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For the Athenian tragic poet, see Acestor Sakas. Acestor ( Greek:) was the name of several figures in Classical mythology and history Apollo Acestor, an epithet of the god Apollo in his
For the Indian era, see Saka Era. The Shalivahana era, also known as the Saka era, is used with Hindu calendars the Indian national calendar, and the Cambodian Buddhist calendar
Sakas
v • d • e

Approximate extent of East Iranian languages the 1st century BCE is shown in orange. The Eastern Iranian languages are a subgroup of the Iranian languages emerging in Middle Iranian times (from ca
Total population

Unknown
Regions with significant populations
Eastern Europe
Central Asia
Northern India
Languages
Scythian language
Religions
Animism
Related ethnic groups

The Sakas (English form of Old Iranian Sakā, nominative plural masculine case; ancient Greek Σάκαι, Sakai; Sanskrit Śaka) were a population of Iranian[1][2][3] nomadic tribesmen residing in and migrating over the plains of Eurasia from Eastern Europe to Xinjiang Province, China, from the Old Persian Period to the Middle Persian Period when they were displaced by or integrated with Turkic language speakers during the Turkic migration. The Scythian languages form a North Eastern branch of the Iranian language family and comprise the distinctive languagesspoken by the Scythian ( Sarmatian Animism (from Latin anima ( Soul, Life) commonly refers to a religious belief that Souls or Spirits exist in Animals The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες The Daheans or Dahaeans (Dahae Δάοι Daoi, or Δάαι Daai) were a confederacy of three tribes who lived in the region to the immediate east of the The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Massageteans ( Massagetai; Massagetae or Massagetaeans were an Iranian people of antiquity known primarily from the writings of Herodotus English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. The nominative case is a Grammatical case for a Noun, which generally marks the subject of a Verb, as opposed to its object or other In Grammar, the case of a Noun or Pronoun indicates its Grammatical function in a greater Phrase or Clause; such as the The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Old Persian language is one of the two attested Old Iranian languages (besides Avestan) Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the The Turkic migration as defined in this article was the expansion of the Turkic peoples across most of Central Asia into Europe and the Middle In the Achaemenid Empire much of their range was made a satrapy, Saka (Old Iranian nominative singular masculine case), named after them. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient They also resided in other provinces of ancient Iran. [4]

The ancient Greeks called the Sakas the Scythians but recognized that in the language of the Persian Empire they were called more nearly Sakai. The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia To them the name Sakai in addition to meaning all the Scyths meant explicitly also the ones of Central Asia and the Far East. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Far East is a term often used by people in the Western world to refer to the countries of East Asia. These latter lived in what is now Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, parts of India, parts of Iran, the Altay Mountains, Siberia in Russia, and Xinjiang Province of China in the centuries before 300 AD, the start of the Middle Persian period. Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان‎ taajikestaan officially the Republic of Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Altai Mountains (Алтай Altay; Алтай 阿尔泰山脉 are a Mountain range in central Asia, where Russia, Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Hence the Romans recognized both Sacae and Scythae.

The Scythians were recognized in ancient languages at either end of their range. They were known to the Chinese as the Sai (Chinese: 塞, Old Sinitic *sək). China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Old Chinese ( or Archaic Chinese as used by linguist Bernhard Karlgren, refers to the Chinese spoken from the Shang Dynasty ( Chinese On the west they were among the first Iranians to enter the Middle East. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Assyrians of the time of Esarhaddon record campaigning against a people they called in the Akkadian the Ashkuza or Ishhuza. The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. Esarhaddon (Greek and Biblical form Akkadian Aššur-ahhe-iddina " Ashur has given a brother to me" was a king of Assyria who reigned [5] Hugo Winckler was the first to associate them with the Scyths and the identification remains without serious question. Hugo Winckler ( July 4, 1863, Gräfenhainchen, Saxony &mdash April 19, 1913, Berlin) was a German They were closely associated with the Gimirrai,[5] who were the Cimmerians known to the ancient Greeks. See Cimmeria (Conan or Cimmeria (Poem for the fiction of Robert E The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca These Scythians were mainly interested in settling in the kingdom of Urartu, which later became Armenia. Urartu ( Assyrian: Urarṭu Urartian: Biainili Ուրարտու was an Iron Age kingdom in Eastern Anatolia ( Transcaucasia) rising Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani The district of Shacusen, Uti Province, reflects their name. [6] In ancient Hebrew texts, the Ashkuz (Ashkenaz) are even considered to be a direct offshoot from the Gimirri (Gomer). Ashkenaz is Gomer 's first son brother of Riphath, and Togarmah (Gen [7] The Scythians also extended into the Ukraine south of Kiev and into Thrace and Macedon. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most [8] In recognition of the fact that these latter were different enough to merit a distinct name the Achaemenids created a separate satrapy for them, Skudrā, though who used the term first, the Greeks or the Persians, remains unknown. The name appears in Elamitic as iš-ku-ud-ra and in Akkadian as is-ku-du-ru. Elamite is an Extinct language, which was spoken by the ancient Elamites. [9] Not all the Iranians living in the north were called Scythians, although they may have been considered that. The Issedones and Massagetae were generally north of the Black Sea somewhere. The Issedones were an ancient people of Central Asia at the end of the trade route leading north-east from Scythia, described in the lost Arimaspeia The Massageteans ( Massagetai; Massagetae or Massagetaeans were an Iranian people of antiquity known primarily from the writings of Herodotus The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey

There is no proof that in the Old Iranian period the Scythians spoke anything other than Old Iranian, despite the fact that they were assigned regional names. The linguistic picture is quite different in the Middle Iranian period, however. The only remnants of the Saka language come from Xinjiang, China, but the language there is widely divergent from the rest of Iranian and accordingly is called eastern or northeastern Iranian. Saka is an extinct Iranian language which was spoken in Xinjiang, China Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk It also is divided into two divergent dialects. [10]

By the time of the Middle Iranian period, the Scyths had either dissimilated into peoples of other names, such as the Sarmatians, Alans and Roxolani, or had been displaced by or assimilated to the Huns. The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people The Rhoxolani were a Sarmatian people who are believed to be an off-shoot of the Alans. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy

Contents

Scythians and Sakas in classical sources

A cataphract-style parade armour of a Saka royal from the Issyk kurgan, Kazakhstan.
A cataphract-style parade armour of a Saka royal from the Issyk kurgan, Kazakhstan. A cataphract was a form of Heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Ancient Greeks and Romans. The Issyk Kurgan, in south-eastern Kazakhstan, less than 20 km east from the Talgar alluvial fan, near Issyk, is a burial mound discovered in Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the

Modern historical accounts of the Indo-Scythian wars often assume that the Scythian protagonists were a single tribe called the Saka (Sakai or Sakas). The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic But earlier Greek and Latin texts suggest that the term Scythians referred to a much more widespread grouping of Central Asian peoples. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

To Herodotus (484-425 BC), the Sakai were the 'Amurgioi Skuthai' (i. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash e. Scythians from Ammyurgia). [11] Strabo (Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo, 63 BC-AD 24 circa) suggests that the term Skuthais (Scythians) referred to the Sakai and several other tribes. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use [12] Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' , c92-175 AD), refers to the Sakai as Skuthon (a Scythian people) or the Skuthai (the Scythians) who inhabit Asia. For others with this name see Arrianus (disambiguation. Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' (ca [13]

It is clear that the Greek and Latin scholars cited here believed, all Sakai were Scythians, but not all Scythians were Sakai. [14] It seems likely that modern confusion about the identity of the Scythians is partly due to the Persians. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox According to Herodotus, the Persians called all Scythians by the name Sakas. [15] Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, 23–79 AD) provides a more detailed explanation, stating that the Persians gave the name Sakai to the Scythian tribes: "nearest to them". Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author [16] This likely explains why the Scythians began to be called Sakai.

Another clue to the true identity of the Scythians is the widespread area in which classical scholars thought they lived. The ancient Greeks wrote that the homelands of the Scythian peoples included Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea, north of Hindukush/Karakoram and west of China extending as far as Siberia. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Karakoram is a mountain range spanning the borders between Pakistan, China, and India, located in the regions of Gilgit, Ladakh, and China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving This suggests Scythia was a generic term that was loosely applied to a vast area of Central Asia spanning numerous groups and diverse ethnicities.

Strabo defined all the Central Asian clans inhabiting the area east of the Caspian Sea as Scythian in culture. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. [17] Diodorus (Diodorus Siculus, c90–30 BC) said that Mt Hemodos was the dividing line between Scythia and India,[18] ancient Greek sources used a variety of names for this mountain, including Himaos, Imaos and Paropamisos but generally place it in the Himalayas. [19]

Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus, c90-168) writes that Skuthia was not only "within the Imaos" (the Himalayas) and "beyond the Imaos" (north of the Himalayas), but also speaks of a separate "land of the Sakais" within Scythia. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca [20] Both Solinus and Pliny report that the Ganges was one of the greatest rivers of India and has its source in the Scythian mountains. Gaius Julius Solinus, Latin Grammarian and compiler probably flourished around the middle of the fourth century though historical scholar Theodor Mommsen The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country [21]

When ancient texts refer to the Sakai living in the Mt. Hemodos area or the Himalayan region, they are also talking about a much wider area than the modern Himalayas. Greek texts refer to Mt. Hemodos as Kaukasos, the Caucasus, which is the Greek word for the entire Hindukush region. The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. [22] In the ancient Sanskrit/Pali texts, the Himalayas spanned the eastern and western oceans and so included the Hindukush and Karakoram ranges. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Pali ( ISO 15919 / ALA-LC: Pāḷi is a Middle Indo-Aryan language or Prakrit of India. Karakoram is a mountain range spanning the borders between Pakistan, China, and India, located in the regions of Gilgit, Ladakh, and [23]

Ptolemy meanwhile says that the Scythian tribes living in the Hindukush ranges were only at the southern fringe of the Scythian world. By this definition, the Parama Kambojas tribe who lived in the far off Transoxiana territory as distant as the Fargana and Zeravshan valleys were also Scythians. Ancient Sanskrit literature reveals that like the Madras Uttara Madras and the Kurus / Uttara Kurus the ancient Kambojas also had Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана Zeravshan River (also Zarafshan or Zarafshon, Дарёи Зарафшон Zarafshon from the Persian word زر افشان zar afshān, meaning

With Scythia covering such a wide area, it is no wonder classical scholars like Strabo and the Historiae Philippcae writings of 1st century BC Roman historian Pompeius Trogus (Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus), classified any Asio/Asii or Asiani and Kambojan clans connected with horse culture as Scythic races. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, known as Pompeius Trogus, Pompey Trogue, or Trogue Pompey, was a 1st century BC Roman historian of the Celtic Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai A clan is a group of People united by Kinship and descent, which is defined by perceived descent from a common ancestor The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic

Strabo’s evidence

According to the Greek chronicler Strabo,[24] Bactriana was taken by nomads like Asii/Asio, Pasianoi, Tokharoi and Sakaraukoi who had originally come from country on the other side of the Jaxartes River or Syr Darya (Central Asia). The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai Asio is a genus of Typical owls, or true owls in family Strigidae. The Tocharians were the Tocharian -speaking inhabitants of the Tarim basin, making them the easternmost speakers of an Indo-European language in antiquity Syr Darya (Сырдария Сирдарё Sirdaryoسيردريا also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo) is a River in Central Asia [25] The prologus XLI of Historiae Philippcae also refers to the Scythian invasion of the Greek kingdom of Bactria and Sogdiana---the invaders are described as Saraucae and Asiani. "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great [26] The Saraucae are Sacarauli and Asiani are Asii or Asio of Strabo. Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai [27] These references conceal the information that after being turned out from Issyk-Kul lake and in their movements to Bactria via Sogdiana and Fargana, under pressure from Ta Yue-chih, the Issyk-kul Sakas (Sakaraulois) had been joined on the way by sections of other Scythian tribes of the intervening regions during their southerly or south-westerly movements to Bactria. Issyk Kul (also Ysyk Köl, Issyk-kol; Ысыккөл Иссык-Куль is an Endorheic Lake in the northern Tian Shan mountains "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. The term Asio (or Asii) obviously refers to horse People[28]and undoubtedly refers to the Kambojas of the Parama Kamboja domain whose Aswas or horses too have been glorified by Mahabharata[29] as being of excellent quality. The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature Ancient Sanskrit literature reveals that like the Madras Uttara Madras and the Kurus / Uttara Kurus the ancient Kambojas also had In fact, Asio, Asi/Asii, Asva/Aswa, Ari-aspi, Aspasios, Aspasii (or Hippasii) are variant names the Classical writers have given to the horse-clans of the Kambojas of Scythian domain. The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic [30] These terms are most likely derived from the Old-Persian words for horse, "asa" and "aspa. " [31] The Tokharios are assumed by some scholars to be Rishikas. Rshikas were an ancient Tribe living in the northern division of ancient India But the Rishikas were a closely affiliated to the Parama-Kambojas as per Mahabharata evidence. Ancient Sanskrit literature reveals that like the Madras Uttara Madras and the Kurus / Uttara Kurus the ancient Kambojas also had [32] Similarly, the Pasianois were another Scythian tribe from Central Asia. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Saraucae or Sakarauloi obviously refers to the Saka proper from Issyk-kul Lake. Some scholars tend to link the Rishikas with Tukharas and later with the Ta Yue-chis themselves. Rshikas were an ancient Tribe living in the northern division of ancient India Tusharas (alias Tukharas Tocharians) were a Mlechcha tribe with their kingdom located in the north west of India as per the epic Mahabharata. If one accepts this connection, then the Tukharas (==> Rishikas ==> Yue-chihs) had controlled the eastern parts of Bactria country (Ta-hia) while the combined forces of the Sakarauloi, 'Asio' (horse people = Parama Kambojas) and the 'Pasinoi' of Strabo etc had occupied its western parts after being displaced from the original home in Fargana/Alai valley by the Ta-Yuechis. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. As stated earlier, Ta-hia is taken to mean Tukhara/Tokhara which also included Badakshan, Chitral, Kafirstan and Wakhan which are said to have formed eastern parts of Bactria[33] According to other scholars, it were the Saka hordes alone who had put an end to the Greek kingdom of Bactria. Badakhshan ( Tajik: Бадахшон is a region comprising parts of northeastern Afghanistan and southeastern Tajikistan. Chitral or Chatrāl (چترال is basically translated into "field" in the native language Khowar. Kāfiristān or Kāfirstān ( was a historic name of Nurestan ( Nuristan) a province in the Hindukush region of Afghanistan Wakhan or "the Wakhan" (also spelt as Vakhan;, Tajik: Вахон is a very mountainous and rugged part of the Pamir and Karakoram "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. [34]

Location of the Sakas

Physical map of Central Asia from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast.
Physical map of Central Asia from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast.

It is proven that in the 3rd century AD the Sacae had their own empire in Khotan, western China (in Kashgar). The 3rd century is the period from 201 to 300 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Therefore the Sacaes are sometimes called Khotan-Sacae. Because of the Huns who had pushed the Kushans out from their territory, the Sacae had to flee to south where they migrated in Sistan. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy Modern Sistan ( is a border region in southeastern Iran (see Sistan and Baluchestan Province) and southwestern Afghanistan (see Nimruz Province The Sakas had at least three major settlements, Saka Haumavarka, Saka Tigrakhauda and Saka Taradarya, according to inscriptions left by King Achaemenid Darius I (522-486 BC) in the city of Hamadan and his royal seat of Perspolis. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Darius I the Great (c 549 BC&ndash486 BC 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavahuš: "Possessing goodness" Having ascended to power amidst controversy and bloodshed Hamedān or Hamadān ( Persian: همدان, Old Persian: Hagmatana Hebrew: המזיין Ancient Greek: Ecbatana) Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial [35] However, scholars think these three settlements may be merely remnants of a much greater civilization left by the waves of Scythian migrations back to the middle of the 8th century BC. The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic [36]

The Darian inscriptions say that the Sakas Haumavarka lived "beyond Sogdiana" (para-Sugudam) which ,when seen from Perspolis, seems to point to Tashkant, Fargana, Kashgar and nearby regions. History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана Kashgar or Kashi (officially transliterated as Kaxgar in Uyghur; قەشقەر/K̡ǝxk̡ǝr, is an Oasis [37] The Sakas Tigrakhauda lived near the Arals in the lower valleys of the Jaxartes as well as the plains north of the Jaxartes. Aral, also known as Aralsk or Aral'sk, ( Kazakh: Арал, Russian: Аральск) is a small city in south-western Syr Darya (Сырдария Сирдарё Sirdaryoسيردريا also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo) is a River in Central Asia The third Sakas settlement,Sakas Taradarya, was located north of the Black Sea in the Russian Steppes. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced [38]

There are also references to the Saka Haumavarka in ancient Indian texts. It seems likely that it was these Sakas Haumavarka and other allied tribes such as the Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, etc that lived in, and north of the Pamir mountains as far as Kashgar, Fargana and Issyk-Kul Lake, that entered into conflict with the Ta Yue-chi or Great Yue-chi and migrated into northern India. Kashgar or Kashi (officially transliterated as Kaxgar in Uyghur; قەشقەر/K̡ǝxk̡ǝr, is an Oasis Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана Issyk Kul (also Ysyk Köl, Issyk-kol; Ысыккөл Иссык-Куль is an Endorheic Lake in the northern Tian Shan mountains [39] According to the evidence furnished by Mahabharata, the Transoxian Pamir mountains and regions to the north as far as Fargana were known as the lands of the allied Lohas, Parama Kambojas, Rishikas, etc tribes. Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана Rshikas were an ancient Tribe living in the northern division of ancient India A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use [40] All these peoples living in the Scythia of the classical writers or the Shakadvipa of Indian texts, were lumped together and given the general name Sacae by Greeks and Sakas by the Iranians. In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. They were known as Shakas in Indian texts. The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, [41]

Origins

The Scythian language is considered by mainstream historians and linguists as one of the Iranian languages. The Scythian languages form a North Eastern branch of the Iranian language family and comprise the distinctive languagesspoken by the Scythian ( Sarmatian The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian.

The Saka speakers were gradually conquered and acculturated by the Turkic expansion to Central Asia beginning in the 4th century. The Turkic migration as defined in this article was the expansion of the Turkic peoples across most of Central Asia into Europe and the Middle

Saka (Scythian) horseman from Pazyryk in Central Asia, c. 300 BC.
Saka (Scythian) horseman from Pazyryk in Central Asia, c. The Pazyryk (Пазарык is the name of an ancient Nomadic people who lived in the Altai Mountains lying in Siberian Russia south of the modern city 300 BC.

Ashkanian is the dynasty name of the Parthian empire and sources indicate that the Parthian revolt against Greek dominance over Persia started in the Semnan region. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Semnan (Native NameSeman,) is a city in Semnan Province, northern Iran with a population estimated at 119778 inhabitants (2005 It is the provincial capital

Ashkanian means "Sakan people" or "Saka descendants". An Arab source names Sagsar as the place from which Ashkanians originated.

Sagsar, or according to varies sources, "Saka sar" or "Sagasar", is now modern Sangsar, a city in the mountainous region of Semnan Province, in the north of Iran. Semnān is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. It is in the north of the country and its center is Semnan.

Semnan is also derived from Sakestan, which during the Parthian empire was one of the largest provinces connecting the northern Alborz mountains to eastern Iran bordering the Kushan empire, now Pakistan and Afghanistan. Semnan (Native NameSeman,) is a city in Semnan Province, northern Iran with a population estimated at 119778 inhabitants (2005 It is the provincial capital For the Iranian Frigate Alborz see Iranian frigate Alborz. For Alborz High School (in Persianدبیرستان البرز see Alborz High The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 Moreover, many of the legends recorded in the national Persian epic, Shahnameh are believed to be a mixture of Persian, Sogdian and Saka legends. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Sagsar and Semnan are mentioned in Firdosi's Shahnameh, particularly honoring the brave people of Sagsar and their couragous uprising against injustice. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc Sangsaris are still famous for being a sensitive people, proud of their culture and language, one of oldest and best preserved of ancient Iranian languages.

Gold artifacts of the Scythians in Bactria, at the site of Tillia tepe.
Gold artifacts of the Scythians in Bactria, at the site of Tillia tepe.

The most notable Saka burial to date, whose occupant is referred to as the "Golden Man", was found in Kazakhstan. The Issyk Kurgan, in south-eastern Kazakhstan, less than 20 km east from the Talgar alluvial fan, near Issyk, is a burial mound discovered in Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the The silver dish found with the "Golden Man" is of a type common to other Germanic finds and is inscribed with a form of runic writing related to that found in Germanic and Scandinavian runic writing. See Issyk Kurgan. The Issyk Kurgan, in south-eastern Kazakhstan, less than 20 km east from the Talgar alluvial fan, near Issyk, is a burial mound discovered in

Archeological evidence and histographies shows a worldview of Sakas, similar to that of ancient German and Scandinavian traditions and closely related to that of present-day Kazakhs and Mongols. It is theorized that they believed Man was a part of the Universe, Cosmos, Heaven, Sun, mountains, river, in total nature, and shows close affinities with Shamanism and Tengriism which are still practiced today, from Kazakhstan to Siberia which conceive of God as related to Cosmic laws and forces. The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy In its most general sense a cosmos is an orderly or harmonious system Heaven may refer to the physical heavens the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the Universe beyond The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Tengri is the supreme god of the old Xiongnu, Xianbei, Turkic, Bulgar, Mongolian, Hunnic and Altaic However, modern Kazakhs are Muslim, most modern Mongols are Buddhists, and Siberian Shamanism is not known to be directly connected to Indo-European religion. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices However, many cultures have changed religious practices over the period of millennia.

Indo-Scythians

Main articles: Indo-Scythians and Shalivahana era

The Sakas were also one of several tribes that conquered India from the northwest, where they established the rule of the Indo-Scythians. The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Shalivahana era, also known as the Saka era, is used with Hindu calendars the Indian national calendar, and the Cambodian Buddhist calendar India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Saka Era is used by the Indian national calendar, a few other Hindu calendars, and the Cambodian Buddhist calendar—its year zero begins near the vernal equinox of 78. The Indian national calendar (sometimes called Saka calendar) is the official civil calendar in use in India. The Hindu calendar used in ancient times has undergone many changes in the process of regionalization and today there are several regional Indian Calendars, as The Kingdom of Cambodia ( formerly known as Kampuchea (, transliterated: Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchea) is a country in South East The Buddhist calendar is used on mainland Southeast Asia in the countries of Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar (formerly Burma Year 78 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. See Kushan Empire article for more complex description of Kushan-Scythian dating. The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250

There has been no strong genetic link discovered between the Kazakhs and peoples of India; however, the marker R1a1 accounts for more than 50% of Altay, Kyrgyz, Slavic and NW Indian/Pakistani males. A Subclade of R1, R1a is a Y-chromosome haplogroup found at high frequency in the extreme north of India among the Kashmiri Pandits The Kyrgyz (also spelled Kirgiz, Kirghiz) are a Turkic Ethnic group found primarily in Kyrgyzstan.

It is likely that by about 600 BC, Central Asia was occupied by a number of ethnic groups, all nomadic equestrians sharing simple cultural traits. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Eurasian Nomads are a large group of peoples of the Eurasian Steppe.

Parama Kambojas and Saka connection

According to scholars, term Kamboja may be explained as Kam+boja. Boja is the Iranian equivalent of the Sanskrit Bhoja which means Lord or King or Master. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical [42] Thus, Kambojas may be explained as Lords or Masters or Rulers of Kam country.

The root Kam implying place or region is reflected in the Kama valley, a region lying between the Khyber Pass and Jalalabad. In Geology, a valley (also called a vale, dale, glen or strath and near or in Appalachia, a draw) is The Khyber Pass, (also spelled Khaiber or Khaybar (درہ خیبر (altitude  m   ft is the Mountain pass that links Pakistan and Jalalabad (Jalalkot ( Pashto: جلالکوټ، جلال اباد) is a city in eastern Afghanistan. It is also reflected in the place names Kama-daka, Kamma-Shilman, Kama-bela of Kabol; in the Kamdesh or Kambrom, Kamich, Kama and Kamu & Kamatol of the Kunar and Bashgul valleys. } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with Kunar may refer to Kunar Valley, Afghanistan Kunar Province, Afghanistan Kunar River, Afghanistan It is further reflected in the vast expanses of the region called Kazal-kam and Kara-kam lying on either side of the Oxus north of Hindukush in parts of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly There is also a river named Kama in the Russian Steppes. In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced Kambah is also said to be name of an ancient town some destinations north-west of Samarkhand in Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly [43]

The Ptolemian term Kamoi also refers to a people of the region falling in the Oxus/Jaxartes doab. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and According to Dr Seth, it seems highly likely that the ancient Kambojas had their habitats in the doab of the river Vamksu (Oxus) and Syr (Jaxartes) (ancient Suguda) and beyond in the hilly regions of Syr. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. Syr Darya (Сырдария Сирдарё Sirdaryoسيردريا also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo) is a River in Central Asia The territory is watered by numerous tributaries of the Oxus and Jaxartes and was referred to as Komdei by Ptolemy. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. Syr Darya (Сырдария Сирдарё Sirdaryoسيردريا also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo) is a River in Central Asia Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (325 AD‑330 AD) labelled the mountainous region of Suguda as Komedas. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Amiricanus Gambilinus (325/330-after 391 was a fourth-century Roman historian. [44]

These names seem to point towards 'Komdesh' (Kambojdesh ?) which was the original home of the Kambojas. [45] Ptolemy has also stated that there is a tribe variously called Komroi, Komedei or Komoi which occupies the highlands of Bactriaa and Sogdiana countries. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. [46]

Al-Maqidisi in his book Al-Muqhni calls the people of this territory Kumiji a name that apparently points to the Sanskrit Kamboja. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical The Komdei of Ptolemy has been identified with the Kiumito of Hiun Tsang. See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler [47] Scholars have identified this Kiumito as the habitat of Iranian Kambojas. [48] The Kumuda-dvipa of the Puranas is said to lie to north of Pamirs in the Tartary region and is equivalent to the Komdei of Ptolemy and the Kumadas of Ammianus Marcellinus. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" The Pamir Mountains are located in Central Asia and are formed by the junction or Knot of the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, and Tartary or Great Tartary ( Latin: Tataria or Tataria Magna) was a name used by Europeans from the Middle Ages until the

The fifth century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa attests that the Hunas and Kambojas lived as neighbors in their respective west and east Oxus valleys. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical "Kalidasa" redirects here For the true bug Genus, see Kalidasa (insect. The Huna (also known as Indo-Hephthalites or Alchon) as they were known in South Asia, seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group who [49] Rajatarangini of Kalhana also refers to Tukharas and Kambojas living respectively in the west and east Oxus valleys, during the 8th century AD. The Rājatarangiṇī ( The River of Kings) is a metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir from earliest time written in Sanskrit by Kalhaṇa. Kalhana ( कल्हण) (c 12th century) a Kashmiri Brahmin was the celebrated author of Rajatarangini, Kashmir 's history Tusharas (alias Tukharas Tocharians) were a Mlechcha tribe with their kingdom located in the north west of India as per the epic Mahabharata. The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. [50]

Scholars believe that the Kiumito of Hiun Tsang is same as the Kamboja of Raghuvamsa and of Rajatarangini and represents the Iranian section of the Kambojas. See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler [51] The Kumuda or Kumuda-dvipa of Indian texts and the Komdei of Ptolemy lay in the Shaka-dvipa per Mahabharata and Puranic texts. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" [52] Komdei apparently refers to the region which has been called Parama Kamboja in Mahabharata. [53] This was the region where the Rishikas, Parama Kambojas, Lohas and other allied people dwelt.

Needless to say that all these people including the Parama Kambojas were Scythians by culture for obvious reasons. Writing on the Rishikas, Dr V. S. Aggarwala observes: "The name Rishika occurs in Mahabharata as a part of 'Shakadvipa'. Rshikas were an ancient Tribe living in the northern division of ancient India Arjuna had conquered Rishikas across the Vakshu (Oxus) which flowed through the Shaka country. Arjuna or Arjun ( Sanskrit: अर्जुन arjuna) is one of the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, whose name " As the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were all neighborly tribes and were allied in their fight against Arjuna,[54] this strongly suggests that the Transoxian Lohas and Parama Kambojas were also located in Shakadvipa or Scythia. Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود

Dr Bailey lists several breeds of Kamboja horses and states that their haya- and javana- breeds ( 'swift horse') refer to the famous horses of the Farghana breed. Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана [55] Praja Bhata, a Kashmiri Sanskrit poet and author of the fourth Rajatarangini while writing about the history of Moghul dynasty in India, addresses emperor Babur as a Yavana king hailing from Kambhoja. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of Babur ( February 14 1483 - December 26 1530) was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who following a series of setbacks "Yona" is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate Greek speakers [56] Since Vabur (Babur) was native of Fargana (in Kyrgyzstan of Central Asia), this Indian reference seems to extend the Kamboja i. Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south e the Parama Kamboja domain almost as far as to Fargana.

Thus the foregoing discussion sufficiently proves that the territory of the Parama Kambojas lay in a region beyond Imaos or Himalaya/Hindukush, the region that ancient Sanskrit texts such as Mahabharata labelled Shakadvipa and classical writers Strabo and Diodorus define as part of Scythia (see above). The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th This allows the conclusion that the Parama Kambojas, the Rishikas and Lohas were Scythians. [57]

According to Serge Thion: "It seems from some inscriptions that the Kambojas were a royal clan of the Sakas better known under the Greek name of Scyths" . Serge Thion (born 1942 is a controversial French sociologist known for his Holocaust denial. [58]

Sakas in Ancient Indian Literature

Main article: Indo-Scythians in Indian literature

The Indo-Scythians were named "Shaka" in India, an extension on the name Saca used by the Persians to designate Scythians. The Indo-Scythians were named "Shaka" in India an extension on the name Saka used by the Persians to designate Scythians Shakas receive numerous mentions in texts like the Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Mahabhasya of Patanjali, the Brhat Samhita of Varaha Mihira, the Kavyamimamsa, the Brihat-Katha-Manjari, the Katha-Sarit Sagara and several other old texts. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" The Manu Smriti ( Sanskrit: मनुस्मृति is a work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki Patañjali ( Devanāgarī पतञ्जलि (fl 150 BCE or 2nd c Kathasaritsagara is a famous 11th century CE collection of Indian legends fairy tales and folk tales by Somadeva. The Shakas are described as part of an amalgam of other war-like tribes from the northwest.

The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni Buddha, is recorded to have been a member of a tribe called Shakya or Sākiya. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Shakya ( Sanskrit:Śākya and {{IAST|Pāli}}:Sākiya is the name (derived from Sanskrit śakya, capable able of an ancient Janapada (realm It is unknown whether this name indicates a relationship to the Sakas of later Indian history.

See also

References

  1. ^ Andrew Dalby, Dictionary of Languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages, Columbia University Press, 2004, pg 278
  2. ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press, 2004. The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature "Yona" is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate Greek speakers The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, Mount Imeon is an ancient name for the Central Asian complex of mountain ranges comprising the present Hindu Kush, Pamir and Tian Shan, extending In Indian mythology, dvīpa ( Devnagari: वीप "peninsula island" also mahadvipa "great island" is the term for the major divisions pg 197
  3. ^ Edward A Allworth,Central Asia: A Historical Overview,Duke University Press, 1994. pp 86.
  4. ^ For the names and forms as well as occurrences in Old Persian inscriptions see Kent, Roland G. (1953). American Oriental Series: Volume 33: Old Persian. American Oriental Society, page 209.   However, almost any Old Persian textbook or lexicon will do. The Latin and Greek can be found in any Latin dictionary and Greek lexicon.
  5. ^ a b Westermann, Claus; John J. Scullion, Translator (1984). Genesis 1-11: A Continental Commentary, page 506.  
  6. ^ Kurkjian, Vahan M. (1964). A History of Armenia. Armenian General Benevolent Union of America, page 23.  
  7. ^ Genesis 10:3. "The sons of Gomer were Ashkenaz, Riphath,[a] and Togarmah. " See also the entry for Ashkenaz in Young, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Mac Donald Publishing Company. ISBN 0917006291.  
  8. ^ Rolle, Renate; F. G. Walls (Translator) (1980). The World of the Scythians. University of California Press, pages 12-13. ISBN 0520068645.  
  9. ^ Kent (1953) page 210.
  10. ^ Dalby, Andrew (2004). Dictionary of Languages: the definitive reference to more than 400 languages. Columbia University Press, page 278.  
  11. ^ History, VII, 64
  12. ^ Strabo, XI, 8, 2
  13. ^ Ambaseos Alexandrou, III, 8, 3
  14. ^ Dr B. N. Mukerjee, Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 690-91.
  15. ^ Herodotus Book VII, 64
  16. ^ Naturalis Historia, VI, 19, 50
  17. ^ See: Lib. xi, p 254; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod
  18. ^ See: Indika, Fragment 1, Diodorus II. 35; See also: Annals and Antiquities, I, p 49, fn 6, James Tod.
  19. ^ Qv: Nonnos Dionysiaca 40. 260; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; See also: India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala etc.
  20. ^ Geography VI, 12, 1f; VI, 13; 1f, VI, 15, 1f
  21. ^ Megasthenes, Indika, FRAGM. XX. B. ; FRAGM. LVI. ; FRAGM. LVI. B. , J. W. McCrindle's; Pliny. Hist. Nat. V1. 21. 9-22. 1. ; Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11. ; Solinnus. 52. 6-17. See: http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm
  22. ^ Qv: Fragment IV, Strabo XV. i. II, p 689
  23. ^ Ref: Sumangavilasini, I. 1; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 65
  24. ^ XI. 8. 2.
  25. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 11, Ed Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 692,717, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee
  26. ^ Aseni, Osii(=Asii) and Asoi clans are also referenced by Pliny (Pliny: Hist Nat. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author , VI. 21. 8-23. 11, List of Indian races) and he locates them all in southern side of Hindukush. The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Bucephala was the capital of Aseni which stood on Hydaspes (Jhelum) (See: Alexander the Great, Sources and Studies, p 236, Dr W. "Hydaspes" redirects here For the historic battle see Battle of the Hydaspes. W. Tarn; Political History of Indian People, 1996, p 232, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee). Alexander had named this city after his horse Becephalus when it had died sometime in June of 326 BC after being fatally wounded at the Battle of Hydaspes with king Porus (Paurava) of Punjab
  27. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 111; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692. The Battle of the Hydaspes River was a Battle fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC against the Indian king Porus (Pururava Conflict alliance and comradeship with Alexander Unlike his neighbour Ambhi (in Greek Omphis, King Porus chose to fight Alexander the Great in Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c
  28. ^ For Asii = Aswa = Horse-people, see: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, reprint (2002), pp 53-54, 64 fn 1 etc
  29. ^ MBH 8. Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai 38. 13-14, 10. 13. 1-2; 7. 23. 42-43 etc.
  30. ^ For Asii/Aswa/Assaceni/Aspasio connection with horse, refer to Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), James Tod. Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai E. g: "In Aswa, we have ancient race peopled on both sides of Indus and probable etymon of Asia. The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time The Assaceni, the Ari-aspii, the Aspasians and (the Asii) whom Strabo describes as Scythic race have same origin. The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic Hence Asi-gurh (Hasi/Hansi) and Asii-gard, the first settlements of Scythic Asii in Scandinavia" (See: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), Vol I, p 64 fn 1. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well Also see: pp 51-54, 87, 95; Vol-2, P 2, James Tod. For nomenclature Aspasii, Hipasii, see: Olaf Caroe, The Pathans, 1958, pp 37, 55-56. Sir Olaf Kirkpatrick Kruuse Caroe ICS KCSI, KCIE (1892-1981 was an administrator in British India. Pliny also refers to horse clans like Aseni, Osii, Asoi living in north-west of India (which were none-else than the Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kambojas of Indian texts). Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire See: Hist. Nat. VI 21. 8-23. 11; See Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian, Trans. and edited by Dr J. W. McCrindle, Calcutta and Bombay,: Thacker, Spink, 1877, 30-174.
  31. ^ Encyclopedia Iranica Article on Asb [1]
  32. ^ Lohan. ParamaKambojan. Rishikan. uttaranapi:MBH 2. 27. 25; Kambojarishika ye cha MBH 5. 5. 15 etc.
  33. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 19996, Commentary, p 719, Dr B. N. Mukerjee. Cf: "It appears likely that like the Yue-chis, the Scythians had also occupied a part of Transoxiana before conquering Bactria. If the Tokhario, who were the same as or affiliated with Yue-chihs, and who were mistaken as Scythian people, particiapated in the same series of invasions of Bactria of the Greeks, then it may be inferred that eastern Bactria was conquered by Yue-chis and the western by other nomadic people in about the same period. The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that In other words, the Greek rule in Bactria was put to end in c 130/29 BC due to invasion by the Great Yue-chis and the Scythians Sakas nomads (Commentary: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 692-93, Dr B. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. N. Mukerjee). It is notable that before its occupation by Tukhara Yue-chis, Badakashan formed a part of ancient Kamboja i. e. Parama Kamboja country. But after its occupation by the Tukharas in second century BC, it became a part of Tukharistan. Tokharistan is a name which was given to Bactria, following its settlement by various Central Asian people in the 2nd century BC. Around 4th-5th century, when the fortunes of the Tukharas finally died down, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself and the region again started to be called by its ancient name Kamboja (See: Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p 534, Dr J. C. Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 129, 300 Dr J. L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 159, S Kirpal Singh). There are several later-time references to this Kamboja of Pamirs/Badakshan. Raghuvamsha, a 5th c Sanskrit play by Kalidasa, attests their presence on river Vamkshu (Oxus) as neighbors to the Hunas (4. This article is about Kalidasa's maha-kavya epic poetic work For the dynasty see Raghuvamsa. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical "Kalidasa" redirects here For the true bug Genus, see Kalidasa (insect. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. The Huna (also known as Indo-Hephthalites or Alchon) as they were known in South Asia, seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group who 68-70). They have also been attested as Kiumito by 7th c Chinese pilgrim Hiun Tsang. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. A pilgrim is one who undertakes a Pilgrimage, literally 'far afield' See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler Eighth century king of Kashmir, king Lalitadiya had invaded the Oxian Kambojas as is attested by Rajatarangini of Kalhana (See: Rajatarangini 4. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir The Rājatarangiṇī ( The River of Kings) is a metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir from earliest time written in Sanskrit by Kalhaṇa. Kalhana ( कल्हण) (c 12th century) a Kashmiri Brahmin was the celebrated author of Rajatarangini, Kashmir 's history 163-65). Here they are mentined as living in the eastern parts of the Oxus valley as neighbors to the Tukharas who were living in western parts of Oxus valley (See: The Land of the Kambojas, Purana, Vol V, No, July 1962, p 250, Dr D. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. C. Sircar). These Kambojas apparently were descendants of that section of the Kambojas who, instead of leaving their ancestral land during second c BC under assault from Ta Yue-chi, had compromised with the invaders and had decided to stay put in their ancestral land instead of moving to Helmond valley or to the Kabol valley. There are other references which equate Kamboja= Tokhara. A Buddhist Sanskrit Vinaya text (Dr N. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Dutt, Gilgit Manuscripts, III, 3, 136, quoted in B. S. O. A. S XIII, 404) has the expression satam Kambojikanam kanayanam i. e a hunderd maidens from Kamboja. This has been rendered in Tibetan as Tho-gar yul-gyi bu-mo brgya and in Mongolian as Togar ulus-un yagun ükin. Tibetan refers to a group of languages spoken primarily by Tibetan peoples who live across a wide area of eastern Central Asia bordering South Asia as well as by overseas The Mongolian language (mn [[ImageMonggol kelesvg 17px]] Mongɣol kele, Cyrillic: Монгол хэл Mongol khel) is the best-known member of Thus Kamboja has been rendered as Tho-gar or Togar. And Tho-gar/Togar is Tibetan/Mongolian names for Tokhar/Tukhar. See refs: Irano-Indica III, H. W. Bailey, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. Sir Harold Walter Bailey (December 16 1899 - January 11 1996 who published as H 13, No. 2, 1950 , pp. 389-409; see also: Ancient Kamboja, Iran and Islam, 1971, p 66, Dr H. W. Bailey.
  34. ^ Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510; Taxila, Vol I, p 24, Marshal, Early History of North India, p 50, Dr S. Chattopadhyava.
  35. ^ Select Inscriptions bearing on the Indian History and Civilization, Vol I, p 10; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj
  36. ^ Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510, E. J. Rapson (Ed); Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, p 46, Dr M. R. Singh.
  37. ^ Some writers interpret the Darian inscription as locating Sakas Haumavarka north of Suguda (Sogdiana), in the plains of Jaxartes in the Issyk-Kul Lake area. History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great Syr Darya (Сырдария Сирдарё Sirdaryoسيردريا also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo) is a River in Central Asia Issyk Kul (also Ysyk Köl, Issyk-kol; Ысыккөл Иссык-Куль is an Endorheic Lake in the northern Tian Shan mountains Para-Sugudma seems a more reasonable location for Saka Haumavarka because there was a different Sakas settlement near Suguda to the north of Jaxartes in the lower valleys near Aral. Further, in reference to the Transoxiana Sakas, Arrian mentions the Sakas living not far from Bactria and Sugada, likely an allusion to Haumavarka Sakas living in Tashkant, Fargana and Kashgar (See: History and Culture of Indian People, Vol II, p 120). Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود For others with this name see Arrianus (disambiguation. Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' (ca "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel.
  38. ^ See discussion in 'Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country', 1981, p 296 sqq. , Dr J. L. Kamboj.
  39. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 297, Dr J. L. Kamboj; cf also: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 381, 691-92, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury and Dr B. N. Murkerjee
  40. ^ Lohan paramakambojanrishikan uttaranpi. . . Mahabharata 2. 27. 25. See Ganguli's Trans: http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m02/m02026.htm. But it may be noted that Mr Ganguli has erroneously translated the expression Parama Kambojas as Eastern Kambojas which designation for Parama Kambojas is not correct and is misleading. Therefore see: Geographical Data in Early Puranas, pp 167-68, Dr M. R. Singh; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 1-8, K. D. Sethna; cf: A Geographical Text of Puranas: A Further Critical Study, Purana Vol VI, No 1, Feb 1962, pp 112- sqq. ; Purana, Vol VI, No 1, pp 207-14 etc
  41. ^ Dr Robert Shafer has recently reported that the Shakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Sugudas, etc were the left-over population of the Indo-Iranian Aryans after Aryans latter had moved from their original home in Central Asia to Iran and India (See Report: Ethnography of Ancient India, p 43, Robert Shafer)
  42. ^ Pirart 1998:542; Linguistic aspects of the Aryan non-invasion theory, section 3. The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Manu Smriti, various Puranas the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country 5. (Pre-IE substratum in Indo-Aryan: language X), Dr. Koenraad ELST, see link: http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/aid/keaitlin1.html; Central Asiatic Provinces of Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj, Ancient Kamboja in Iran and Islam, p 66-70, Dr H. W. Bailey etc.
  43. ^ See: Alam-shahir, p 18; Kamboj Itihaas, 1971, H. S. Thind.
  44. ^ J. W. McCrindle, Ancient India, Trans & edited Dr R. C. Majumdar, 1927, p 275, 325; Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.
  45. ^ Central Asiatic Provinces of the Maurya Empire, p 403, Dr H. C. Seth; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 48-49, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 92, S Kirpal Singh.
  46. ^ op cit. , 1927, p 268, 278, Dr J. W. McCrindle, Dr R. C. Majumdar
  47. ^ op cit. , 1927, p 284, McCrindle, Majumdar
  48. ^ H. C. Seth, P. C. Baghchi, Buddha Prakash, Dr J. L. Kamboj, S Kirpal Singh
  49. ^ Raghuvamsa 4. 68-71.
  50. ^ Rajatarangini 4. 163-165
  51. ^ See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 91-92, S Kirpal Singh ; On Kamboja-Kumuda and Komdei connection, see detailed discussion in Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 48-49, 155, 299-300, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
  52. ^ India as Known to Panini, p 70, Dr V. S. Aggarwala, The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S. Kirpal Singh.
  53. ^ See: The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 59, 92, 159, S Kipral Singh
  54. ^ Lohan. ParamaKambojan. Rishikanuttaranpi
  55. ^ Ancient Kamboja, in Iran and Islam, 1971, p 65, H. W. Bailey
  56. ^
    Kaambhoja. yavaneshen Vabhore. n vipatitah |
    tadaiva hastinapuryamebhrahemo nripeshavra || 223 ||
    (Raghu Nath Sinha, Shukarjatrangini tatha Rajatarangini Sangraha: p 110).
  57. ^ Dr Michael Witzel asserts that name Kamboja has also been transmitted as Ambautai by Ptolemy without the typical prefix K. Michael Witzel (born July 18, 1943 at Schwiebus, Germany now Poland is Wales Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard University, United Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Ptolemy (Geography 6. 18. 3) reports a section of people called Ambautai who were located on southern side of Paropamisus (Hindukush) towards Kabol valley. Paropamisadae (ˌpærəˌpæmɨˈseɪdiː Παροπαμισάδαι) or Paropamisus (ˌpærəˈpeɪmɨs Παροπαμισσός) was the ancient The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with Dr Michael and some other scholars asserts that Ambaurai = (K)ambautai = Kamboja. It is also asserted that –tai in Ambautai is a Scythian suffix (Italo Ronca, Ostiran und Zentralasien bei Ptolemeios, Diss. Mainz 1968. , p 121; cf also Bulitai]"; Hydronomy of Nepal, Dr Michael Witzel, p 40, fn 98. ). The Ambautai here apparently refers to the cis- Hindukush branch of Kambojas if the interpretation of Dr Michael is to be believed. And Geography implies they were Scythians people. Thus the Kambojas lying on the southern side of Hindukush were also included in the Scythian category of Classical writers.
  58. ^ See link http://www.nectec.or.th/thai-yunnan/20.html#r49, Serge quotes the following references: Foucher, La vieille route de l'Inde, p. 271; Also - Rock Edict 13, 30 (See Bloch). Some one knowing French language needs to check these references quoted by Serge.

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