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For other uses, see Saracen (disambiguation).

Saracens was a term used by Europeans in the Dark Ages and Middle Ages for Fatimids at first, then later all those who professed the religion of Islam. This article is about the phrase "Dark Age(s" as a characterization of the Early Middle Ages in Western Europe For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [1]

Contents

Etymology

the Fatimid Empire at its Greatest Extent
the Fatimid Empire at its Greatest Extent

The term Saracen comes from Greek Σαρακηνός, which has often been thought to be derived from the Arabic word شرقيين sharqiyyin ("easterners"), though the OED (s.v.) calls etymologies from this "not well founded". Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English S T U V Tragedy of the commons --> The term spread into Western Europe through the Byzantines and Crusaders. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents [1] In the early centuries of the Roman Empire, the Saracens were a nomadic Moor tribe from the Sinai Peninsula, but later the Greek-speaking subjects of the Empire applied it to all Arabs. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Sinai Peninsula or Sinai ( Coptic: sina; Egyptian Arabic: sina سينا Arabic, sina'a سيناء After the rise of Islam, and especially at the time of the Crusades, its usage was extended to refer to all Muslims, including non-Arab Muslims, particularly those in Sicily and southern Italy. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Geography Southern Italy forms the lower "boot" of the Italian peninsula containing the ankle (Abruzzo and Molise and southern Lazio the toe (Calabria and the heel [2]

In Christian writing, the name was made to mean "those empty of Sarah" or "not from Sarah," as Arabs were, in Biblical genealogies, descended from Hagar and also called the Hagarenes (Ἀγαρηνοί). Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Sarah (; Arabic: سارة, Sārah; "a woman of high rank" is the wife of Abraham as described in the Hebrew Bible The genealogies of Genesis record the descendants of Adam and Eve as given in the first book of the Bible, Genesis. Hagar (הָגָר "Stranger" Standard Hebrew Hagar, Tiberian Hebrew Hāḡār; هاجر Hajar) according to the Hagarenes ( Greek Ἀγαρηνοί) also mhaggre (with a Pun on the word Muhajir, from Hagar 's expulsion According to the Arthurian Lancelot-Grail Cycle, the name derives from Sarras, an island important in the Quest for the Holy Grail. The Lancelot-Grail, also known as the Prose Lancelot, the Vulgate Cycle, or the Pseudo-Map Cycle, is a major source of Arthurian legend Sarras is a mystical island to which the Holy Grail is brought in the Arthurian legend. According to Christian mythology, the Holy Grail was the dish plate or cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, said to possess miraculous powers

Saracens in Roman times

The earliest datable reference to Saracens is found in Ptolemy's Geography, which describes "Sarakene" as a region in the Northern Sinai named after the town Saraka located between Egypt and Palestine. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca The Geographia or Geography is Ptolemy 's main work besides the Almagest. The Sinai Peninsula or Sinai ( Coptic: sina; Egyptian Arabic: sina سينا Arabic, sina'a سيناء This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. [3] Ptolemy also makes mention of a people called the sarakenoi living in north-western Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) [3] Eusebius of Caesarea references Saracens in his Eccelastical history, in which he narrates an account wherein Dionysus the Bishop of Alexandria mentions Saracens in a letter while describing the Roman emperor Decius's persecution: "Many were, in the Arabian mountain, enslaved by the barbarous sarkenoi. Pope Dionysius of Alexandria, named 'the Great' was the Pope of Alexandria from 248 until his death on November 17 265 after seventeen years as a bishop "[3] The Historia Augusta, written in 400 CE also refers to an attack by Saraceni on Pescennius Niger's army in Aegyptus, 193 CE but provides little information on who they might be. The Augustan History ( Lat Historia Augusta) is a late Roman collection of biographies in Latin of the Roman Emperors their junior Gaius Pescennius Niger (c 140&ndash194 was a Roman usurper from 193 to 194 In Greek mythology, Αἴγυπτος/Aígyptos, usually Latinized as Aegyptus, in Greek ("supine goat" descendant of the Heifer [4]

Hippolytus, the book of the laws of countries and Uranius mention three distinct peoples in Arabia during the first half of the third century, the Saraceni, Taeni and Arabes. For places named after the saint see Saint-Hippolyte Saint Hippolytus of Rome (c The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding [3] The Taeni are later identified with the Arab tribe called tayyi were located around the Khaybar Oasis all the way up to the eastern Euphrates while the saracenoi were placed north of them. Khaybar ( Arabic,خيبر is the name of an Oasis some 95 miles to the north of Medina (ancient Yathrib) Saudi Arabia. The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת [3] These Saracens located in the Northern Hejaz appear as people with a certain military ability and opponents of the Roman Empire who are characterized by the Romans as barbaroi. al-Hejaz (also Hijaz, Hedjaz; الحجاز al-Ḥiǧāz, literally "the barrier" is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial [3] They are described in a Notitia dignitatum dating from the time of Diocletian, during the 3rd century, as comprising distinctive units in the composition of the Roman army distinguishing between Arabs, Iiluturaens and Saracens. The Notitia Dignitatum is a unique document of the Roman imperial chanceries Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military [5] The Saracens are described as forming the equites (heavy cavalry) from Phoenicia and Thamud. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun The Thamud ( Arabic: ar ثمود were a people of ancient Arabia who were known from the 1st millennium BC to near the time of Muhammad. [5] In a praeteritio, the defeated enemies of Diocletians campaign in the Syrian desert are described as Saracens and other 4th century military reports make no mention of Arabs but refer to groups as far as Mesopotamia, involved in battles on both the Persian as well as Roman sides, as Saracens. The Syrian Desert (بادية الشام badiyah ash sham also known as the Syro-Arabian desert is a combination of Steppe and true Desert that is located in parts [5][6]

The Historia Augusta carries an account of a letter to the Roman senate, ascribed to Aurelian, that describes the Palmyrian queen Zenobia as: "I might say such was the fear that this woman inspired in the peoples of the east and also the Egyptians that neither Arabes, nor Saraceni, nor Armenians moved against her. The Augustan History ( Lat Historia Augusta) is a late Roman collection of biographies in Latin of the Roman Emperors their junior The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ( September 9, 214 or 215 &ndashSeptember or October 275 known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270&ndash275 Palmyra ( Arabic: تدمر Tadmor) was in ancient times an important city of central Syria, located in an Oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus Zenobia (زنوبيا 240-after 274 was a Syrian queen who lived in the 3rd century The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani "[5] Another early Byzantine source chronicling the Saracens are the 6th century works by Ioannes Malalas. John Malalas or Ioannes Malalas (or Malelas) (Syriac word for "rhetor" "orator" ( Greek:) (c [5] The difference between the two accounts of Saracens is that Malalas saw Palmyrans and all inhabitants of the Syrian desert as Saracens and not Arabs, while the Historia Augusta saw the Saracens as not being subjects of Zenobia and distinct from Palmyrans and Arabs. [5] Writing at the end of the fourth century Ammianus Marcellinus, a historian of Julian the Apostate, notes that the term Saraceni designating "desert-dwellers" of the Syrian desert had replaced Arabes scenitae. Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331 or 332 to 26 June 363) was Roman Emperor (Caesar [5] After Ammianus times the saracens were known as warriors of the desert. [7] The term Saracens, popular in both Greek and Roman literature over time came to be associated with Arabs and Assyrians as well, and carried a definitive negative connotation. [6][8] In the second and third century the Roman-Arab relations had become confrontational resulting in the annexation of Arab cities resulting to their increased nomadization so that by the end of the Roman period the use of the term Saracen in reference to Arabs had become conventional. [8]

The Middle Persian correspondent terms for Saracens are tazigan and tayyaye; who were located by Stephanus of Byzantium in the 6th century at the Lakhmid capital city of Al-Hirah. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Stephanus of Byzantium, also known as Stephanus Byzantinus ( Greek:; fl The Lakhmids ( Arabic:) Banu Lakhm ( Arabic:) Muntherids ( Arabic:) were a group of Arab Christians who lived in Al Hīra ( Arabic, الحيرة) was an ancient city located south of Al-Kufah in south-central Iraq. [9]

Saracens in Christian literature

Eusebius and Epiphanius Scholasticus in their Christian histories places Saracens east of the Gulf of Aqaba but beyond the Roman province of Arabia and mention them as Ishmaelites through Kedar; thus, they are outside the promise given to Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and also beyond a privileged place in the family of nations or divine dispensation. Epiphanius Scholasticus was a sixth-century translator of Greek works into Latin. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth The Gulf of Aqaba ( Arabic: خليج العقبة transliterated: Khalyj al-'Aqabah in Israel known as the Gulf of Eilat ( Hebrew For the Achaemenid satrapy of Arabia see Arabia (satrapy Arabia Petraea, also called Provincia Arabia or simply Arabia, was a frontier According to both Biblical and Qur'anic tradition Abraham had two wives Sarah and Hagar. Abraham ( Ashkenazi   Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez: According to the Hebrew Bible, Isaac ( Hebrew: Yitzchak יִצְחָק, Standard Yiẓḥaq Dispensationalist theology refers to the teachings of Dispensationalism to address what many other scholars see as opposing theologies between the Old Testament [10][8] They were viewed as pagans and polytheists in ancient times and in later Christian times became associated with cruel tyrants from early Christian history such as: Herod the Great, Herod Antipas and Agrippa I. In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. Herod (הוֹרְדוֹס Horodos, Greek: Herōdes) also known as Herod I or Herod the Great (73 BC – 4 BC in Jericho Herod Antipas (short for Antipatros (before 20 BC &ndash after AD 39) was a first century AD ruler of Galilee and Perea, who bore the title For other with this name see Agrippa (disambiguation. Agrippa I also called the Great (10 BC - 44 AD) King of the Jews, [8] Christian writings viewed them as heretics who had to be brought into the Orthodox fold by Origen. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca [8] To the Christian Saint Jerome the Arabs, who were also considered in Christian theology as Ishmaelites, are also by definition Saracens; pagan tent-dwelling raiders of the lands on the eastern fringes of the Roman empire. Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world [8] The term saracen carried the connotation of people living on the fringes of settled society, living off raids on towns and villages and became equated with both the "tent-dwelling" Bedouin as well as sedentary Arabs. The Bedouin, (from the Arabic (ar بدوي pl badū) are a desert-dwelling Arab Nomadic pastoralist, or previously [8] Church writers of the period commonly describe Saracen raids on monasteries and their killing of monks. This article concerns the buildings occupied by monastics. For the life inside monasteries and its historical roots see Monasticism. MONK is a Monte Carlo software package for simulating nuclear processes particularly for the purpose of determining the neutron multiplication factor or k-effective [8] The term and the negative image of Saracens was in popular usage in both the Greek east as well as the Latin west through the Middle Ages. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [8] With the rise of Islam in the seventh century and its strong association with Arabs, tied the term closely with not just race and culture, but religion as well. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [8] The rise of the Arab Empire and the ensuing hostility with the Byzantine Empire saw itself expressed as conflict between Islam and Christianity and the association of the term with Islam was further accentuated both during and after the Crusades. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents [8]

John of Damascus, a resident of the Caliphate's capital city, described the Saracens in the early 8th century as:

There is also the people-deceiving cult (threskeia) of the Ishmaelites, the forerunner of the Antichrist, which prevails until now. Chrysorrhoas redirects here For the river see Barada. Saint John of Damascus ( Arabic: يوحنا الدمشقي The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah According to both Biblical and Qur'anic tradition Abraham had two wives Sarah and Hagar. For other uses see Antichrist (disambiguation In Christian eschatology, the Antichrist or anti-Christ means a person office It derives from Ishmael, who was born to Abraham from Hagar, wherefore they are called Hagarenes and Ishmaelites. Ishmael ( Hebrew: יִשְׁמָעֵאל, Standard Yišmaʿel Tiberian Yišmāʿêl Arabic: إسماعيل Abraham ( Ashkenazi   Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez: Hagarenes ( Greek Ἀγαρηνοί) also mhaggre (with a Pun on the word Muhajir, from Hagar 's expulsion According to both Biblical and Qur'anic tradition Abraham had two wives Sarah and Hagar. And they call them Saracens, inasmuch as they were sent away empty-handed by Sarah (ek tes Sarras kenous); for it was said to the angel by Hagar: "Sarah has sent me away empty-handed" (cf. Sarah (; Arabic: سارة, Sārah; "a woman of high rank" is the wife of Abraham as described in the Hebrew Bible Genesis xxi. 10, 14). These, then, were idolaters and worshippers of the morning star and Aphrodite whom in fact they called Akbar (Chabar) in their own language, which means "great". So until the times of Heraclius they were plain idolaters. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East From that time till now a false prophet appeared among them, surnamed Muhammad (Mamed), who, having happened upon the Old and the New Testament and apparently having conversed, in like manner, with an Arian monk, put together his own heresy. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief And after ingratiating himself with the people by a pretence of piety, he spread rumours of a scripture (graphe) brought down to him from heaven. So, having drafted some ludicrous doctrines in his book, he handed over to them this form of worship (to sebas). [11]

In this extract, John might actually have been referring to Allat, a pre-Islamic goddess equated with Aphrodite. Mentioned in the Qur'an ( Sura 53:20 al-Lāt (Arabic اللَّات was a pre- Islamic Arabian Goddess who was one of the three For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b [http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377754/Saracens "Saracen. Mohammedan (variant forms Muhammadan Mahommedan or Mahometan is a term used as both a Noun and an Adjective meaning belonging or relating to either For the contemporary view of Muhammad see Non-Muslim view of Muhammad. Orientalism refers to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers designers and artists and can also refer to a sympathetic stance The Islamic conquest and rule of Sicily, Malta, and parts of Southern Italy was a process whose origin can be traced back through the general The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent " Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. but eventualy saracens baecame known as idiots. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 23 Sept. 2007].
  2. ^ (1974) Where's Where: A Descriptive Gazetteer. A gazetteer is a geographical Dictionary or directory, an important reference for information about places and place names (see Toponomy) used in conjunction London: Eyre Methuen Ltd. . ISBN 0-413-32290-4.  
  3. ^ a b c d e f Retso pg. 505,506.
  4. ^ Retso pg. 457.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Retso pg. 464,465,466.
  6. ^ a b Retso pg. 517.
  7. ^ Retso pg. 523
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Hoy pg. 39-45
  9. ^ Retso pg. 493
  10. ^ Retso pg. 507
  11. ^ The Fountain of Knowledge John of Damascus circa 730 AD Chapter On Heresy

References

Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals

Dictionary

Saracen

-noun

  1. A group of nomadic people from the Sinai.
  2. (dated) an Arab or any Muslim, especially one involved in the Crusades
  3. (dated) A pirate in the Mediterranean.
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