Map showing the Saxons' homeland (the Duchy of Saxony [Ger. Herzogtum Sachsen] in the tenth century) in traditional region bounded by the three rivers: Weser, Eider, and Elbe. The Weser (ˈveːzɐ is a River in north-western Germany. Formed at Hann The Eider ( German: Eider; Danish: Ejderen; Latin: Egdor or Egdore) is the longest river of the German The Elbe ( die Elbe Low German: de Ilv) is one of the major Rivers of Central Europe.

The Saxons or Saxon people were a confederation of Old Germanic tribes. A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic Their modern-day descendants in northern Germany are considered ethnic Germans; those in the eastern Netherlands are considered to be ethnic Dutch; and those in southern England ethnic English. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The Dutch people ( Dutch:) are the dominant Ethnic group of the Netherlands. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The English people (from the adjective in Englisc) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to England who predominantly speak English Their earliest known area of settlement is Northern Albingia, an area approximately that of modern Holstein. Nordalbingia (Nordalbingien was one of the four administrative regions of the medieval Duchy of Saxony, the others being Angria, Eastphalia, and Holstein (ˈhɔlʃtain ( Low German: Holsteen, Danish: Holsten, Latin and historical English: Holsatia)

Saxons participated in the Germanic settlement of Britain during and after the 5th century. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands It is unknown how many migrated from the continent to Britain though estimates for the total number of Germanic settlers vary between 10,000-200,000. ^[1] Over the past two centuries or so, many continental Saxons settled other parts of the world, especially in North America, Australia, South Africa, and in areas of the former Soviet Union, where some communities still maintain parts of their cultural and linguistic heritage, often under the umbrella categories “German” and “Dutch”. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as The Dutch people ( Dutch:) are the dominant Ethnic group of the Netherlands.

Because of international Hanseatic trading routes and contingent migration during the Middle Ages, Saxons mixed with and had strong influences upon the languages and cultures of the Scandinavian and Baltic peoples, and also upon the Polabian and Pomeranian West Slavic peoples. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade The Balts or Baltic peoples (People who live by the Baltic Sea) defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European

First mentioned by the Ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy, the pre-Christian settlement of the Saxon people originally covered an area a little more to the northwest, with parts of the southern Jutland peninsula, Old Saxony and small sections of the eastern Netherlands. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca This article is about the region of Denmark. For the World War I naval battle see Battle of Jutland. Old Saxony is the original homeland of the Saxons and the place from which their raids and later colonisations of Britannia were mounted The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands During the 5th century AD, the Saxons were part of the people invading the Romano-British province of Britannia. Britannia was the term originally used by the Romans to refer first to the British Isles, and later to the island of Great Britain. One of these tribes was the Germanic Angles, whose name, taken together with that of the Saxons, led to the formation of the modern term, Anglo-Saxons. The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the cultural ancestral region of Angeln, a modern district located in For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south

Continental Saxons

Name

The word 'Saxon' is believed to be derived from the word seax, meaning a variety of single-edged knives. Seax (also Hadseax, Sax, Seaxe, Scramaseax and Scramsax) in A knife is a handheld sharp-edged instrument consisting of handle attached to a Blade used for cutting The Saxons were considered by Charlemagne's historian Einhard^[2] to be especially war-like and ferocious. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Einhard (also Eginhard or Einhart) (c 775 &ndash March 14, 840 in Seligenstadt, Germany) was a Frankish

Saxony

The Saxons appear to have consolidated themselves by the end of the 8th century, when a political entity called the Duchy of Saxony appears. The mediæval Duchy of Saxony was a late Early Middle Ages "Carolingian Stem duchy " covering the greater part of Northern Germany.

The Saxons long resisted both becoming Christians^[3] and being incorporated into the orbit of the Frankish kingdom, but they were decisively conquered by Charlemagne in a long series of annual campaigns, the Saxon Wars (772 – 804). Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the The Saxon Wars were the campaigns and insurrections of the more than thirty years from 772, when Charlemagne first entered Saxony with the intent to conquer During Charlemagne's campaign in Hispania (778), the Saxons advanced to Deutz on the Rhine and plundered along the river. Cologne-Deutz, often just Deutz, is a former town presently a borough of Cologne, Germany. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge With defeat came the enforced baptism and conversion of the Saxon leaders and their people. In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religious identity or a change from one religious identity to another Their sacred tree or pillar, a symbol of phallic, pagan, nature worship, Irminsul, was destroyed. An Irminsul ( Old Saxon, probably "great/mighty pillar" or "arising pillar" was a kind of Pillar which is attested as playing an important role

Under Carolingian rule, the Saxons were reduced to tributary status. The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the There is evidence that the Saxons, as well as Slavic tributaries such as the Abodrites and the Wends, often provided troops to their Carolingian overlords. The Obotrites (Abodriten also commonly known as the Obodrites, Abotrites, or Abodrites, were a confederation of medieval West Slavic tribes The dukes of Saxony became kings (Henry I, the Fowler, 919) and later the first emperors (Henry's son, Otto I, the Great) of Germany during the 10th century, but they lost this position in 1024. Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke The duchy was divided up in 1180 when Duke Henry the Lion, Emperor Otto's grandson, refused to follow his cousin, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, into war in Lombardy. Henry the Lion ( German: Heinrich der Löwe; 1129 &ndash 6 August 1195) was a member of the Guelph dynasty and Duke of Saxony Frederick I Barbarossa (1122 &ndash 10 June 1190) was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned Lombardy (Lombardia Latin: Langobardia, Western Lombard: Lumbardìa, Eastern Lombard: Lombardia) is one of the

During the Late Middle Ages, under the Salian emperors, the Teutonic Knights and settlers, moved east along the river Elbe into the area of settlement of a western Slavic tribe, the Sorbs. The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe European history in the period of the 14th and 15th centuries (AD 1300–1499 See also Salian Franks, Salic law The Salian dynasty was a Dynasty in the High Middle Ages of four German Kings (1024-1125 The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. The Elbe ( die Elbe Low German: de Ilv) is one of the major Rivers of Central Europe. Sorbs (Serbja Serby also known as Wends, Lusatian Sorbs or Lusatian Serbs, are a Slavic people settled in Lusatia The Sorbs were gradually Germanised. This region subsequently acquired the name Saxony through political circumstances, though it was initially called the March of Meissen. The March or Margraviate of Meissen (Mark(grafschaft Meißen was a mediæval principality a march, of the Holy Roman Empire in the area of the modern The rulers of Meissen acquired control of the Duchy of Saxony in 1423 and eventually applied the name Saxony to the whole of their kingdom. The mediæval Duchy of Saxony was a late Early Middle Ages "Carolingian Stem duchy " covering the greater part of Northern Germany. Since then, this part of eastern Germany has been referred to as Saxony (German: Sachsen), a source of some misunderstanding about the original homeland of the Saxons, mostly in the present-day German state of Lower Saxony (German: Niedersachsen). The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. Lower Saxony ( German: Niedersachsen ch is pronounced before an s --> lies in north-western Germany and is second

Balkans

See also: Transylvanian Saxons

In the Middle Ages, groups of Saxon ore miners (called саси, sasi in the South Slavic languages) settled in ore-rich regions of Southeastern Europe. The Transylvanian Saxons (Siebenbürger Sachsen Erdélyi szászok Saşi are a people of German ethnicity who settled in Transylvania (Siebenbürgen from the 12th South Slavic languages comprise one of the three geographical groups of Slavic languages (besides West and East Slavic) In the 13th and 14th centuries, Saxons from the Upper Harz and Westphalia settled in and around Chiprovtsi in modern northwestern Bulgaria (then in the Second Bulgarian Empire) to extract ore in the western Balkan Mountains, receiving royal privileges from Bulgarian tsar Ivan Shishman. The Harz is a mountain range in central Germany It is the highest mountain chain in northern Germany occupying parts of the German states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt Westphalia (Westfalen) is a region in Germany, centred on the cities of Bielefeld, Bochum, Dortmund, Gelsenkirchen, Münster Chiprovtsi (Чипровци {{IPA|[ˈtʃiprufʦi]}}) is a small town in northwestern Bulgaria with about 2000 inhabitants The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian The Second Bulgarian Empire ( Bulgarian: Второ българско царство Vtorо Balgarskо Tsartsvo) was a Medieval Bulgarian state The Balkan Mountain range ( Bulgarian and Стара планина Stara planina, "Old Mountain" This is a list of Bulgarian monarchs from the earliest historical records to 1946 when the monarchy in the country was abolished Ivan Shishman (Иван Шишман ruled as emperor ( Tsar) of Bulgaria in Tarnovo 1371-1395 ^[4] It is thought that these miners established Roman Catholicism in this part of the Balkans before being completely assimilated and merging with the local population. ^[5] Along with spreading Roman Catholicism, the Saxons also enriched the local vocabulary with Germanic words and introduced new mining techniques and metal-working instruments to Bulgaria. The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE Language family. Ethnic subgroups that are thought to be partially descended from these Saxons are the Banat Bulgarians and the Krashovani. The Banat Bulgarians ( Banat Bulgarian: palćene or banátsći balgare; common банатски българи banatski balgari) are a distinct The Krashovani ( Croatian and Serbian: Krašovani (Крашовани Karašovani or Krašovanje, Karaševci and

Saxons also mined ore in the Osogovo and Belasica mountains (between Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia^[6]), as well as around Samokov^[7] in Rila and in various parts of the Rhodopes^[8][9] and around Etropole^[10] (all in Bulgaria), but were assimilated without establishing Roman Catholicism there . Osogovo ( Bulgarian and Macedonian Cyrillic:) or Osogovska Planina (Осоговска планина or Осоговска Планина is This article is about the mountain range For the football teams see PFC Belasitsa Petrich and FK Belasica. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian The Republic of Macedonia (Република Samokov (Самоков is a town in Sofia Province in the southwest of Bulgaria. for the Tibetan village see Rila Tibet Rila (Рила) is a mountain range in southwestern Bulgaria and the highest mountain range The Rhodopes (Родопи Rodopi, usually used with a definite article Родопите Rodopite, sometimes also called Родопа Rodopa or Родопа Etropole (Етрополе is a town in western Bulgaria, part of Sofia Province.

The Saxons miners in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina—active in Brskovo, Rudnik, Olovo, Novo Brdo and other places—also left a significant trace in the mining and metal-working history of the South Slavs. Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Montenegro ( British English) Montenegrin / Serbian: PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE LANGUAGES WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE! Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan Brskovo (Брсково ( German: Biersgau, in old local German records Byrsgaw) is a village in northern Montenegro, within the Rudnik is a mountain in central Serbia, around 100 km south of Belgrade, near Gornji Milanovac Olovo is a town and municipality situated about north-west of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Novo Brdo ( Cyrillic: Ново Брдо Albanian: Novobërda, Novobërdë) is a town and municipality in the Priština district The South Slavs are a southern branch of the Slavic peoples that live in the Balkans mainly throughout the former Yugoslavia (meaning "Land of ^[11]

Italy and Gaul

In 569, some Saxons accompanied the Lombards into Italy under the leadership of Alboin and settled there. The Lombards ( Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from Alboin or Alboïn (died 572 or 573 was king of the Lombards, and conqueror of Italy. ^[12] In 572, they raided Gaul as far as Stablo near Riez. Stavelot is a Walloon Municipality located in the Belgian province of Liège Riez is a commune in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department in southeastern France. Divided, they were easily defeated by Gallo-Roman General Mummolus. This article covers the culture of Romanized areas of Gaul. For the political history of the brief "Gallic Empire" of the 3rd century see Gallic Empire Mummolus, Mommolus, or Mummulus, born Eunius to one Peonius Count of Auxerre. When the Saxons regrouped, a peace treaty was negotiated whereby the Italian Saxons were allowed to settle with their families in Austrasia. Austrasia (rarely Austria, both meaning "eastern land" formed the north-eastern portion of the Kingdom of the Merovingian Franks, comprising ^[13] Gathering their families and belongings in Italy, they returned to Gaul in two groups in 573. One group proceeded by way of Nice and another via Embrun, joining up at Avignon, where they plundered the territory and were consequently stopped from crossing the Rhone by Mummolus. Nice (nis Niçard Occitan: Niça norm or Nissa, Italian: Nizza or Nizza Marittima, Greek There is also an Embrun in Ontario Canada Embrun ( Latin: Ebrodunum, Ebrudunum, and Eburodunum) Avignon (/aviɲɔ̃/ in French) ( Provençal: Avinhon in classical norm or Avignoun in Mistralian norm is a commune The Rhone, or the Rhône is one of the major Rivers of Europe, running through Switzerland and France. They were forced to pay compensation for what they had robbed before they could enter Austrasia.

Some Saxons already lived in Gaul at that time. A Saxon king named Eadwacer conquered Angers in 463 only to be dislodged by Childeric I and the Salian Franks, allies of the Roman Empire. Angers is a city in the Maine-et-Loire department in northwestern France about 300 km south-west of Paris. Childeric I (c 440– c 481 was the Merovingian king of the Salian Franks from 457 until his death and the father of Clovis. Salians redirects here for the eleventh-century dynasty see Salian dynasty, for Roman priests see Salii. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial It is possible that Saxon settlement of Great Britain began only in response to expanding Frankish control of the Channel coast. ^[14]

A Saxon unit of laeti had been settled at Bayeux — the Saxones Baiocassenses — since the time of the Notitia Dignitatum. Laeti, the plural form of laetus, was a term used in the late Roman empire to denote communities of barbari (" Barbarians " literally Bayeux (bajø is a commune in the Calvados département, in Normandy in northwestern France. The Notitia Dignitatum is a unique document of the Roman imperial chanceries ^[15] These Saxons became subjects of Clovis I late in the fifth century. Clovis I (c 466 &ndash 27 November 511) was the first King of the Franks to unite all the Frankish tribes under one ruler The Saxons of Bayeux comprised a standing army and were often called upon to serve alongside the local levy of their region in Merovingian miltiary campaigns. The Merovingians (also Merovings) were a Salian Frankish dynasty that came to rule the Franks in a region (known as Francia in Latin They were ineffective against Waroch in this capacity in 579. Waroch was an early Breton ruler of the Vannetais. Waroch gave his name to the traditional French province of Broërec ( Bro-Waroch, "Waroch's ^[16] In 589, the Saxons wore their hair in the Breton fashion at the orders of Fredegund and fought with them as allies against Guntram. The Bretons are a distinct Ethnic group located in the region of Brittany in France. Fredegund or Fredegunda (also Latin Fredegundis or French Frédégonde; died 597 was the Queen consort of Chilperic Saint Guntram (c 532 – 592 (also called Gontram, Gontran, Gunthram, or Gunthchramn) was the king of Burgundy from 561 to 592 ^[17] Beginning in 626, the Saxons of the Bessin were used by Dagobert I for his campaigns against the Basques. The Bessin is an area in Normandy, France, corresponding to the territory of the Bajocasse tribe of Celts who also gave their name to the city Dagobert I (c 603 &ndash 19 January 639) was the king of Austrasia (623&ndash634 king of all the Franks (629&ndash634 and king of The Basques (Euskaldunak are a people who inhabit a region spanning over parts of north-central Spain and southwestern France. One of their own, Aeghyna, was even created a dux over the region of Vasconia. Aighyna, Aeghyna, Aegyna, Aigino, or Aichina, probably a Saxon, was the Duke of Gascony ( Vasconia The Duchy of Vasconia (sometimes Wasconia) later known as Gascony, was a Merovingian creation a frontier duchy on the ^[18]

Saxons in Britain

Further information: Sub-Roman Britain

Saxons, along with Angles, Jutes, Frisians and possibly Franks, invaded or migrated to the island of Great Britain (Britannia) around the time of the collapse of Roman authority in the west. Sub-Roman Britain is a term derived from an Archaeologists ' label for the material culture of Britain in Late Antiquity. The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the cultural ancestral region of Angeln, a modern district located in The Jutes, Iuti, or Iutae were a Germanic people who according to Bede were one of the three most powerful Germanic peoples of the time The Frisians are an ethnic group of Germanic people living in coastal parts of The Netherlands and Germany. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Britannia was the term originally used by the Romans to refer first to the British Isles, and later to the island of Great Britain. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Saxon raiders had been harassing the eastern and southern shores of Britannia for centuries before, prompting the construction of a string of coastal forts called the litora Saxonica or Saxon Shore, and many Saxons and other folk had been permitted to settle in these areas as farmers long before the end of Roman rule in Britannia. The Saxon Shore Forts is the collective name given to a system of Forts ( Castra) built along the east and south-east coast of what is now England In 449, however, following a particularly devastating raid in the north from the Picts and their allies, the Romano-British administration invited two Jutish warlords — traditionally cited as Hengist and Horsa — to occupy the isle of Thanet in north Kent and to act as mercenaries against the Picts at sea. The Picts were a Confederation of tribes in what was later to become eastern and northern Scotland from Roman times until the 10th century Horsa, according to tradition was a fifth century warrior and brother of Hengest who took part in the invasion and conquest of Britain from its native History See also Isle of Thanet The Isle of Thanet is the major part of the Thanet District KENT (1400 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Adult Standards/MOR format After the Jutes had completed this mission defeating the Picts, they returned with demands for more lands. The Jutes, Iuti, or Iutae were a Germanic people who according to Bede were one of the three most powerful Germanic peoples of the time When this was rejected, they rose in revolt and provoked an insurrection amongst all the settled farming folk of Germanic stock with them.

Four separate Saxon realms emerged:

1. East Saxons: created the Kingdom of Essex. The Kingdom of Essex ( Est Seaxna "East Saxons" was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy) was founded
2. Middle Saxons: created the province of Middlesex
3. South Saxons: led by Aelle, created the Kingdom of Sussex
4. West Saxons: led by Cerdic, created the Kingdom of Wessex

During the period of the reigns from Egbert to Alfred the Great, the kings of Wessex emerged as Bretwalda, unifying the country and eventually forging it into the kingdom of England in the face of Danish Viking invasions. Middlesex is one of the 39 historic counties of England and the second smallest by area. Ælle (also Aelle or Ella,) is recorded in early sources as the first king of the South Saxons, reigning in what is now called Sussex The Kingdom of Sussex, ( Suth Seaxe, ie the South Saxons was one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms the boundaries of which coincided in general with those of the earlier kingdom See also Ceretic for two kings with a similar name Cerdic of Wessex (died 534 was the King of Wessex (519&ndash534 and is regarded West Saxon redirects here For other meanings of Wessex or West Saxon see Wessex (disambiguation. Alfred the Great (also Ælfred from the Old English Ælfrēd ˈælfreːd (c Bretwalda, also Brytenwalda, Bretenanwealda, is an Anglo-Saxon term the first record of which comes from the late ninth century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas

Historians are divided about what followed: some argue that the takeover of southern Great Britain by the Anglo-Saxons was peaceful. There is, however, only one known account from a native Briton who lived at this time (Gildas), and his description is of forced takeover:

For the fire. Saint Gildas (c 494 or 516 – c 570 was one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sixth century . . spread from sea to sea, fed by the hands of our foes in the east, and did not cease, until, destroying the neighbouring towns and lands, it reached the other side of the island, and dipped its red and savage tongue in the western ocean. In these assaults. . . all the columns were levelled with the ground by the frequent strokes of the battering-ram, all the husbandmen routed, together with their bishops, priests, and people, whilst the sword gleamed, and the flames crackled around them on every side. Lamentable to behold, in the midst of the streets lay the tops of lofty towers, tumbled to the ground, stones of high walls, holy altars, fragments of human bodies, covered with livid clots of coagulated blood, looking as if they had been squeezed together in a press; and with no chance of being buried, save in the ruins of the houses, or in the ravening bellies of wild beasts and birds; with reverence be it spoken for their blessed souls, if, indeed, there were many found who were carried, at that time, into the high heaven by the holy angels. . . Some, therefore, of the miserable remnant, being taken in the mountains, were murdered in great numbers; others, constrained by famine, came and yielded themselves to be slaves for ever to their foes, running the risk of being instantly slain, which truly was the greatest favour that could be offered them: some others passed beyond the seas with loud lamentations instead of the voice of exhortation. . . Others, committing the safeguard of their lives, which were in continual jeopardy, to the mountains, precipices, thickly wooded forests, and to the rocks of the seas (albeit with trembling hearts), remained still in their country.

Wars between the native Romano-Britons and the invading Jutes, Saxons, and Angles, continued for over 400 years. Romano-British culture is that of the Romanized Britons under the Roman Empire and later the Western Roman Empire, and of those exposed to Roman culture in the years The Britons of England either fled westwards or northwards or were progressively immersed into the new English culture, as the territory that they controlled gradually shrank in size to contain only Wales, Cornwall, north-westernmost England (Cumbria), and Strathclyde. Cornwall ( Kernow ˈkɛɹnɔʊ is the most southwesterly county of England, on the Peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar Boundaries and divisions Cumbria is neighboured by Northumberland, County Durham, North Yorkshire, Lancashire, and the Lieutenancy Strathclyde ( Srath Chluaidh in Gaelic, meaning "valley of the River Clyde" is a Historic subdivision of Scotland, and was one of the regional Some fled over the sea to Brittany, which was called after their old homeland, Britain. Brittany (Breizh bʁejs Bretagne; Gallo: Bertaèyn) is a former independent Celtic kingdom and Duchy, now incorporated into

Collectively, the Germanic settlers of Great Britain, mostly Saxons, Angles and Jutes, came to be called the Anglo-Saxons. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south

Social structure

Bede, an Northumbrian, writing around the year 730, remarks that "the old [that is, the continental] Saxons have no king, but they are governed by several ealdormen [or satrapa] who, during war, cast lots for leadership but who, in time of peace, are equal in power. Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c An ealdorman (modern Alderman) was the prior magistrate of an Anglo-Saxon shire from 900 to the time of the Danes. See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient " The regnum Saxonum was divided into three provinces — Westphalia, Eastphalia, and Angria — which comprised about one hundred pagi or Gaue. Westphalia (Westfalen) is a region in Germany, centred on the cities of Bielefeld, Bochum, Dortmund, Gelsenkirchen, Münster Eastphalia (Ostfalen Eastphalian: Oostfalen) is a historical region in northern Germany, encompassing eastern Lower Saxony and western For the sunken atoll in India see Angria Bank. Angria is also the name of a Paracosm (fictional world created and written about by English novelist Each Gau had its own satrap with enough military power to level whole villages which opposed him. ^[19]

In the mid ninth century, Nithard first described the social structure of the Saxons beneath their leaders. Nithard ca (800 - 844 a Frankish Historian, was the grandson of Charlemagne, by Bertha a daughter of the emperor The caste structure was rigid; in the Saxon language the three castes, excluding slaves, were called the edhilingui (related to the term aetheling), frilingi, and lazzi. Old Saxon, also known as Old Low German ( ISO 639 -3 code osx) is the earliest recorded form of Low German, documented from the 9th century Aetheling, also spelt Ætheling, Atheling or Etheling, was an Old English term (æþeling used in Anglo-Saxon England to designate These terms were subsequently Latinised as nobiles or nobiliores; ingenui, ingenuiles, or liberi; and liberti, liti, or serviles. In literature Latinisation is the practice of writing a name in a Latin style when writing in Latin so as to more closely emulate Latin authors or to present a more impressive For the Roman commander with this name see Ingenuus. Ingenui or ingenuitas (singular ingenuus) was ^[20] According to very early traditions which probably contain a good deal of historical truth, the edhilingui were the descendants of the Saxons who led the tribe out of Holstein and during the migrations of the sixth century. Holstein (ˈhɔlʃtain ( Low German: Holsteen, Danish: Holsten, Latin and historical English: Holsatia) ^[21] They were a conquering, warrior elite. The frilingi represented the descendants of the amicii, auxiliarii, and manumissi of that caste, while the lazzi represented the descendants of the original inhabitants of the conquered territories, who were forced to make oaths of submission and pay tribute to the edhilingui.

The Lex Saxonum regulated the Saxons' unusual society. The Lex Saxonum was the Germanic tribal law of the Saxons. It was issued by Charlemagne in 785 as part of his plan to subdue the Saxon nation Intermarriage between the castes was forbidden by the Lex and wergilds were set based upon caste membership. Weregeld (alternative spellings wergild, wergeld, weregeld, etc The edhilingui were worth 1,440 solidi, or about 700 head of cattle, the highest wergild on the continent; the price of a bride was also very high. The solidus (the Latin word for solid) was originally a Gold coin issued by the Romans. This was six times as much as that of the frilingi and eight times as much as the lazzi. The gulf between noble and ignoble was very large, but the difference between a freeman and an indentured labourer was small. ^[22]

According to the Vita Lebuini antiqua, an important source for early Saxon history, the Saxons held an annual council at Marklo where they "confirmed their laws, gave judgment on outstanding cases, and determined by common counsel whether they would go to war or be in peace that year. "^[23] All three castes participated in the general council; twelve representatives from each caste were sent from each Gau. In 782, Charlemagne abolished the system of Gaue and replaced it with the Grafschaftsverfassung, the system of counties typical of Francia. A county is a Land area of Regional Government within a larger State. Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the ^[24] Charlemagne outlawed the Marklo councils and thus pushed the frilingi and lazzi out of political power. The old Saxon system of Abgabengrundherrschaft, lordship based on dues and taxes, was replaced by a form of feudalism based on service and labour, personal relationships, and oaths. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed ^[25]

Religion

Paganism and politics

Saxon pagan practices were closely related to Saxon political practices. The annual councils of the entire tribe began with invocations of the gods, and the procedure by which dukes were elected in wartime, by drawing lots, probably had pagan significance, that is, giving trust to divine providence to guide the seemingly random decision making. ^[26] There were also sacred rituals and objects, such as the pillars called Irminsul, which were believed to connect heaven and earth. An Irminsul ( Old Saxon, probably "great/mighty pillar" or "arising pillar" was a kind of Pillar which is attested as playing an important role Charlemagne had one such pillar chopped down in 772. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his

Something of pagan Saxon practice in Britain can be gleaned from place names. The Germanic gods Woden, Frig, Tiw, and Thunor, who are attested to in every Germanic pagan tradition, were worshipped in Wessex, Sussex, and Essex, and they are the only ones directly attested to, though the names of the third and fourth months (March and April) of the Old English calendar bear the names Hrethmonath and Eosturmonath, meaning "month of Hretha" and "month of Ēostre", apparently from the names of two goddesses who were worshipped around that season. Wōden is a god in Anglo-Saxon paganism, together with Norse Odin representing a development of a Proto-Germanic god * Wōdanaz Thor ( Old Norse: Þórr) is the red-haired and bearded God of Thunder in Germanic paganism and its subset Norse paganism Hretha is a goddess in Anglo-Saxon paganism. Hretha is attested solely by Bede in his 8th century work De temporum ratione, chapter XV ags Ēostre is the name of an Anglo-Saxon goddess attested by the eighth-century Benedictine monk Bede 's De temporum ratione ^[27] The pagan Saxons offered cakes to their gods in February (Solmonath) and there was a religious festival associated with the harvest, Halegmonath ("holy month" or month of offerings", September). ^[28] The pagan calendar began on 25 December, and the months of December and January were called Yule (or Giuli) and contained a Modra niht or "night of the mothers", another religious festival of unknown content. Events 274 - Roman Emperor Aurelian Yule is a winter festival historically celebrated primarily in northern Europe but now celebrated in many other countries in various forms

The Saxon freemen and servile class remained practising pagans long after their nominal conversion to Christianity. Nursing a hatred of the upper class which, with Frankish assistance, had marginalised them from political power, the lower classes (the plebeium vulgus or cives) were still a problem for Christian authorities as late as 836, when the Translatio S. Liborii remarks on their obstinacy in pagan ritus et superstitio (usage and superstition). ^[29]

Conversion and resistance

The conversion of the Saxons in England from their original Germanic paganism to Christianity was accomplished in the early to late seventh century under the influence of the already converted Jutes of Kent. Germanic paganism refers to the religious beliefs of the Germanic peoples preceding Christianization. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The Jutes, Iuti, or Iutae were a Germanic people who according to Bede were one of the three most powerful Germanic peoples of the time The Kingdom of Kent was a kingdom of Jutes in southeast England and was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. In the 630s, Birinus became the "apostle to the West Saxons" and converted Wessex, whose first Christian king was Cynegils. Saint Birinus (c 600–649 venerated as a Saint, was the first Bishop of Dorchester, and the " Apostle to the West Saxons " West Saxon redirects here For other meanings of Wessex or West Saxon see Wessex (disambiguation. Cynegils (died c 642 was an Anglo-Saxon king of the West Saxons in the early 7th century The West Saxons begin to emerge from obscurity only with their conversion to Christianity and the keeping of written records. The Gewisse, a West Saxon people, were especially resistant to Christianity; but Birinus merely exercised more efforts against them. Gewissae or Gewisse was a tribal grouping of the upper Thames region of England which formed one of the bases of the kingdom of Wessex. ^[30] In Wessex, a bishopric was founded at Dorchester. Dorchester-on-Thames is a Village on the Thames in Oxfordshire, England. The South Saxons were first evangelised extensively under Anglian influence; Aethelwalh of Sussex was converted by Wulfhere, King of Mercia, and allowed Wilfrid, Archbishop of York, to evangelise his people beginning in 681. Æthelwealh ( ''fl'' c 660-685 (also written Aedilualch, Aethelwalch, Aþelwold, Æðelwold, Æþelwald, or Ethelwalch Wulfhere (died 675 was King of Mercia from the end of the 650s until 675 The Kingdom of Mercia was an important state in the English Midlands from the 6th century to the 10th. Wilfrid (c 634 - 24 April 709 was an English Bishop and Saint. The Archbishop of York is a high-ranking cleric in the Church of England, second only to the Archbishop of Canterbury. The chief South Saxon bishopric was that of Selsey. See also List of Bishops of Chichester and precursor offices The Bishop of Chichester is the Ordinary of the Church of England The East Saxons were more pagan than the southern or western Saxons; their territory had a superabundance of pagan sites. The Kingdom of Essex ( Est Seaxna "East Saxons" was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy) was founded ^[31] Their king, Saeberht, was converted early and a diocese was established at London, but its first bishop, Mellitus, was expelled by Saeberth's heirs. Saebert (or Sebert or Sabert) (d c 616 was a King of Essex (c The Diocese of London forms part of the Province of Canterbury in England. Saint Mellitus (died 24 April 624 was the first Bishop of London and the third Archbishop of Canterbury. The conversion of the East Saxons was only completed under Cedd in the 650s and 660s. Saint Cedd (c 620 – 26 October 664) was the evangelist of the Middle Angles and East Saxons in England.

The continental Saxons were evangelised largely by English missionaries in the late seventh and early eighth centuries. Around 695, two early English missionaries, Hewald the White and Hewald the Black were martyred by the vicani, that is, villagers. Saints Ewald (or Hewald) were Ewald the Black and Ewald the Fair Martyrs in Old Saxony about 695. Saints Ewald (or Hewald) were Ewald the Black and Ewald the Fair Martyrs in Old Saxony about 695. ^[32] Throughout the century that followed, it was the villagers and other peasants who were to prove the greatest opponents of Christianisation, while missionaries often received the support of the edhilingui and other noblemen. The historical phenomenon of Christianization (or Christianisation &mdash see spelling differences) the conversion of individuals to Christianity Saint Lebuin, an Englishman who preached to the Saxons between 745 and 770, built a church and made many friends among the nobility, some of whom were compelled to save him from an angry mob at the annual council at Marklo. Saint Lebuinus (also known as Lebuin, Lebwin or Liafwin(e) Apostle of the Frisians and patron of Deventer (born in England Social tensions arose between the Christianity-sympathetic noblemen and the staunchly pagan lower castes. ^[33]

Under Charlemagne, the Saxon Wars had as their chief object the conversion and integration of the Saxons into the Frankish empire. The Saxon Wars were the campaigns and insurrections of the more than thirty years from 772, when Charlemagne first entered Saxony with the intent to conquer Though much of the highest caste converted readily, forced baptisms and forced tithing made enemies of the lower orders. Even some contemporaries found the methods employed to win over the Saxons wanting, as this excerpt from a letter of Alcuin of York to his friend Meginfrid, written in 796, shows:

If the light yoke and sweet burden of Christ were to be preached to the most obstinate people of the Saxons with as much determination as the payment of tithes has been exacted, or as the force of the legal decree has been applied for fault of the most trifling sort imaginable, perhaps they would not be averse to their baptismal vows. Alcuin of York (Alcuinus or Ealhwine, nicknamed Albinus or Flaccus (c ^[34]

Louis the Pious, Charlemagne's successor, reportedly treated the Saxons more as Alcuin would have wished, and consequently they were faithful subjects. Louis the Pious (778 &ndash 20 June 840) also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781 and co-Emperor ^[35] The lower classes, however, revolted against Frankish overlordship in favour of their old paganism as late as the 840s, when the Stellinga rose up against the Saxon leadership, who were allied with the Frankish emperor Lothair I. The Stellinga ("companions comrades" was a movement of frilingi and lazzi, the lower two of the three Saxon Lothair I ( German: Lothar, French: Lothaire, Italian: Lotario) (795 &ndash 29 September 855) After the suppression of the Stellinga, in 851 Louis the German brought relics from Rome to Saxony to foster a devotion to the Roman Catholic Church. Louis (also Ludwig or Lewis) the German (also known as Louis II or Louis the Bavarian) (806 &ndash August 28, 876 A relic is an object or a personal item of religious significance carefully preserved with an air of Veneration as a tangible memorial Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 ^[36] When the Poeta Saxo composed his verse Annales of Charlemagne's reign with an emphasis on his conquest of Saxony, the great emperor was viewed on par with the Roman emperors as the bringer of Christian salvation to a pagan people. The anonymous Saxon poet known as Poeta Saxo, who composed the Medieval Latin Annales de gestis Caroli magni imperatoris libri quinque ("Annals of

Vernacular Christianity

In the ninth century, the Saxon nobility became vigorous supporters of monasticism and formed a bulwark of Christianity against the existing Slavic paganism to the east and the Nordic paganism of the Vikings to the north. Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone is the religious practice in which one Slavic mythology is the Mythological aspect of the Religion that was practised by the ancient Slavs. Norse paganism is a term used to describe the religious traditions which were common amongst the Germanic tribes living in Nordic countries prior to and A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas Indeed, Saxony, once so pagan, became the source of a bold and unique Christianity, as evidenced by the Christian literature in the vernacular Old Saxon; the literary output and wide influence of Saxon monasteries such as Fulda, Corvey, and Verden; and the theological controversy between the Augustinian Gottschalk and the semipelagian Rabanus Maurus. Old Saxon, also known as Old Low German ( ISO 639 -3 code osx) is the earliest recorded form of Low German, documented from the 9th century Fulda (ˈfʊlda is a city in Hesse, Germany; it is located on the Fulda River and is the administrative seat of the Fulda district ( Kreis Corvey Abbey or the Imperial Abbey of Corvey (Fürstabtei Corvey was a Benedictine monastery on the River Weser, 2km northeast of Höxter, now Gottschalk (Gotteschalchus (c 808 &ndash October 30, 867 ? a theologian, was born near Mainz, and was given to the monastic life ( Semi-Pelagianism is a Christian Theological understanding about Salvation; that is how humanity and God are restored to a right relationship Rabanus Maurus Magnentius (c 780 &ndash 4 February 856) also known as Hrabanus or Rhabanus, was a Frankish Benedictine ^[37]

From an early date, Charlemagne and Louis the Pious supported Christian vernacular works in order to evangelise the Saxons more efficiently. Louis the Pious (778 &ndash 20 June 840) also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781 and co-Emperor The Heliand, a verse epic of the life of Christ in a Germanic setting, and Genesis, another epic retelling of the events of the first book of the Bible, were commissioned in the early ninth century by Louis to disseminate scriptural knowledge to the masses. The Heliand (ˈhɛliənd or at the time ˈheliand is an epic poem in Old Saxon, written about 825 A council of Tours in 813 and then a synod of Mainz in 848 both declared that homilies ought to be preached in the vernacular. Tours is a city in France the Préfecture (capital city of the Indre-et-Loire département, on the lower reaches of the river Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. A homily is a commentary that follows a reading of scripture In the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, and in the Eastern Orthodox Church The earliest preserved text in the Saxon language is a baptismal vow from the late eighth or early ninth century; the vernacular was used extensively in an effort to Christianise the lowest castes of Saxon society. ^[38]

Etymology

Modern day state Schleswig-Holstein, bordered on the Angles, in the day of the early Saxons. The Angles is a modern English word for a Germanic-speaking people who took their name from the cultural ancestral region of Angeln, a modern district located in

Today's state Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony). Lower Saxony ( German: Niedersachsen ch is pronounced before an s --> lies in north-western Germany and is second

Following the downfall of Henry the Lion and the subsequent split of the Saxon tribal duchy into several territories, the name of the Saxon duchy was transferred to the lands of the Ascanian family. Henry the Lion ( German: Heinrich der Löwe; 1129 &ndash 6 August 1195) was a member of the Guelph dynasty and Duke of Saxony The House of Ascania (Askanier was a Dynasty of German rulers This led to the differentiation between Lower Saxony, lands settled by the Saxon tribe, and Upper Saxony, as the duchy (finally a kingdom). Lower Saxony ( German: Niedersachsen ch is pronounced before an s --> lies in north-western Germany and is second When the Upper was dropped from Upper Saxony, a different region had acquired the Saxon name, ultimately replacing the name's original meaning.

The Finns and Estonians have changed their usage of the term Saxony over the centuries to denote the whole country of Germany (Saksa and Saksamaa respectively) and the Germans (saksalaiset and sakslased, respectively) now. The terms Finns and Finnish people ( Finnish: suomalaiset, Swedish: finländare) are used in English to Estonians ( Estonian: eestlased, previously maarahvas) are a Finnic people closely related to the Finns and inhabiting primarily the country Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as In old Finnish the word saksa meant merchant, as in the words voisaksa (butter seller) and kauppasaksa (traveling salesman), in Estonian saks means master. Merchants function as professionals who deal with Trade, dealing in commodities that they do not produce themselves in order to produce Profit. Butter is a Dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented Cream or Milk.

The label "Saxons" (in Romanian 'Saşi') was also applied to German settlers from Saxony who migrated during the 13th century to southeastern Transylvania in present-day Romania. The Transylvanian Saxons (Siebenbürger Sachsen Erdélyi szászok Saşi are a people of German ethnicity who settled in Transylvania (Siebenbürgen from the 12th Transylvania (Ardeal or ro ''Transilvania'' Erdély, see also other denominations) is a Central European region located in the eastern half of the Carpathian Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania

In the Celtic languages, the word for the English nationality is derived from the word Saxon. The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic" a branch of the greater Indo-European Language family. The most prominent example, often used in English, is the Gàidhlig loanword Sassenach (Saxon), often used disparagingly in Scottish English/Scots. Scottish Gaelic ( Gàidhlig) is a member of the Goidelic branch of Celtic languages. Sassenach is a word used chiefly by the Scots to designate an Englishman Scottish English is the variety of English spoken in Scotland, also called Scottish Standard English. Scots ( The Scots leid) refers to Anglic varieties derived from early northern Middle English spoken in parts of Scotland and Northern England, in Gàidhlig, is Sasainn (Saxony). Other examples are the Welsh Saesneg (the English language), Irish Sasana (England), Breton Saozneg (the English language), and Cornish Sowson (English people) and Sowsnek (English language), as in the famous My ny vynnav kows Sowsnek! (I will not speak English!). Welsh ( cy Cymraeg or cy y Gymraeg, kəmˈrɑːɨɡ and {{IPA|[ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]}}, is a member of the Brythonic branch of Celtic Irish (ga ''Gaeilge'' is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish. The Breton language ( Brezhoneg) formerly often called Armoric or Armorican, is a Celtic language spoken by some of the inhabitants of Brittany For the Cornish-English dialect see West Country dialects and List of Cornish dialect words.

During Georg Friederich Händel's visit to Italy, much was made of his being from Saxony; in particular, the Venetians greeted the 1709 performance of his opera Agrippina with the cry Viva il caro Sassone, "Long live the beloved Saxon!"^[39]

The word also survives as the surnames Saß/Sass, Sachse and Sachs. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Agrippina (HMV 6 is an Opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel, set to a Libretto by Cardinal Vincenzo Grimani The Dutch female first name "Saskia" originally meant "A Saxon woman" (alteration of "Saxia"). Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname

Notes

References

• Thompson, James Westfall. James Westfall Thompson (1869&ndash1941 was an American historian specializing in the history of medieval and early modern Europe particularly of the Holy Roman Empire and Feudal Germany. 2 vol. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. , 1928.
• Reuter, Timothy. Timothy Alan Reuter ( January 25 1947 – October 14 2002) grandson of the former mayor of Berlin Ernst Reuter, was a German- Germany in the Early Middle Ages 800–1056. New York: Longman, 1991.
• Reuter, Timothy (trans. ) The Annals of Fulda. (Manchester Medieval series, Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II. ) Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992.
• Wallace-Hadrill, J. M., translator. John Michael Wallace-Hadrill CBE ( 29 September 1916 &ndash 3 November 1985) was Professor of Mediaeval History at the University The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its Continuations. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1960.
• Stenton, Sir Frank M. Anglo-Saxon England. Sir Frank Merry Stenton (1880 &ndash 15 September 1967 was a noted 20th century historian of Anglo-Saxon England. 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 1971.
• Bachrach, Bernard S. Merovingian Military Organization, 481–751. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1971.
• Goldberg, Eric J. "Popular Revolt, Dynastic Politics, and Aristocratic Factionalism in the Early Middle Ages: The Saxon Stellinga Reconsidered." Speculum, Vol. 70, No. 3. (Jul. , 1995), pp 467–501.
• Hummer, Hans J. Politics and Power in Early Medieval Europe: Alsace and the Frankish Realm 600 – 1000. Cambridge University Press: 2005.

External links

• James Grout: Saxon Advent, part of the Encyclopædia Romana
• Saxons and Britons
• Info Britain - Saxon Britain