floors of basketball courts and similar locales. Murray Fletcher Pratt (1897–1956 was a Science fiction and Fantasy Writer; he was also well-known as a writer on Naval history and on the This article is concerned primarily with static models For operating models see Model yachting or Radio-controlled boat, Ship models or Waterline refers to an imaginary line marking the level at which Ship or Boat floats in the Water. The scale he used was non-standard (reported as 1:666), and may have been influenced by toy ships then available, but as the hobby progressed, and other rule sets came into use, it was progressively supplemented by the series 1:600, 1:1200, and 1:2400. In Britain, 1:3000 became popular and these models also have come into use in the USA. These had the advantage of approximating the nautical mile as 120 inches, 60 inches, and 30 inches, respectively. A nautical mile or sea mile is a unit of Length. It corresponds approximately to one minute of Latitude along any meridian. As the knot is based on this mile and a 60-minute hour, this was quite handy.

After the war, firms emerged to produce models from the same white metal used to make toy soldiers. One British firm offered a tremendously wide line of merchant ships and dockyard equipment in the scale 1:1200. A ship /ʃɪp/ is a large vessel that floats on water Ships are generally distinguished from Boats based on size In the US, at least one manufacturer, of the wartime 1:1200 recognition models, Comet, made them available for the civilian market postwar, which also drove the change to this scale. In addition, continental European manufacturers and European ship book publishers had adopted the 1:1250 drawing scale because of its similar convenience in size for both models and comparison drawings in books.

A prestige scale for boats, comparable to that of 1:32 for fighter planes, is 1:72, producing huge models, but there are very few kits marketed in this scale. A boat is a Watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane on water and provide transport over it There are now several clubs around the world for those who choose to scratch-build radio-controlled model ships and submarines in 1:72, which is often done because of the compatibility with naval aircraft kits. For the smaller ships, plank-on-frame or other wood construction kits are offered in the traditional shipyard scales of 1:96, 1:108, or 1:192 (half of 1:96). In injection-molded plastic kits, Airfix makes full-hull models in the scale which the Royal Navy has used to compare the relative sizes of ships: 1:600. Airfix is a UK manufacturer of plastic Scale model kits of aircraft and other subjects The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) Revell makes some kits to half the scale of the US Army standard: 1:570. For the film music composer see Graeme Revell. Revell was a company originally founded in 1943 in Venice California. Some American and foreign firms have made models in a proportion from the Engineer's scale: "one-sixtieth-of-an-inch-to-the-foot", or 1:720.

But the continental Europeans have an on-going project of getting rid of all conversions and measurements which they consider non-standard. As they saw how four Japanese model-making firms (Tamiya, Hasegawa, Aoshima, and Fujimi) formed a cartel to apportion out the project of putting out waterline kits of the whole fleet of Japanese warships of the Second World War on the market in a proportion that no firm from any other country did - 1:700, the Europeans are attempting to have the scale of 1:400 standardized for full-hull model ships, even though some Japanese firms have produced larger ships in the luxury scale of 1:350. The is a company that manufactures Plastic model kits of a variety of vehicles including model aircraft model cars model ships model armor model space craft and Science Fiction kits On the other hand, the rise of the resin kit industry in the 1990s led to the introduction of companies around the world producing kits in the 1:350 and 1:700 scales to match pre-existing injection molded kits, creating in limited production a large variety of kits of subjects which traditional injection-molding makers have not invested resources to produce, due to the expense of creating a large injection mold. In scales more conducive to wargaming, continental Europeans have long marketed waterline kits in the scales 1:1250 and more recently 1:2500 to supplement the British and American lines. The Chinese are joining them. Such trends toward standardization has not affected the Japanese firm Nichimo, which still produces fit-in-the-box sizes from old molds, and 1:450 size models.

Manned ship models

Main article: Port Revel

Many research workers, hydraulics specialists and engineers have used scale models for over a century, in particular in towing tanks. The Port Revel Shiphandling Training Centre is a French maritime pilotage school specializing in training for pilots masters and officers on large ships like Supertankers Manned models are small scale models that can carry and be handled by at least one person on an open expanse of water. This article is concerned primarily with static models For operating models see Model yachting or Radio-controlled boat, Ship models or They must behave just like real ships, giving the shiphandler the same sensations. Physical conditions such as wind, currents, waves, water depths, channels and berths must be reproduced realistically.

Manned models are used for research (e. g. ship behaviour), engineering (e. g. port layout) and for training in shiphandling (e. The Port Revel Shiphandling Training Centre is a French maritime pilotage school specializing in training for pilots masters and officers on large ships like Supertankers g. maritime pilots, masters and officers). They are usually at 1:25 scale.

Model tanks and wargaming

Main articles: Model military vehicle and Miniature wargaming

Just before the twentieth century, the British historian (and science fiction author and forgotten mainstream novelist) H. G. Wells published a book, Little Wars, on how to play at battles in miniature. Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South The Historical Miniatures Gaming Society (or HMGS promotes the hobby of historical Miniature wargaming as a registered non-profit charitable and educational foundation Cold Wars is one of the largest Gaming conventions in North America devoted to historical Miniature wargaming. Lancaster is a city in the South Central part of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and is the County seat of Lancaster County. See also Military model Introduction A Model military vehicle is a scale Replica which represents a military vehicle — usually Miniature wargaming is a form of Wargaming that incorporates Miniature figures and modeled terrain as the main components of play Herbert George Wells (21 September 1866 &ndash 13 August 1946 He was an outspoken socialist and a pacifist, his later works becoming increasingly political His books use 54 mm lead figures, particularly those manufactured by Britains. His fighting system employed spring-loaded model guns which shot matchsticks.

This use of physical mechanisms was echoed in the later games of Fred Jane, whose rules required throwing darts at ship silhouettes; his collection of data on the world's fleets was later published and became renowned. Dice have largely replaced this toy mayhem for consumers.

For over a century, toy soldiers were made of white metal, a lead-based alloy, often in architect's scale-based ratios in the English-speaking countries, and called tin soldiers. The white metals are any of several light-colored Alloys used as a base for plated Silverware, ornaments or novelties as well as any of several Lead Tin soldiers are Miniature figures of Soldiers extremely popular in the world of Collecting. After the Second World War, such toys were on the market for children but now made of a safe plastic softer than styrene. American children called these "army men". Many sets were made in the new scale of 1:40. A few styrene model kits of land equipment were offered in this and in 1:48 and 1:32 scales. However, these were swept away by the number of kits in the scale of 1:35. 135 scale is currently the most popular scale for Model military vehicles with an extensive lineup of models and aftermarket parts available from a wide variety of manufacturers

Those who continued to develop miniature wargaming preferred smaller scale models, the soldiers still made of soft plastic. Miniature wargaming is a form of Wargaming that incorporates Miniature figures and modeled terrain as the main components of play Airfix particularly wanted people to buy 1:76 scale soldiers and tanks to go with "00" gauge train equipment. Roco offered 1:87 scale styrene military vehicles to go with "H0" gauge model houses. Roco, based in Salzburg, Austria, is a manufacturer of Model railway equipment The company was founded in 1960 by Ing However, although there is no 1:72 scale model railroad, more toy soldiers are now offered in this scale because it is the same as the popular aircraft scale. The number of fighting vehicles in this scale is also increasing, although the number of auxiliary vehicles available is far fewer than in 1:87 scale.

A more recent development, especially in wargaming of land battles is 15 mm white metal miniatures, often referred to as 1:100, though this is not a correct conversion of scale. 15 mm scale actually is very close to railroad TT scale or 1:120. TT scale is a niche model railroading scale whose name stands for T able T op The use of 15 mm scale metals has grown quickly since the early 1990s as they allow a more affordable option over 28 mm if large battles are to be refought, or a large number of vehicles represented. The rapid rise in the detail and quality of castings at 15 mm scale has also helped to fuel their uptake by the wargaming community.

Armies use smaller scales still. The US Army specifies models of the scale 1:285 for its sand table wargaming. There are metal ground vehicles and helicopters in this scale, which is a near "one-quarter-inch-to-six-feet" scale. The continental powers of NATO have developed the similar scale of 1:300, even though metric standardizers really don't like any divisors other than factors of 10, 5, and 2, so maps are not commonly offered in Europe in scales with a "3" in the denominator. The North Atlantic Treaty

Consumer wargaming has since expanded into fantasy realms, employing scales large enough to be painted in imaginative detail - so called "heroic" 28 mm figures, (roughly 1:64, or S scale). A wargame is a Game that simulates or represents a Military operation. Fantasy is a Genre that uses magic and other Supernatural forms as a primary element of plot, theme, and/or setting S Scale - a model railroad term referring to a proportional size of 164 (or 3/16" = 1'-0" Firms which produce these do so in so small production lots that they are necessarily made of white metal. One successful company in this field is British firm Games Workshop, which offers white metal and plastic war machines and soldiers for its Warhammer 40,000 and Warhammer Fantasy Battle. The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game or Lord of the Rings SBG rather than Lord of the Rings when Warhammer 40000 (informally known as Warhammer 40K or just 40K) is a tabletop miniature wargame in a Science Warhammer The Game of Fantasy Battles, formerly Warhammer Fantasy Battle and often abbreviated to Warhammer WFB or WHFB Following the cinematic release of The Lord of the Rings trilogy, a third miniature-based gaming line was created. The Lord of the Rings film trilogy consists of three Live action Fantasy Epic films The Fellowship of the Ring ( 2001 The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game (abbreviated as LotR SBG often referred to by players as Lord of the Rings, is a tabletop miniature wargame produced

Scales

For a more complete list of scale model sizes, see list of scale model sizes and Rail transport modelling scales

Model railways have unique scale/gauge designations, such as: Z; N; H0; 00; EM; P4; 0; S; 1. This is a list of scale model sizes, listing a variety of size ratios for scale models Model railways are one of the most popular types of Scale model. Model railroading (US or Railway modelling (UK Australia and Canada is a Hobby in which Rail transport systems are modeled at a reduced scale Until the 2006 announcement of T scale, Z scale (1220 was the smallest commercially available Model railway scale with a track gauge of 6 N scale is a popular Model railway scale/track gauge Depending upon the manufacturer (or country the scale ranges from 1148 to 1160 EM gauge is variant of 4 mm to a foot (176 scale used in Model railways EM was developed because OO gauge, favoured by manufacturers of British P4 gauge or Protofour gauge is a set of standards for Model railways allowing the accurate construction of models to a scale of 4 mm to 1 foot (176 S gauge is a scale in model railroading. Modeled at 164 scale, S scale track gauge (space between the rails is. Gauge 1 is a model railroading and Toy train standard popular in the early 20th century particularly with European manufacturers Model figure scales are usually expressed as the height of a six-foot (1. A model figure is a Scale model that represents a person either a generic figure of a type (such as " World War II Luftwaffe pilot " 83 m) figure; for example: 54 mm. Other model scales are generally given as a ratio which expresses what a measurement on the model represents on the actual object. When buying a model train, scale sizes are referred to by letter name, not number ratio.

For hydraulic models, specific scale rules are applied in order to obtain the correct reproduction of physical phenomenae. Manned models Many research workers hydraulics specialists and engineers have used scale models for over a century in particular in towing tanks

History of the scales

Before the plastic model kit industry

Hobbyists' scale models derive from those used by the firms which made the full-sized products. Originally, a "scale" was a physical measuring instrument, a notion which survives as concerns weight. First among scales are the rulers that are triangular in cross-section and called architect's scales or engineer's scales. An architect's scale is a specialized ruler It is used in making or measuring from reduced Scale drawings such as Blueprints and Floor plans It is marked An engineer's scale is a tool for measuring distances and transferring measurements at a fixed Ratio of length The terminology used was of this manner: "scale size to full size", or the reverse. An architect's scale was used to make the first affordable models: doll houses and their furniture. Its popular scales for these miniatures were "one inch to the foot" and "one-half inch to the foot"; there is also "three-quarters inch to the foot".

The proportion of the model to the prototype was originally called "size", as in "full-sized" or "half-sized", as used on a blueprint for making something that would fit on a workbench. A prototype is an original type form or instance of something serving as a typical example basis or standard for other things of the same category

Shipyards were the first to use the scales to make models of things larger than a house. The scales they used were expressed in a different manner: "one-foot-to-the-inch" through "six-feet-to-the-inch" were common. During the Second World War, battleship models were made "eight-foot-to-the-inch", in the later phrasing, "one-eighth-inch to the foot"; you will find these models, used for training workers, in maritime museums. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including A battleship is a large heavily armored Warship with a main battery consisting of the largest Calibre of Guns Battleships were A maritime museum (sometimes nautical museum) is a Museum specializing in the display of objects relating to Ships and travel on large bodies of water The model ship would be referred to as "one-ninety-sixth size", or "1/96th", but rarely, as there were few scales commonly used; it couldn't possibly be "1/98th scale", for example.

There were also rotary instruments in which one would line up marks on two dials to be able to translate measurements from units on the prototype to units on the model. After the production of kits to make plastic models became an industry, there were developed rulers marked in the model units and which are called scales. Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products

Comparing scales

Phrases used are those of "larger" and "smaller" scales. The scale of 1/8"-to-the-foot is a larger scale than 1/16"-to-the-foot, even though the denominator is smaller. So a larger model is made to a larger scale. You can remember this in that a full-size, or full-scale, model is larger than a half-size model.

Origins of the plastic model kit

For aircraft recognition in the Second World War, the RAF selected models to the scale of "one-sixth inch to the foot" (which was two British lines, a legal division of length which didn't make it to America, besides being a standard shipyard scale). The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Although some consumer models were sold pre-war in Britain to this scale, the airmens' models were pressed out of ground-up old rubber tires. This is of course the still-popular 1:72 scale. 172 scale is a scale used for Scale models most commonly Model aircraft, corresponding to one sixth of an Inch representing one foot It wasn't predestined to succeed; there were competitors.

The US Navy, in contrast, had metal models made to the proportion 1:432, which is "nine-feet-to-the-quarter-inch". At this scale, a model six feet is about half a statute mile; and seven feet about half a nautical mile.

After the war, firms that moulded models from polystyrene entered the consumer marketplace, the American firm Revell notably offering a model of the Royal Coach around the time of the 1953 coronation. Polystyrene ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn ( IUPAC Polyphenylethene is an aromatic Polymer made from the aromatic Monomer Styrene For the film music composer see Graeme Revell. Revell was a company originally founded in 1943 in Venice California. In the early years, firms offered models of aircraft and ships in "fit-the-box" size. A box that would make an impressive gift was specified, and a mould was crafted to make a model that wouldn't ludicrously slide around inside. Modellers could not compare models, nor switch parts from one kit to another. It was the British firm Airfix that brought the idea of the constant scale to the marketplace, and they picked the RAF's scale. Airfix is a UK manufacturer of plastic Scale model kits of aircraft and other subjects

In the 1960s, the company Monogram offered an aircraft actually labeled as ¼" scale, which may have been a common contraction in factories. A monogram is a motif made by overlapping or combining two or more letters or other Graphemes to form one Symbol. They meant "one-quarter-inch to the foot", or "one-forty-eighth size". Shortly thereafter, hobbyists lost the ability to distinguish the two, and now the proportion is referred to as scale.

Terminology

The terms and the means of writing them down have changed, and for model kits they are now standardized for the European Union. In English-speaking countries, such terms as "1/72" were used, but the format with a colon as "1:72" is often preferred. The slash format is usually avoided with decimal fractions: "1/76. 2" is usually not used; it's "1:76. 2" instead. That hybrid 00 gauge can also be expressed by explicitly using a mixed system of units as "4 mm:1 ft" or "1 mm:3 in", but the dimensionless form makes comparison with other scales easier.

Rational choice of scales

The nominal height of a man is simple in the inch-based system: six feet. The Federal Triangle is the triangular area in Washington DC formed by 15th Street Constitution Avenue, and Pennsylvania Avenue. The National Mall is an open-area National park in Downtown Washington D Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D Pennsylvania Avenue is a street in Washington DC joining the White House and the United States Capitol. Singapore Development control This is the responsibility of URA to evaluate and grant planning approval for development projects from the public and private sectors Many traditional scales are derived so that a figure of such a height against the model can be readily imagined as a simple relation to an inch. Although the metric system has specified a limited series of scales for blueprints and maps, when it comes to models, there may be a problem with these scales for a readily imagined person of 180 centimetres. The metric system is a decimalised system of measurement. It exists in several variations with different choices of base units, though the choice of base units does Model railways have the additional difficulty of having to present the rail gauge as a simple number, the height of a person being secondary. Rail gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the two parallel rails that make up a railway track. Trade authorities in metric countries are attempting to specify scales that are simple mulitiples of 2 and 5, but neither tracks nor people seem to fit. In such cases, rationalization may actually be invoked for competitive advantage, to prevent interoperability with products from another manufacturing country.

On the other hand, wargaming scales have traditionally been traced to metric system, where the number of millimetres relate to the relative height of the human figure based on 180 cm standard man. Therefore 25 mm scale (popular in historical and fantasy wargaming) refers to 1:72 scale, whilst the 15 mm scale (nowadays the most popular scale in ancient, medieval and Renaissance wargaming) refers to 1:120 scale (Many manufacturers refer to 15 mm as 1:100 scale). Likewise, 50 mm scale is the same as 1:35 military model scale, and 5 mm equals 1:350 naval scale.

Rationalisation typically falls into 2 categories: Industrial Trade, and Hobbies. Industrial trade covers areas like building and maritime architecture where universally accepted scales have been established and are conformed to both in the construction of models and drawings, in order to facilitate smoother co-operation between commercial parties. The rationalisation of hobby scales has been more gradual and organic; largely driven by clubs lobbying industry, as well as tradition, and indirectly, consumer demand. A couple of artificial efforts to standardise have not been successful: ie Tamiya in the 1970's with aircraft models in 1/100th scale, and Heller with airline models in 1/125th scale. Even though rationalisation in hobby scales sounds appealing, it has not proved to be historically evident, although there may be some very gradual progress as consumer demand becomes more organised.

Miniatures in Contemporary Art

Miniatures and model kits are used in contemporary art whereby artists use both scratch built miniaturizations or commercially manufactured model kits to construct a dialogue between object and viewer. The role of the artist in this type of miniature is not necessarily to re-create an historical event or achieve naturalist realism, but rather to use scale as a mode of articulation in generating conceptual or theoretical exploration. Political, conceptual, and architectural examples are provided by noted artists such as Jake and Dinos Chapman (otherwise known as the Chapman Brothers), Ricky Swallow, John Timberlake, Shaun Wilson or the Psikhelekedana artists from Mozambique. Jake Chapman (born 1966 and Dinos Chapman (born 1962 are brothers and English Conceptual artists who work almost exclusively in collaboration with Ricky Swallow is an Australian Sculptor born in San Remo Victoria in 1974 Shaun Wilson (born Melbourne, 1972 is an Australian artist film maker academic and curator working with themes of memory place and scale through painting miniatures Psikhelekedana is a traditional art form from the south of Mozambique that is dating back to at least colonial times Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa

Cultural References

• In the movie Zoolander the character Mugatu entices Zoolander to model for his fashion label by offering to build an educational facility and shrine to Zoolander's dead friend called "Derek Zoolander's Centre for Kid's Who Can't Read Good and Other Things". Zoolander is a 2001 Comedy film directed by Ben Stiller. The film is based on a pair of short films directed by Russell Bates and Zoolander is a 2001 Comedy film directed by Ben Stiller. The film is based on a pair of short films directed by Russell Bates and Mugatu shows Zoolander a scale model of the centre and Zoolander freaks out because he thinks it is at 1:1 scale, and thus, very small. He demands that the building must be at least "3 times the size".

• In the movie Spinal Tap, the band request a stage design of the pre-historical relic Stonehenge to accompany their song of the same name. Spın̈al Tap is a semi-fictional heavy metal band the subject of the 1984 Rockumentary / Mockumentary film This Is {{Unicode|Spın̈al Stonehenge is a Prehistoric Monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about west of Amesbury and north of Salisbury The guitarist makes a sketch drawing for the construction of the model and passes it to the set designer. When the model appears for the first time during a concert, the band freak out because the model barely reaches the height of their knees. In discussion with the set designer afterwards, it turns out the units on the construction drawing were marked as inches instead of feet. Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit

See also

• Computer-aided design
• Die-cast toy
• Historical Miniatures Gaming Society
• Maquette
• Miniature figure
• Miniature park
• Miniature pioneering
• Miniature effect
• Model figure
• Solar system model
• Standard gauge in model railways

References

External links

• [1] Association of Professional Model Makers, APMM
• [2] A website showing a variety of pictures with 44+ years in the business of custom model making
• BuildingScaleModelAircraft.com a website about the hobby of building scale model aircraft
• The Definitive 1/72 Scale Model Census Listings of commercially produced die-cast and kit models, including aircraft, space, sci-fi, figures, vehicles, and ships.
• Diecast House - Huge collection of die-cast Vehicles.
• Photos of toy steam engines
• The Scale Firehouse - Emergency Vehicle Scale Models
• [http://www.rtvmodeler.com/ Militar Models in scale with Gallery, Museum photos, Articles y more!.
• KitMaker Network - An online community of scale model builders from around the world.
• Models of Horse-Drawn Carriages.
• Clayton's model ship page Features many model links and practicums
• Aircraft Resource Center Daily galleries of aircraft models.
• Historic ship models Webpage devoted to scale ship model building, with more than 2000 high resolution photos of ship models of all ages
• aostamodel.net/home.htm 1/43 handbuilt scale model cars display
• A&M Model Makers Custom scale model makers with numerous images and samples of work.

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