Salsa
Stylistic origins	Primarily Cuban son, mambo, rumba and Puerto Rican music
Cultural origins	1960s and 70s New York City Latin melting pot
Typical instruments	piano, conga, trumpet, trombone, bass guitar, claves, cowbell, timbales, guitar
Mainstream popularity	Very popular in Latin America, and moderate in the United States
Subgenres
Salsa erótica - Salsa gorda - Salsa romántica
Fusion genres
Charanga-vallenata - Mereng-house - Salsa-merengue - Songo-salsa - rock-salsa - vallenato-salsa- Salsaton
Regional scenes
Colombia - Cuba - Japan - Mexico - Panama - Puerto Rico - United States - Venezuela
Other topics
Salsa dancing - Musicians

Salsa music is a diverse and predominantly Spanish Caribbean genre that is popular across Latin America and among Latinos abroad. Mambo is a Cuban musical form and Dance style The word mambo (which means conversation with the gods) is the name of a priestess in Haitian In Cuban music, Rumba is a generic term covering a variety of musical rhythms and associated dances The Music of Puerto Rico has been influenced by the African, Taíno Indians and the Spanish, and has become very popular across The piano is a Musical instrument played by means of a keyboard that produces sound by striking steel strings with Felt covered hammers The conga is tall narrow single-headed Cuban Drum of African origin probably derived from the Congolese Makuta drums or Sikulu The trombone is a Musical instrument in the brass family Like all brass instruments it is a lip-reed Aerophone: sound is produced when the player’s The electric bass guitar (also called electric bass, or simply bass; ˈbeɪs as in "base" is a Stringed instrument played primarily with the Claves are a Percussion instrument ( Idiophone) consisting of a pair of short (about 20-30 cm thick dowels Timbales (or tymbales) are shallow single-headed Drums shallower in shape than single-headed tom-toms, and usually much higher tuned The guitar is a Musical instrument with ancient roots that is used in a wide variety of musical styles Salsa romántica, also known as salsa monga, is a sub-genre of Salsa music that between the mid 1980s and early 1990s in New York Salsa romántica, also known as salsa monga, is a sub-genre of Salsa music that between the mid 1980s and early 1990s in New York Charanga-vallenata is a style of Latin music that combines Conjunto, Charanga and Vallenato -style Accordion. Merenhouse is a style of Electronic music developed in the US and Latin America by groups such as Proyecto Uno, Fulanito, Songo-salsa is a style of music that blends Spanish Rapping and hip hop beats with Salsa music and Songo. Vallenato-salsa is a style of Salsa music associated with Colombia Background Salsatón is a relatively new subgenre of both salsa and Reggaeton. Salsa music is a diverse and predominantly Latin American Caribbean genre that is popular across Latin America and among Latinos abroad Salsa refers to a fusion of informal dance styles having roots in the Caribbean (especially in Cuba and Puerto Rico) Latin and North America The Music of the Caribbean is a diverse grouping of Musical genres They are each syntheses of African European Indian and Salsa incorporates multiple styles and variations; the term can be used to describe most any form of popular Cuban-derived genre, such as chachachá and mambo. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la The cha-cha-chá is a style of Cuban dance music Creation of the Cha-cha-chá The cha-cha-chá is unusual as dance music genres go Mambo is a Cuban musical form and Dance style The word mambo (which means conversation with the gods) is the name of a priestess in Haitian Most specifically, however, salsa refers to a particular style developed in the 1960s and '70s by Cuban and Puerto Rican immigrants to the New York City area, and stylistic descendants like 1980s salsa romantica. Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} Salsa romántica, also known as salsa monga, is a sub-genre of Salsa music that between the mid 1980s and early 1990s in New York The style is now practiced throughout Latin America, and abroad. Salsa's closest relatives are Cuban mambo and the son orchestras of the early 20th century, as well as Latin jazz. Latin jazz is the general term given to music that combines rhythms from African and Latin American countries with jazz and classical harmonies from Latin America the Caribbean Europe The terms Latin jazz and salsa are sometimes used interchangeably; many musicians are considered a part of either, or both, fields, especially performers from prior to the 1970s. ^[1]

Salsa is essentially Cuban in stylistic origin. ^[2], though it is also a hybrid of Puerto Rican and other Latin styles mixed with pop, jazz, rock, and R&B. Pop music as a genre features a noticeable rhythmic element catchy melodies and hooks, a mainstream style and conventional structure Jazz is an American Musical art form which originated in the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States Rock music is a genre of Popular music often though not necessarily employing Electric guitar, Bass guitar, and Drums. ^[3] Salsa is the primary music played at Latin dance clubs and is the "essential pulse of Latin music", according Ed Morales,^[4] while music author Peter Manuel called it the "most popular dance (music) among Puerto Rican and Cuban communities, (and in) Central and South America", and "one of the most dynamic and significant pan-American musical phenomena of the 1970s and 1980s". Peter Thomas Anthony Manuel (March 1 1927 – July 11 1958 was a U ^[5] Modern salsa remains a dance-oriented genre and is closely associated with a style of salsa dancing. Salsa refers to a fusion of informal dance styles having roots in the Caribbean (especially in Cuba and Puerto Rico) Latin and North America

Contents 1 The word salsa 2 Characteristics 2.1 Songs and instrumentation 2.2 Rhythm 2.3 Lyricism 3 History 3.1 Origins 3.2 1960s 3.3 1970s 3.4 1980s 3.5 1990s to the present 4 References 5 Notes 6 Further reading 7 Films

The word salsa

Salsa means sauce in the Spanish language, and carries connotations of the spiciness common in Latin and Caribbean cuisine. In Cooking, a sauce is Liquid or sometimes semi- Solid food served on or used in preparing other Foods Sauces are not consumed by themselves ^[6] More recently, salsa acquired a musical meaning in both English and Spanish. In this sense salsa has been described as a word with "vivid associations but no absolute definitions, a tag that encompasses a rainbow assortment of Latin rhythms and styles, taking on a different hue wherever you stand in the Spanish-speaking world". ^[7] The precise scope of salsa is highly debatable. ^[8] Cuban and Puerto Rican immigrants in New York have used the term analogously to swing or soul, which refer to a quality of emotionally and culturally genuine music in the African American community. Swing music, also known as swing jazz, is a form of Jazz music that developed in the early 1930s and had solidified as a distinctive style by 1935 in the United Soul music is a Music genre that combines Rhythm and blues and Gospel music, originating in the United States. In this usage salsa connotes a frenzied, "spicy" and wild musical experience that draws upon or reflects elements of Latin culture, regardless of the specific style. ^[9]

Various music writers and historians have traced the use of salsa to different periods of the 20th century. World music author Sue Steward has claimed that salsa was originally used in music as a "cry of appreciation for a particularly piquant or flashy solo". She cites the first use in this manner to a Venezuelan radio DJ named Phidias Danilo Escalona;^[10] Max Salazar traced the word back to the early 1930s, when Ignacio Piñerio composed "Échale Salsita", a dance song protesting tasteless food. Max Salazar is an American Journalist from New York of Puerto Rican descent and a Musicologist specializing in the history of Latin music ^[11] Though Salazar describes this song as the origin of salsa meaning "danceable Latin music", Ed Morales has described the usage in the same song as a cry from Piñeiro to his band, telling them to increase the tempo to "put the dancers into high gear". Morales claims that later in the 1930s, vocalist Beny Moré would shout salsa during a performance "to acknowledge a musical moment's heat, to express a kind of cultural nationalist sloganeering [and to celebrate the] 'hotness' or 'spiciness' of Latin American cultures". Beny (sometimes Benny Moré ( August 24, 1919 &ndash February 19, 1963) is considered by many fans of Cuban music as the ^[12]

Some people object to the term salsa on the basis that it is vague or misleading; for example, the style of musicians such as Tito Puente evolved several decades before salsa was a recognized genre, leading Puente to once claim that "the only salsa I know comes in a bottle. Tito Puente Sr, ( April 20, 1923 &ndash May 31, 2000) born Ernesto Antonio Puente Jr I play Cuban music". Because salsa can refer to numerous styles of music, some observers perceive the word as a marketing term designed to superficially categorize music in a way that appeals to non-aficionados. ^[13] For a time the Cuban state media officially claimed that the term salsa music was a euphemism for authentic Cuban music stolen by American imperialists, though the media has since abandoned this theory. ^[14]

Some doubt that the term salsa has any precise and unambiguous meaning. Peter Manuel describes salsa as "at once (both) a modern marketing concept and the cultural voice of a new generation", representative of a "crystallization of a Latino identity in New York in the early 1960s". Manuel also recognizes the commercial and cultural dichotomy to salsa, noting that the term's broad use for many styles of Latin pop music has served the development of "pan-Latin solidarity", while also noting that the "recycling of Cuban music under an artificial, obscurantist label is but one more example of North American exploitation and commodification of third world primary products; for Latinos, salsa bridges the gap between "tradition and modernity, between the impoverished homeland and the dominant United States, between street life and the chic night club, and between grassroots culture and the corporate media". ^[15]

The singer Rubén Blades once claimed that salsa is merely "a concept", as opposed to a definite style or rhythm. Rubén Blades Bellido de Luna (born July 16, 1948) is a Panamanian salsa Singer, Songwriter, Lawyer, Some musicians are doubtful that the term salsa has any useful meaning at all, with the bandleader Machito claiming that salsa was more or less what he had been playing for forty years before the style was invented, while Tito Puente once responded to a question about salsa by saying "I'm a musician, not a cook" (referring to salsa's original use to mean sauce). Machito ( December 3, 1909 – April 15, 1984) born Francisco Raúl Gutiérrez Grillo in Havana, Cuba, was an influential Tito Puente Sr, ( April 20, 1923 &ndash May 31, 2000) born Ernesto Antonio Puente Jr Celia Cruz, a well-known salsa singer, has said, "salsa is Cuban music with another name. Celia Cruz ( October 21 1925 – July 16 2003) was a Cuban salsa singer and was one of the most successful Cuban It's mambo, chachachá, rumba, son . . . all the Cuban rhythms under one name". ^[16]

Music writer Peter Manuel claims that salsa came to describe a specific style of music in the mid-1970s "when a group of New York-based Latin musicians began overhauling the classic big-band arrangements popular since the mambo era of the 1940s and '50s", and that the term was "popularized" in the late 1960s by a Venezuelan radio station and Jerry Masucci of Fania Records. Mambo is a Cuban musical form and Dance style The word mambo (which means conversation with the gods) is the name of a priestess in Haitian Jerry Masucci was co-founder of Fania Records. Interview with Jerry Masucci talking about his artist's and his marketing of those artists Fania Records was a New York based Record label founded by Dominican-born composer and bandleader Johnny Pacheco and Italian-American lawyer Jerry ^[17] In contrast, Ed Morales cites the use of salsa for a specific style to a New York-based editor and graphic designer named Izzy Sanabria. Morales also mentions an early use of the term by Johnny Pacheco, a Dominican performer who released a 1962 album called Salsa Na' Ma, which Morales translates as "it just needs a little salsa, or spice". Johnny Pacheco, born March 25, 1935 in Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic is a producer musician bandleader and one of ^[12]

Characteristics

Though the term salsa music is not necessarily precise in scope, most authors use the term to refer specifically to a style created in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Author Ed Morales has said the obvious, most common perception of salsa is an "extravagant, clave-driven, Afro-Cuban-derived songs anchored by piano, horns, and rhythm section and sung by a velvety voiced crooner in a sharkskin suit".

At its root, however, salsa is a mixture of Spanish and African music, filtered through the music histories of Cuba and Puerto Rico, and adapted by Latin jazz and Latin popular musicians for Latino populations with diverse musical tastes. Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with Flamenco, an Andalusian musical genre which contrary to popular belief is not widespread outside that region The music of Africa is as vast and varied as the continent's many regions, nations and Ethnic groups Although there is no distinctly pan-African Latin jazz is the general term given to music that combines rhythms from African and Latin American countries with jazz and classical harmonies from Latin America the Caribbean Europe ^[7] The basic structure of a salsa song is based on the Cuban son, beginning with a simple melody and followed by a coro section in which the performers improvise. ^[18] Ed Morales has claimed that the "key staples" of salsa's origins were the use of the trombone as a counterpoint to the vocalist and a more aggressive sound than is typical in Cuban music; the trombone also carries the melody, while the rhythm is most generally provided by bongos, congas and timbales. The trombone is a Musical instrument in the brass family Like all brass instruments it is a lip-reed Aerophone: sound is produced when the player’s ^[19] Peter Manuel notes how New York and Puerto Rican salsa differs from the 1950s Cuban ""son"" in various ways, such as the greater use of timbales and trombones, the occasional use of Puerto Rican elements like the declamatory exclamation le-lo-lai, its frequent lyrics about barrio life in New York and elsewhere, the "smooth" sound of the salsa romántica" style that emerged in the 1980s, and salsa's role as a soundscape for the Latino identity movement of the 1970s^[20]

Songs and instrumentation

Salsa bands play a wide variety of songs, including pieces based on plenas and bombas, cumbia, vallenato and merengue; most songs, however, are modern versions of the Cuban son. The saxophone (commonly referred to simply as sax) is a conical- bored transposing Musical instrument considered a member of the Woodwind A drum kit (also drum set or trap set) is a collection of Drums Cymbals and sometimes other Percussion instruments such as cowbells Plena is a folkloric genre native of Puerto Rico. Its creation was influenced by African and Spanish music For the ecuadorian afro-rhythm see Bomba (Ecuador Bomba is one of Puerto Rico's most famous Musical styles Although there is some controversy Cumbia is originally a Colombian Folk dance and Dance music and is Colombia 's representative national dance and music along with Vallenato Vallenato, along with Cumbia, is presently the most popular Folk music of Colombia. Merengue is a type of music and dance that comes from the Dominican Republic. Like the son, salsa songs begin with a songlike section followed by a montuno break with call-and-response vocals, instrumental breaks and jazzy solos. ^[21] In the United States, the music of a salsa club is a mix of salsa, merengue, cha-cha-cha and bachata, whether sourced from a live band or a DJ. A nightclub (or "night club" or "club" is a drinking, dancing, and entertainment venue which does its primary business after dark Bachata, a form of Music and Dance that originated in the countryside and the rural neighborhoods of the Dominican Republic. Some salsa clubs also add reggaeton to the mix due to its popularity with youth. Reggaeton (also spelled reggaetón, and known as reguetón and reggaetón in Spanish) is a form of urban music which became popular

The most important instrumentation in salsa is the percussion, which is played by a wide variety of instruments, including claves, cowbells, timbales and conga. Claves are a Percussion instrument ( Idiophone) consisting of a pair of short (about 20-30 cm thick dowels Timbales (or tymbales) are shallow single-headed Drums shallower in shape than single-headed tom-toms, and usually much higher tuned The conga is tall narrow single-headed Cuban Drum of African origin probably derived from the Congolese Makuta drums or Sikulu ^[22] Apart from percussion, other core instruments are the trumpets, trombones, and bass guitar. The trombone is a Musical instrument in the brass family Like all brass instruments it is a lip-reed Aerophone: sound is produced when the player’s The electric bass guitar (also called electric bass, or simply bass; ˈbeɪs as in "base" is a Stringed instrument played primarily with the Other melodic instruments are commonly used as accompaniment, such as a guitar, the piano, and many others, all depending on the performing artists. The guitar is a Musical instrument with ancient roots that is used in a wide variety of musical styles The piano is a Musical instrument played by means of a keyboard that produces sound by striking steel strings with Felt covered hammers [The tres guitar was used in a particular style of band known as a conjunto but that format is nearly extinct and it is indeed a rarity to find a band that uses a tres. Conjunto, taken from Spanish, literally meaning "group" from Latin "coniunctus" ] Bands typically consist of up to a dozen people, one of whom serves as band leader, directing the music as it is played. Two to four players generally specialize in horns, while there are generally one or two choral singers and players of the bongo, conga, bass guitar, piano and timbales. The maracas, clave or güiro may also be played, typically by a vocalist. Maraca is also a genus of Tarantula. Maracas ( sometimes called rumba The güiro is a Percussion instrument consisting of an open-ended hollow Gourd with parallel notches cut in one side The bongocero will usually switch to a kind of bell called a campana (or bongo bell) for the montuno section of a song. Horns are typically either two trumpets or four trumpets or, most commonly, two trumpets with at least one saxophone or trombone. ^[23]

Salsa essentially remains a form of dance music; thus, many songs have little in the way of lyrics beyond exhortations to dance or other simple words. This article is about music for dancing in general You may also be looking for Electronic dance music. Modern pop-salsa is often romántica, defined partially by the sentimental, lovelorn lyrics, or erótica, defined largely by the sexually explicit lyrics. Salsa also has a long tradition of lyrical experimentation, with singer-songwriters like Rubén Blades using incisive lyrics about everything from imperialism to disarmament and environmentalism. Rubén Blades Bellido de Luna (born July 16, 1948) is a Panamanian salsa Singer, Songwriter, Lawyer, Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude Disarmament refers to the act of reducing limiting or abolishing Weapons. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. ^[24] Vocalists are expected to be able to improvise during verses and instrumental solos. References to Afro-Catholic religions, such as Santería, are also a major part of salsa's lyrics throughout Latin America, even among those artists who are not themselves practitioners of any Afro-Catholic religion. Santería, also known as La Regla de Lukumi (Lukumi's Rule and The Way of the Saints is an Afro-Cuban religious tradition derived from traditional beliefs ^[25]

Rhythm

Salsa music traditionally utilizes a 4/4 time signature. The time signature (also known as " meter signature" is a notational convention used in Western Musical notation to specify how many beats Musicians play recurring rhythmic accompaniments often in groups of eight beats (two measures of four quarter notes), while melodic phrases span eight or sixteen beats, with entire stanzas spanning thirty-two beats. A quarter note (American or "German" terminology or crotchet (British or "classical" terminology is a note played for one quarter of the duration In Music a phrase ( Greek φράση, sentence expression, see also Strophe) is a section of music that is relatively

While percussion instruments layer several different rhythmic patterns simultaneously, the clave rhythm is the foundation of salsa; all salsa music and dance is governed by the clave rhythm. Clave is a Rhythmic pattern used as a tool for temporal organization in Afro-Cuban music, such as salsa. The most common clave rhythm in salsa is the so-called son clave, which is eight beats long and can be played either in 2-3 or 3-2 style.

The 2-3 clave        The 3-2 clave
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.      1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 
. . *. *. . . *. . *. . *.      *. . *. . *. . . *. *. . . 

Even when the clave rhythm is not played by its own, it functions as a basis for the instrumentalists and singers to use as a common rhythmic ground for their own musical phrases. The instrumentalists emphasize the differences of the two halves of the eight-beat clave rhythm; for example, in an eight-beat-long phrase used in a 2-3 clave context, the first half of the phrase is given more straight notes that are played directly on beat, while the second half instead contains notes with longer durations and with a more off-beat feeling. The Off-beat is a musical term commonly applied to rhythms that emphasize the weak beats of a bar This emphasizes that the first four beats of the 2-3 son clave contain two "short" strikes that are directly on beat, while the last four beats contain three "long" clave strikes with the second strike placed offbeat between beats two and three. Salsa songs commonly start with one clave and then switch to the reverse partway through the song, without restarting the clave rhythm; instead, the rhythm is shifted four beats using breaks and stop-time. In Popular music a break is an Instrumental or percussion section or interlude during a song derived from or related to Stop-time &ndash being In Music, stop-time is according to Samuel A Floyd Jr "a musical device in which the forward flow of the music stops or seems to stop suspended in a Rhythmic

Percussion instruments have standard patterns that reoccur in most salsa music with only slight variations. For example, this is a common rhythmic pattern called the cáscara based on the 2-3 clave, and is played on the shells of the timbales during the verses and less energetic parts of a song:

Timbales cáscara rhythm in 2-3 clave
1. Timbales (or tymbales) are shallow single-headed Drums shallower in shape than single-headed tom-toms, and usually much higher tuned 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.    (beats)
*. *. **. **. **. *. *   (* = cáscara strikes)

During the chorus and solo parts, the timbalero often switches to the following rhythm, which is normally played on a cowbell (the mambo bell) mounted on the timbales set:

Timbales mambo bell rhythm in 2-3 clave
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.    (beats)
+. *. +++*. ++*+. +*   (+/* = weak/accented cowbell strikes)

The timbales pattern above is often accompanied by a handheld cowbell (the bongo bell) also played during the chorus but by another person, using this simpler rhythm:

Handheld bongo bell rhythm in 2-3 clave
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.    (beats)
+. *. +. **+. **+. **   (+/* = low/high-pitched cowbell strikes)

The piano has many roles in salsa, being an important solo instrument and providing harmony, rhythm and sometimes even the lead melody. During the montuno section, in which the singers and chorus engage in a call and response pattern of singing, the piano player plays a repeating ostinato figure known as a guajeo or tumbao which serves as a backbone for the rhythm section. The piano always respects the clave. The montuno patterns have many variations, but are basically highly syncopated two-bar vamps made to match the clave. In Music, syncopation includes a variety of Rhythms which are in some way unexpected in that they deviate from the strict succession of regularly spaced In Jazz, gospel, soul, and Musical theater, a vamp is a repeating Musical figure or Accompaniment. For example:

Piano montuño rhythm in 2-3 clave
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.    (beats)
*. **. *. *. *. *. *. *   (* = key strikes)

The bass pattern often follows a distinct salsa rhythm pattern known as the tumbao which alternates between the fifth and the root of a chord. In music of afro-cuban origin tumbao refers to the basic rhythm played on the tumbadoras and the bass. One side of the tumbao will be in near unison with the clave, while the other side is syncopated against the clave:

Bass tumbao rhythm
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.    (beats)
. . . 5. . 8. . . . 5. . 1.    (5 = fifth of chord, 8 = high octave of chord, 1 = low octave of chord)

Lyricism

Salsa lyrics range from simple dance numbers with little lyrical innovation and sentimental romantic songs to risqué and politically-radical lyrics. Music author Isabelle Leymarie notes that salsa performers often incorporate machoistic bravado (guapería) in their lyrics, in a manner reminiscent of calypso and samba, a theme she ascribes to the performers' "humble backgrounds" and subsequent need to compensate for their origins. The Bravados is a 1958 Western film directed by Henry King and starring Gregory Peck, Joan Collins, Stephen Boyd, Calypso is a style of Afro-Caribbean Music which originated in Trinidad and Tobago at about the start of the 20th century Samba ( is one of the most popular forms of music in Brazil. It is widely viewed as Brazil's national musical style Leymarie claims that salsa is "essentially virile, an affirmation of the Latin man's pride and identity". As an extension of salsa's macho stance, manly taunts and challenges (desafio) are also a traditional part of salsa. ^[26]

Politically and socially activist composers have long been an important part of salsa, and some of their works, like Eddie Palmieri's "La libertad - lógico", became Latin and especially Puerto Rican anthems. Many salsa songs use a nationalist theme, centered around a sense of pride in black Latino identity, and may be in Spanish, English or a mixture of the two called Spanglish. Spanglish espanglish, espaninglish, el Spanish broken, ingléspañol, ingleñol ^[26]

History

In the 1930s, '40s and '50s, Cuban music within Cuba was evolving into new styles derived primarily from son and rumba, while the Cubans in New York, living among many Latinos from Puerto Rico and elsewhere, began playing their own distinctive styles, influenced most importantly by African American music. African American music (also called black music) is an umbrella term given to a range of Music and Musical genres emerging from or influenced by the ^[4] Their music included son and guarachas, as well as tango, bolero and danza, with prominent influences from jazz. Cuban Guaracha The guaracha originated in Bufo comic theatre in the mid-19th century and in the brothels of Havana Tango is a style of music that originated among European immigrant populations of Argentina and Uruguay. Bolero is a name given to more than one type of Latin-American music and its associated dance and song Danza is a musical Genre native to the Caribbean, which was heavily influenced by the French Contra dance and the Cuban Danzón ^[27] While the New York scene continued evolving, Cuban popular music, especially mambo, became very famous across the United States. Mambo is a Cuban musical form and Dance style The word mambo (which means conversation with the gods) is the name of a priestess in Haitian This was followed by a series of other genres of Cuban music, which especially affected the Latin scene in New York. Many Latin musicians in New York were Puerto Rican, and it was these performers who innovated the style now known as salsa music, based largely off Cuban, and to a lesser extent, Puerto Rican music. ^[28]

The diasporic nature of these Cuban and Puerto Rican communities in New York, which set the foundation for the expansion, and eventual creation of, the genre now known as salsa. With the influx of Puerto Rican and Cuban immigrants in America since the 1950s, a unique Afro-Caribbean diaspora was in play. Artists such as Willie Colón, amongst others, were well known for traveling back and forth between The Bronx and his homeland of Puerto Rico. This article is about the Puerto Rican musician for the football player see Willie Colon (American football William Anthony Colón (born In his travels to and fro, Willie Colón collected influences of the Afro-Cuban, Puerto Rican, and Nuyorican communities and demonstrated these through much of his music. The term Afro-Cuban refers to Cubans of African ancestry and to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community Nuyorican is a blending of the terms "Nueva York" and "Puerto Rican" and refers to the members or culture of the Puerto Rican Diaspora located Alongside another Salsa pioneer, Héctor Lavoe, both artists combined musical traditions in a manner that showcased and in many ways reflected the culture and soundscape of their New York barrios while still paying homage to their beloved Puerto Rico. Héctor Juan Pérez Martínez (September 30 1946 – June 29 1993 was a Puerto Rican salsa singer ^[29]

Salsa evolved steadily through the later 1970s and into the '80s and '90s. New instruments were adopted and new national styles, like the music of Brazil, were adapted to salsa. The Music of Brazil encompasses various regional Music styles influenced by African European and Amerindian forms New subgenres appeared, such as the sweet love songs called salsa romantica, while salsa became a major part of the music scene in Venezuela, Mexico and as far away as Japan. Salsa romántica, also known as salsa monga, is a sub-genre of Salsa music that between the mid 1980s and early 1990s in New York Diverse influences, including most prominently hip hop music, came to shape the evolving genre. Hip hop music, also referred to as rap music, is a Music genre typically consisting of a rhythmic vocal style called rap which is accompanied with By the turn of the century, salsa was one of the major fields of popular music in the world, and salsa stars were international celebrities.

Origins

Salsa's roots can be traced back to Spanish immigrants and Africans that were brought to the Caribbean by the Spanish as slaves. Spanish may refer to Something related to Spain Spanish language, a Romance language which is the main language in Spain and most of The term African people can refer to people who live in Africa, or people who trace their ancestry to Indigenous inhabitants of Africa. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. In Africa it is very common to find people playing music with instruments like the conga and la pandereta, instruments commonly used in salsa. The conga is tall narrow single-headed Cuban Drum of African origin probably derived from the Congolese Makuta drums or Sikulu The tambourine or Marine is a Musical instrument of the percussion family consisting of a frame often of wood or plastic with pairs of small metal jingles Salsa's most direct antecedent is Cuban son, which itself is a combination of African and European influences. Large son bands were very popular in Cuba beginning in the 1930s; these were largely septetos and sextetos, and they quickly spread to the United States. ^[30] In the 1940s Cuban dance bands grew much larger, becoming mambo and charanga orchestras led by bandleaders like Arsenio Rodriguez and Felix Chappotin. Mambo is a Cuban musical form and Dance style The word mambo (which means conversation with the gods) is the name of a priestess in Haitian This article is about the Cuban musical style not to be confused with the musical instrument " Charango ". Ignacio de Loyola Rodríguez Scull, known as Arsenio Rodríguez ( August 30, 1911 - December 30, 1970) was a Cuban musician In New York City in the '40s, at the center for mambo in the United States, the Palladium Dancehall, and in Mexico City, where a burgeoning film industry attracted Latin musicians, Cuban-style big bands were formed by Cubans and Puerto Ricans like Machito, Perez Prado, Tito Puente and Tito Rodriguez. Mexico City (in Spanish: Ciudad de México, México DF, México or simply Méjico) is the Capital city of Mexico Machito ( December 3, 1909 – April 15, 1984) born Francisco Raúl Gutiérrez Grillo in Havana, Cuba, was an influential Dámaso Pérez Prado ( December 11, 1916 in Cuba - September 14, 1989 in Mexico) was a Cuban Mexican Tito Puente Sr, ( April 20, 1923 &ndash May 31, 2000) born Ernesto Antonio Puente Jr Tito Rodríguez ( January 4, 1923 - February 28, 1973) was a popular 1950s and 1960s Singer and Bandleader. ^[31] New York began developing its own Cuban-derived sound, spurred by large-scale Latino immigration, the rise of local record labels due to the early 1940s musicians strike and the spread of the jukebox industry, and the craze for big band dance music. jukebox is a partially automated music-playing device usually a Coin -operated machine that can play specially selected songs from self-contained media A big band is a type of Musical ensemble associated with playing jazz music and which became popular during the Swing Era from the early 1930s until the late ^[32]

Mambo was very jazz-influenced, and it was the mambo big bands that kept alive the large jazz band tradition while the mainstream current of jazz was moving on to the smaller bands of the bebop era. Bebop or bop is a form of Jazz characterized by fast Tempos and Improvisation based on Harmonic structure rather than Melody Throughout the 1950s Latin dance music, such as mambo, rumba and chachachá, was mainstream popular music in the United States and Europe. The cha-cha-chá is a style of Cuban dance music Creation of the Cha-cha-chá The cha-cha-chá is unusual as dance music genres go The '50s also saw a decline in popularity for mambo big bands, followed by the Cuban Revolution of 1959, which greatly inhibited contact between New York and Cuba. The Cuban Revolution refers to the revolution that led to the overthrow of the United States proxy ruler General Fulgencio Batista 's regime on January 1, The result was a scene more dominated by Puerto Ricans than Cubans.

1960s

The Latin music scene of early 1960s New York was dominated by bands led by musicians such as Ray Barretto and Eddie Palmieri, whose style was influenced by imported Cuban fads such as pachanga and charanga; after the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, however, Cuban-American contact declined precipitously, and Puerto Ricans became a larger part of the New York Latin music scene. Ray Barretto aka King of the Hard Hands ( April 29, 1929 – February 17, 2006) was a Grammy Award-winning Puerto Eddie Palmieri (born December 15, 1936) is a Grammy Award award winning Puerto Rican American Pianist, Bandleader and Pachanga is a type of Latin American music and dance originating from Cuba in the 1950s This article is about the Cuban musical style not to be confused with the musical instrument " Charango ". The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Cuba during the Cold War. During this time a hybrid Nuyorican cultural identity emerged, primarily Puerto Rican but influenced by many Latin cultures as well as the close contact with African Americans. Nuyorican is a blending of the terms "Nueva York" and "Puerto Rican" and refers to the members or culture of the Puerto Rican Diaspora located ^[33]

The growth of modern salsa, however, is said to have begun in the streets of New York in the late 1960s. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous By this time Latin pop was no longer a major force in American music, having lost ground to doo wop, R&B and rock and roll; there were a few youth fads for Latin dances, such as the soul and mambo fusion boogaloo, but Latin music ceased to be a major part of American popular music. Doo-wop is a style of vocal-based Rhythm and blues music which developed in African-American communities in the 1940s and which achieved mainstream popularity both in the 1950s Rock and roll (also known as rock 'n' roll) is a form of Music that evolved in the United States in the late 1940s and early 1950s with roots in mostly African Soul music is a Music genre that combines Rhythm and blues and Gospel music, originating in the United States. Boogaloo or Bugalu ( shing-a-ling, popcorn music) is a genre of Latin music and Dance that was very popular in the United States in ^[34] Few Latin record labels had any significant distribution, the two exceptions being Tico and Alegre. Tico is a colloquial term for a native of Costa Rica The plural form is ticos. Alegre is a Municipality located in the Brazilian state of Espírito Santo. Though East Harlem had long been a center for Latin music in New York, during the 1960s many of the venues there shut down, and Brooklyn Heights' Saint George Hotel became "salsa's first stronghold". Spanish Harlem, also known as El Barrio and East Harlem, is a low income neighborhood in Harlem area of New York City, Performers there included Joe Bataan and the Lebron Brothers. Joe Bataan (also spelled Bataán) (born 1942 in Spanish Harlem, New York City) is an Afro-Filipino American Latin R&B musician ^[35]

The late 1960s also saw white youth joining a counterculture heavily associated with political activism, while black youth formed radical organizations like the Black Panthers. Counterculture (also " counter-culture " is a sociological term used to describe the values and norms of behavior of a Cultural group, or The Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense) was a Marxist / Maoist African-American organization established Inspired by these movements, Latinos in New York formed the Young Lords, rejected assimilation and "made the barrio a cauldron of militant assertiveness and artistic creativity". The Young Lords, later Young Lords Organization and in New York (notably Spanish Harlem) Young Lords Party, was a Puerto Rican nationalist The musical aspect of this social change was based on the Cuban son, which had long been the favored musical form for urbanites in both Puerto Rico and New York. ^[36] By the early 1970s, salsa's center moved to Manhattan and the Cheetah, where promoter Ralph Mercado introduced many future stars to an ever-growing and diverse crowd of Latino audiences. ^[35]

The Manhattan-based recording company, Fania Records, introduced many of the first-generation salsa singers and musicians to the world. Fania Records was a New York based Record label founded by Dominican-born composer and bandleader Johnny Pacheco and Italian-American lawyer Jerry Founded by Dominican flautist and band-leader Johnny Pacheco and impresario Jerry Masucci, Fania's illustrious career began with Willie Colón and Héctor Lavoe's El Malo in 1967. Johnny Pacheco, born March 25, 1935 in Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic is a producer musician bandleader and one of Jerry Masucci was co-founder of Fania Records. Interview with Jerry Masucci talking about his artist's and his marketing of those artists This article is about the Puerto Rican musician for the football player see Willie Colon (American football William Anthony Colón (born Héctor Juan Pérez Martínez (September 30 1946 – June 29 1993 was a Puerto Rican salsa singer This was followed by a series of updated son montuno and plena tunes that evolved into modern salsa by 1973. Arsenio Rodríguez initially developed Son Montuno from son. He added instrumental solos called montunos. Plena is a folkloric genre native of Puerto Rico. Its creation was influenced by African and Spanish music Pacheco put together a team that included percussionist Louie Ramirez, bassist Bobby Valentin and arranger Larry Harlow. Bobby Valentin, also known as " El Rey del Bajo " (King of the Bass (born June 9, 1941) is a Musician and salsa Bandleader Larry Harlow may refer to Larry Harlow (baseball Larry Harlow (musician The Fania team released a string of successful singles, mostly son and plena, performing live after forming the Fania All Stars in 1971; just two years later, the All Stars sold out Yankee Stadium. The Fania All-Stars was an illustrious and widely distinguished musical ensemble established in 1968 by composer Johnny Pacheco as a showcase for the leading musicians The original Yankee Stadium is a Stadium located in The Bronx in New York City. ^[31] One of their 1971 performances at the Cheetah nightclub, was a historic concert that drew several thousand people and helped to spark a salsa boom. ^[35]

Salsa quickly spread outside of New York City, to Miami, Cuba, Puerto Rico and Colombia. The city of Cali, Colombia became that country's major center for salsa in the late 1960s, when salsa became a major part of the local Feria de la Caña de Azucar. The Cali Fair (Dec 25 - Jan 01 is the most important cultural event in Cali, Colombia. Salsa also established itself in Guayaquil, Caracas and Panama City. Guayaquil (waʝaˈkil officially Santiago de Guayaquil, is the largest and the most populous City in Ecuador, as well as that nation's main port Caracas (kaˈɾakas is the Capital and largest city of Venezuela. Panama City (Ciudad de Panamá is the Capital and largest city of the Republic of Panama. ^[37]

1970s

From New York salsa quickly expanded to Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela, and other Latin countries, while the new style became a symbol of "pride and cultural identity" for Latinos, especially Puerto Ricans. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} The Dominican Republic ( Spanish: República Dominicana;) is a nation located in the Caribbean region and shares the island of Hispaniola with Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the ^[38] The number of salsa bands, both in New York and elsewhere, increased dramatically in the 70s, as did salsa-oriented radio stations and record labels. ^[39] Popular performers like Eddie Palmieri and Celia Cruz adapted to the salsa format, joined by more authentically traditional singers like Willie Colon and Ruben Blades. Eddie Palmieri (born December 15, 1936) is a Grammy Award award winning Puerto Rican American Pianist, Bandleader and Celia Cruz ( October 21 1925 – July 16 2003) was a Cuban salsa singer and was one of the most successful Cuban Willie Colon may refer to Willie Colón, Puerto Rican salsa music icon Willie Colon (American football, American football tackle Rubén Blades Bellido de Luna (born July 16, 1948) is a Panamanian salsa Singer, Songwriter, Lawyer, ^[40] Colón and Blades worked together for much of the 1970s and '80s, becoming some of the most critically and popularly acclaimed salsa performers in the world. Their lyricism set them apart from others; Blades became a "mouthpiece for oppressed Latin America", while Colón composed "potent", "socio-political vignettes". Their 1978 album Siembra was, at that time, the best-selling Latin album in history. ^[41]

The 1970s saw a number of musical innovations among salsa musicians. The bandleader Willie Colón introduced the cuatro, a rural Puerto Rican guitar, as well as jazz, rock, and Panamanian and Brazilian music. The Music of Brazil encompasses various regional Music styles influenced by African European and Amerindian forms ^[42] Larry Harlow, the arranger for Fania Records, modernized salsa by adding an electric piano. Larry Harlow may refer to Larry Harlow (baseball Larry Harlow (musician An electric piano is an electric Musical instrument. The popularity of the electric piano began to grow in the late 1960s, reaching its greatest height during the By the end of the decade, Fania Records' longtime leadership of salsa was weakened by the arrival of the labels TH-Rodven and RMM. Salsa had come to be perceived as "contaminated by fusion and disco", and took elements from disaptare styles like go go, while many young Latinos turned to hip hop, techno or other styles. Fusion or more specifically jazz fusion or jazz rock, is a Musical genre that merges Jazz with elements of other styles of music particularly Disco is a Genre of dance-oriented music whose origins are hard to define Hip hop music, also referred to as rap music, is a Music genre typically consisting of a rhythmic vocal style called rap which is accompanied with Techno is a form of Electronic dance music (EDM that emerged in Detroit, Michigan, USA during the mid to late 1980s ^[43] Salsa began spreading throughout Latin America in the 1970s, especially to Colombia, where a new generation of performers began to combine salsa with elements of cumbia and vallenato; this fusion tradition can be traced back to the 1960s work of Peregoya y su Combo Vacano. Cumbia is originally a Colombian Folk dance and Dance music and is Colombia 's representative national dance and music along with Vallenato Vallenato, along with Cumbia, is presently the most popular Folk music of Colombia. However, it was Joe Arroyo and La Verdad, his band, that popularized Colombian salsa beginning in the 1980s. Álvaro José Arroyo González (also known as "Joe Arroyo" or "El Joe" is a Colombian salsa and Tropical music singer and songwriter ^[44]

1980s

The 1980s was a time of diversification, as popular salsa evolved into sweet and smooth salsa romantica, with lyrics dwelling on love and romance, and its more explicit cousin, salsa erotica. Salsa romántica, also known as salsa monga, is a sub-genre of Salsa music that between the mid 1980s and early 1990s in New York Salsa romántica, also known as salsa monga, is a sub-genre of Salsa music that between the mid 1980s and early 1990s in New York Salsa romantica can be traced back to Noches Calientes, a 1984 album by singer José Alberto with producer Louie Ramirez. José Alberto (born in December 22, 1958 in Villa Consuelo district Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic, as José Alberto A wave of romantica singers, mostly Puerto Rican, found wide audiences with a new style characterized by romantic lyrics, an emphasis on the melody over rhythm, and use of percussion breaks and chord changes. ^[45] However, salsa lost popularity among many Latino youth, who were drawn to American rock in large numbers, while the popularization of Dominican merengue further sapped the audience among Latinos in both New York and Puerto Rico. Merengue is a type of music and dance that comes from the Dominican Republic. ^[46] The 1980s also saw salsa expand to Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Europe and Japan, and diversify into many new styles. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics.

In the 1980s some performers experimented with combining elements of salsa with hip hop music, while the producer and pianist Sergio George helped to revive salsa's commercial success. Hip hop music, also referred to as rap music, is a Music genre typically consisting of a rhythmic vocal style called rap which is accompanied with Sergio George (born 1961 is a pianist and Record producer, known for working with many of Salsa music 's most famous performers although he has worked He created a sound based on prominent trombones and rootsy, mambo-inspired style. He worked with the Japanese salsa band Orquesta de la Luz, and developed a studio orchestra that included Victor Manuelle, Celia Cruz, José Alberto, La India, Tito Puente and Marc Anthony. (" Orchestra of the Light " is a Japanese salsa band that began performing and recording in 1990 Victor Manuelle (born Víctor Manuel Ruiz on September 28, 1970 in New York New York, is a successful Puerto Rican American La India (born Linda Viera Caballero on March 9, 1970) is a noted Grammy Award - and Latin Grammy Award -nominated Singer Marco Antonio Muñiz (born September 16 1968 is an American singer/songwriter/actor of Puerto Rican descent popular in Latin America for his Salsa music The Colombian singer Joe Arroyo first rose to fame in the 1970s, but became a renowned exponent of Colombian salsa in the 1980s. Arroyo worked for many years with the Colombian arranger Fruko and his band Los Tesos. Fruko y sus Tesos is a salsa group from Colombia which enjoys immsense popularity throughout the Latin American world ^[47]

1990s to the present

In the 1990s Cuban salsa became more prominent, especially a distinct genre called timba. Timba is the Cuban counterpart of salsa music, and is often understood to be a sub-category of salsa Using the complex songo rhythm, bands like NG La Banda and Los Van Van developed timba. NG La Banda is a Cuban musical group founded by Flutist José Luis Cortés Los Van Van is a Cuban band led by bassist Juan Formell, and is considered to be one of Cuba's major Timba acts while Juan Formell has arguably

Salsa remained a major part of Colombian music through the 1990s, producing popular bands like Sonora Carruseles, while the singer Carlos Vives created his own style that fuses salsa with vallenato and rock. Biography Carlos Vives was born in August 7 1961 in Santa Marta, Magdalena, Colombia, where he spent his first 12 years of life Vallenato, along with Cumbia, is presently the most popular Folk music of Colombia. Rock music is a genre of Popular music often though not necessarily employing Electric guitar, Bass guitar, and Drums. Vives' popularization of vallenato-salsa led to the accordion-led vallenato style being used by mainstream pop stars like Gloria Estefan. Vallenato-salsa is a style of Salsa music associated with Colombia Gloria Estefan (born Gloria María Fajardo on September 1, 1957) is a Cuban American singer and songwriter The city of Cali, in Colombia, has come to call itself the "salsa capital of the world", having produced such groups as Orquesta Guayacan and Grupo Niche. Grupo Niche is a salsa group founded in 1978 in Bogotá, Colombia. ^[48]

Salsa has registered a steady growth and now dominates the airwaves in many countries in Latin America. In addition, several Latino artists, including Rey Ruiz, Marc Anthony, and most famously, the Cuban-American singer Gloria Estefan, have had success as crossovers, penetrating the Anglo-American pop market with Latin-tinged hits, usually sung in English. Rey Ruiz (Reinerio Ruiz born June 21, 1970 in La Lisa Havana Cuba is a well known salsa singer from Cuba. Marco Antonio Muñiz (born September 16 1968 is an American singer/songwriter/actor of Puerto Rican descent popular in Latin America for his Salsa music Gloria Estefan (born Gloria María Fajardo on September 1, 1957) is a Cuban American singer and songwriter ^[49]

The most recent innovations in the genre include hybrids like merenhouse, salsa-merengue and salsaton, alongside salsa gorda. Merenhouse is a style of Electronic music developed in the US and Latin America by groups such as Proyecto Uno, Fulanito, Background Salsatón is a relatively new subgenre of both salsa and Reggaeton. Since the mid-1990s African artists have also been very active through the super-group Africando, where African and New York musicians mix with leading African singers such as Bambino Diabate, Ricardo Lemvo, Ismael Lo and Salif Keita. Africando is a musical project formed in 1990 to unite New York -based salsa musicians with Senegalese vocalists Ricardo Lemvo a Los Angeles -based salsa, rumba and Soukous is a DR Congo-born singer of Angolan descent Ismaël Lô (also Ismaël Lo is a Senegalese musician He was born in Dogondoutchi in Niger on 30 August 1956 to a Senegalese father Salif Keita (born August 25, 1949) is an internationally recognized Afro-pop Singer - Songwriter from Mali. Salsa is only one of many Latin genres to have traveled back and influenced West African music. ^[49]

References

Notes

Further reading

• Aparicio, Frances R. (1998). Listening to Salsa: Gender, Latin Popular Music, and Purto Rican Cultures. Hanover, New Hampshire: Wesleyan University Press.  
• (Spanish) Arteaga, José (1990). La Salsa, 2nd revised edition, Bogotá: Intermedio Editores.  
• (Spanish) Baéz, Juan Carlos (1989). El vínculo es la salsa. Caracas: Fondo Editorial Tropykos.  
• (1991) in Boggs, Vernon W. (ed. ): Salsiology: Afro-Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York City. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.  
• Gerard, Charley (1989). Salsa! The Rhythm of Latin Music. Crown Point, Indiana: White Cliffs.  
• Loza, Steven (1999). Steven Joseph Loza ( Steve Loza) is professor of Ethnomusicology at UCLA and Lecturer III in music at the University of New Mexico. Tito Puente and the Making of Latin Music. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.  
• (1991) in Manuel, Peter (ed. ): Essays on Cuban Music: North American and Cuban Perspectives. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America.  
• Marre, Jeremy (1985). Beats of the Heart: Popular Music of the World. New York: Pantheon.  
• Mauleón, Rebeca (1993). Salsa: Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music Co. .  
• Roberts, John Storm (1972). Black Music of Two Worlds. New York: Praeger.  
• Roberts, John Storm (1979). The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States. New York: Oxford University Press.  
• (Spanish) Rondón, Cesar Miguel (1980). El libro de la salsa: crónica de la música del Caribe urbano. Caracas: Editorial Arte.  
• (Spanish) Santana, Sergio (1992). ¿Que es la salsa? Buscando la melodía. Medellín: Ediciones Salsa y Cultura.  
• (2002) in Waxer, Lisa (ed. ): Situating Salsa: Global Markets and Local Meanings in Latin Popular Music. Routledge.  

Films

• 1979 - Salsa: Latin Music in the Cities. Directed by Jeremy Marre.

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