Saffron crocus
A saffron crocus flower with red stigma.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Liliopsida Order: Asparagales Family: Iridaceae Genus: Crocus Species: C. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group Liliopsida is a Botanical name for the class containing the family Liliaceae (or Lily Family Asparagales is an order of Flowering plants The order must include the family Asparagaceae, but other families included in the order have varied markedly Iridaceae is a family of plants in Order Asparagales, taking its name from the Irises. CROCUS is a Research reactor at École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne in Switzerland, sometimes described as zero power but in fact limited sativus
Binomial name
Crocus sativus L.

Saffron (pronounced /ˈsæfrən/, /ˈsæfrɒn/) is a spice derived from the flower of the saffron crocus (Crocus sativus), a species of crocus in the family Iridaceae. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also CROCUS is a Research reactor at École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne in Switzerland, sometimes described as zero power but in fact limited Iridaceae is a family of plants in Order Asparagales, taking its name from the Irises. The flower has three stigmas, which are the distal ends of the plant's carpels. A gynoecium (from Ancient Greek gyne, "woman" is the Female reproductive part of a Flower. In fields of Anatomy, anatomical terms of location are descriptive terms to help identify relative positions or directions within a species A gynoecium (from Ancient Greek gyne, "woman" is the Female reproductive part of a Flower. Together with its style, the stalk connecting the stigmas to the rest of the plant, these components are often dried and used in cooking as a seasoning and colouring agent. Food preservation is the process of treating and handling Food in a way that preserves its edibility and nutrition value Cooking is the process of preparing Food by applying Heat, selecting measuring and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible Alternate meanings Seasoning (cast iron; Seasoning (wood; Seasoning (slave Seasoning is the process of imparting or improving A food coloring is any substance that is added to Food or Drink to change its Color. Saffron, which has for decades been the world's most expensive spice by weight,^[1][2] is native to Southwest Asia. Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. ^[2][3] It was first cultivated in the vicinity of Greece. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ^[4]

Saffron is characterised by a bitter taste and an iodoform- or hay-like fragrance; these are caused by the chemicals picrocrocin and safranal. Taste (or more formally gustation) is a form of direct Chemoreception and is one of the traditional five Senses The term 'iodoform' was also used in World War II to refer to Group keys sent to agents in Europe by the Special Operations Executive this usage is unrelated to the chemical Hay is a generic term for grass or Legumes that have been cut dried and stored for use as animal feed, particularly for grazing animals like A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. Picrocrocin is a monoterpene glycoside precursor of Safranal. Safranal is an Organic compound isolated from Saffron, the spice consisting of the stigmas of Crocus flowers ( Crocus sativus) ^[5][6] It also contains a carotenoid dye, crocin, that gives food a rich golden-yellow hue. Carotenoids are organic Pigments that are naturally occurring in Chromoplasts of plants and some other photosynthetic Organisms Crocin is a natural Carotenoid chemical compound that is found in the flowers Crocus and Gardenia. These traits make saffron a much-sought ingredient in many foods worldwide. Saffron also has medicinal applications. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the

The word saffron originated from the 12th-century Old French term safran, which derives from the Latin word safranum. Old French was the Romance Dialect continuum spoken in territories which span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Safranum is also related to the Italian zafferano and Spanish azafrán. Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. ^[7] Safranum comes from the Arabic word aṣfar (أَصْفَر‎), which means "yellow," via the paronymous zaʻfarān (زَعْفَرَان‎), the name of the spice in Persian. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Yellow is the Color evoked by light that stimulates both the L and M (long and medium wavelength Cone cells of the Retina about equally A paronym or paronyme in Linguistics may refer to two different things A Word that is related to another word and derives from the same ^[6][8]

Biology

Saffron crocus morphology
	→  Stamens (male organs). The stamen ( Plural stamina or stamens, from Latin stamen meaning "thread of the warp " is the male
	→  Corolla (whorl of petals). A petal (from Ancient Greek petalon "leaf" "thin plate" regarded as a highly modified leaf is one member or part of the corolla
	→  Corm (propagation organ). A corm is a short vertical swollen underground Plant stem that serves as a Storage organ used by some plants to survive winter or other adverse conditions

The domesticated saffron crocus C. sativus is an autumn-flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild, and is a sterile triploid mutant of the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group A perennial plant or perennial ( Latin per, "through" annus, "year" is a Plant that lives for more than Polyploidy occurs in cells and Organisms when there are more than two homologous sets of Chromosomes. Crocus cartwrightianus is an eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering species of Crocus, and is of the family Iridaceae ( irises ^[9] According to botanical research, C. cartwrightianus originated in Crete, not—as was once generally believed—in Central Asia. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south ^[6] The saffron crocus resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers who desired elongated stigmas. Artificial selection is the intentional breeding for certain traits or combinations of traits over others and is synonymous with " Selective breeding " Being sterile, the saffron crocus's purple flowers fail to produce viable seeds—thus, reproduction is dependent on human assistance: the corms (underground bulb-like starch-storing organs) must be manually dug up, broken apart, and replanted. A corm is a short vertical swollen underground Plant stem that serves as a Storage organ used by some plants to survive winter or other adverse conditions A corm survives for only one season, reproducing via division into up to ten "cormlets" that eventually give rise to new plants. ^[9] The corms are small brown globules up to 4. 5 centimetres (1. 8 in) in diameter and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibers.

After a period of aestivation in summer, five to eleven narrow and nearly vertical green leaves—growing up to 40 cm (16 in) in length—emerge from the ground. Estivation or aestivation (from Latin aestas, summer also known as "summer sleep" is a state of Dormancy somewhat similar In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, does it develop its brilliantly hued flowers, ranging from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve. About the plant lilac see Syringa. Lilac is a color that is a pale shade of violet. Mauve (French form of Malva, " Mallow " məʊv rhymes with "grove" is a pale lavender - lilac Color, ^[10] Upon flowering, it averages less than 30 cm (12 in) in height. ^[11] Inside each flower is a three-pronged style; in turn, each prong terminates with a crimson stigma 25–30 mm in length. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International ^[9]

Cultivation

Two saffron crocus flowers in Osaka Prefecture, Japan. WikipediaWikiProject Japanese prefectures for guidelines --> is a prefecture located in the Kinki region on Honshū, the main island of For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics.

The saffron crocus thrives in climates similar to that of the Mediterranean maquis or the North American chaparral, where hot, dry summer breezes blow across arid and semi-arid lands. Maquis ( French) or macchia ( Italian; plural macchie) is a Shrubland Biome in the Mediterranean region, typically Chaparral is a Shrubland or heathland Plant community found primarily in the U Nevertheless, the plant can tolerate cold winters, surviving frosts as cold as −10 °C (14 °F) and short periods of snow cover. ^[12][9] However, if not grown in wet environments like Kashmir (where rainfall averages 1000–1500 mm annually), irrigation is needed—this is true in the saffron-growing regions of Greece (500 mm of rainfall annually) and Spain (400 mm). Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops Rainfall timing is also key: generous spring rains followed by relatively dry summers are optimal. In addition, rainfall occurring immediately prior to flowering also boosts saffron yields; nevertheless, rainy or cold weather occurring during flowering promotes disease, thereby reducing yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions also harm yields,^[13] as do the digging actions of rabbits, rats, and birds. Parasites such as nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot also pose significant threats. The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common Rusts are Fungi of the order Uredinales. Many of these species are plant Parasites. ^[14]

Saffron plants grow best in strong and direct sunlight, and fare poorly in shady conditions. Thus, planting is best done in fields that slope towards the sunlight (i. e. south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere), maximizing the crocuses' sun exposure. In the Northern Hemisphere, planting is mostly done in June, with corms planted some 7–15 cm deep. Northern Hemisphere is the half of a Planet that is North of the Equator —the word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' Planting depth and corm spacing—along with climate—are both critical factors impacting plant yields. Thus, mother corms planted more deeply yield higher-quality saffron, although they produce fewer flower buds and daughter corms. With such knowledge, Italian growers have found that planting corms 15 centimetres (5. 9 in) deep and in rows spaced 2–3 cm apart optimizes threads yields, whereas planting depths of 8–10 cm optimizes flower and corm production. Meanwhile, Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers have devised different depths and spacings to suit their own climates. ^[13]

Saffron crocuses grow best in friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareous soils with high organic content. Calcareous refers to a Sediment, Sedimentary rock, or Soil type which is formed from or contains a high proportion of Calcium carbonate in the Raised beds are traditionally used to promote good drainage. Historically, soil organic content was boosted via application of some 20–30 tonnes of manure per hectare. Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, Afterwards—and with no further manure application—corms were planted. ^[14] After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do the plants begin to flower. Harvesting of flowers is by necessity a speedy affair: after their flowering at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes. ^[15] Furthermore, saffron crocuses bloom within a narrow window spanning one or two weeks. ^[16] Approximately 150 flowers yield 1 g of dry saffron threads; to produce 12 g of dried saffron (72 g freshly harvested), 1 kg of flowers are needed (1 lb for 0. For other uses of the words gram or gramme see Gram (disambiguation. 2 oz of dried saffron). On average, one freshly picked flower yields 0. 03 g of fresh saffron, or 0. 007 g of dried saffron. ^[14]

Chemistry

Crocin formation
Esterification reaction between crocetin and gentiobiose. Crocin is a natural Carotenoid chemical compound that is found in the flowers Crocus and Gardenia. Esterification is the general name for a Chemical reaction in which two reactants (typically an alcohol and an acid form an Ester as the reaction product Crocetin is a natural Carotenoid dicarboxylic acid that is found in the Crocus flower Gentiobiose is a Disaccharide composed of two units of D-glucose joined with a &beta(1->6 linkage
	—  β-D-gentiobiose. In Sugar Chemistry, an anomer is a special type of Epimer. It is a Stereoisomer ( Diastereomer, more exactly of a Saccharide Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single sacchar: sugar are the most basic unit of Carbohydrates They consist of one sugar and
	—  Crocetin.

Picrocrocin and safranal
Chemical structure of picrocrocin. Picrocrocin is a monoterpene glycoside precursor of Safranal. [17]
	—  Safranal moiety. Safranal is an Organic compound isolated from Saffron, the spice consisting of the stigmas of Crocus flowers ( Crocus sativus)
	—  β-D-glucopyranose derivative. In Sugar Chemistry, an anomer is a special type of Epimer. It is a Stereoisomer ( Diastereomer, more exactly of a Saccharide Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single sacchar: sugar are the most basic unit of Carbohydrates They consist of one sugar and

Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components,^[18] many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various α- and β-carotenes. Zeaxanthin is one of the two Carotenoids contained within the Retina of the Eye. Lycopene is a bright red Carotenoid pigment and Phytochemical found in Tomatoes and other red fruits The term carotene is used for several related substances having the formula C40H56 However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of α-crocin. This crocin is trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester (systematic (IUPAC) name: 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid). Crocetin is a natural Carotenoid dicarboxylic acid that is found in the Crocus flower Gentiobiose is a Disaccharide composed of two units of D-glucose joined with a &beta(1->6 linkage Esters are a class of Chemical compounds and Functional groups Esters consist of an inorganic or organic Acid in which at least IUPAC Nomenclature is a system of naming Chemical compounds and of describing the science of Chemistry in general This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin. ^[18] Crocins themselves are a series of hydrophilic carotenoids that are either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl polyene esters of crocetin. Hydrophile, from the Greek (hydros "water" and φιλια (philia "friendship" refers to a physical property of a Molecule A glycosyl group is a structure obtained by removing the Hydroxyl group from the Hemiacetal function the anomeric carbon of a Monosaccharide and by extension Polyenes are poly- unsaturated Organic compounds that contain one or more sequences of alternating double and single Carbon -carbon bonds ^[18] Meanwhile, crocetin is a conjugated polyene dicarboxylic acid that is hydrophobic, and thus oil-soluble. A chemically conjugated system is a system of atoms Covalently bonded with alternating single and multiple (e Carboxylic acids are Organic acids characterized by the presence of a Carboxyl group, which has the formula -C(=OOH usually written -COOH or -CO2H Hydrophile, from the Greek (hydros "water" and φιλια (philia "friendship" refers to a physical property of a Molecule When crocetin is esterified with two water-soluble gentiobioses (which are sugars), a product results that is itself water-soluble. Esterification is the general name for a Chemical reaction in which two reactants (typically an alcohol and an acid form an Ester as the reaction product Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based (non-fatty) foods such as rice dishes. ^[4]

The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. A glucoside is a Glycoside that is derived from Glucose. Glucosides are common in plants but rare in animals Picrocrocin (chemical formula: C₁₆H₂₆O₇; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6- trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde sub-element known as safranal (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-dien-1- carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the Atoms that constitute a particular Chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes An aldehyde is an organic compound containing a terminal Carbonyl group. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Significantly, picrocrocin is a truncated version (produced via oxidative cleavage) of the carotenoid zeaxanthin and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state Zeaxanthin is one of the two Carotenoids contained within the Retina of the Eye. Terpenes are a large and varied class of Hydrocarbons, produced primarily by a wide variety of plants particularly Conifers though also by some insects such An aldehyde is an organic compound containing a terminal Carbonyl group. The reddish-coloured^[19] zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids naturally present within the retina of the human eye. The vertebrate retina is a light sensitive part inside the inner layer of the Eye. Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain

When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield D-glucose and a free safranal molecule. Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single sacchar: sugar are the most basic unit of Carbohydrates They consist of one sugar and Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. ^[17] Safranal, a volatile oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma. An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile ^[5][20] Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples. ^[19] A second element underlying saffron's aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent of which has been described as "saffron, dried hay like". ^[21] Chemists found this to be the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance despite its being present in a lesser quantity than safranal. ^[21] Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and oxidizing agents. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state It must therefore be stored away in air-tight containers in order to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.

Crocus sativus has been shown to have antidepressant effects; two active ingredients are crocin and safranal. Crocin is a natural Carotenoid chemical compound that is found in the flowers Crocus and Gardenia. Safranal is an Organic compound isolated from Saffron, the spice consisting of the stigmas of Crocus flowers ( Crocus sativus) ^[22]

History

A detail of the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco from the "Xeste 3" building. The fresco is one of many dealing with saffron that were found at the bronze age settlement of Akrotiri, Santorini.

Main article: History of saffron

The history of saffron cultivation reaches back more than 3,000 years. The history of saffron in human cultivation and use reaches back more than 3500 years but was first cultivated in Greece. ^[9] The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus was Crocus cartwrightianus. Human cultivators bred wild specimens by selecting for unusually long stigmas. Thus, a sterile mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, C. sativus, emerged in late Bronze Age Crete. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the ^[23] Experts believe saffron was first documented in a 7th century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Ashurbanipal ( Akkadian: Aššur-bāni-apli, " Ashur has made a son" or "Ashur created an heir" (b Since then, documentation of saffron's use over the span of 4,000 years in the treatment of some 90 illnesses has been uncovered. ^[24] Saffron has been used as a spice and medicine in the Mediterranean region since then, with usage and cultivation slowly spreading to other parts of Eurasia as well as North Africa and North America. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan In the last several decades, saffron cultivation has spread to Oceania.

Mediterranean

Minoans portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1500–1600 BC, showing saffron's use as a therapeutic drug. The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which arose on the island of Crete. ^[25][24] Later, Greek legends told of sea voyages to Cilicia. Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria There, adventurers hoped to procure what they believed was the world's most valuable saffron. ^[12] Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the original saffron crocus. ^[26] Ancient Mediterranean peoples—including perfumers in Egypt, physicians in Gaza, townspeople in Rhodes,^[27] and the Greek hetaerae courtesans—used saffron in their perfumes, ointments,^[28] potpourris, mascaras, divine offerings, and medical treatments. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Gaza (غزة, עַזָּה ʕazzā is the largest city in the Gaza Strip and the Palestinian territories. Rhodes (Ρόδος Ródos, ˈɾo̞ðo̞s Rodi ردوس Rodos; Ladino: Rodi or Rodes) is a Greek island For the elite Ancient Macedonian cavalry ( hetairoi, "companions" see Companion cavalry. ^[28]

This ancient Minoan fresco from Knossos, Crete shows a monkey (stooped blue figure) gathering the saffron harvest. The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which arose on the island of Crete. Knossos (alternative spellings Knossus, Cnossus, Greek Κνωσός kno̞ˈso̞s also known as the Knossos Palace is the largest Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the

In late Hellenistic Egypt, Cleopatra used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt ^[29] Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments. ^[30] Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such Levant cities as Sidon and Tyre. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Sidon,or Saïda, ( Arabic ar صيدا; Phoenician phoenician yodh Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew ^[31] Aulus Cornelius Celsus prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the mithridatium. Aulus Cornelius Celsus (ca 25 BC—ca 50 was a Roman encyclopedist and Physician. This article is about the remedy Mithridate is also a play by Jean Racine. ^[32] Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took their saffron with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th century AD Moors or with the Avignon papacy in the 14th century AD. The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent Avignon (/aviɲɔ̃/ in French) ( Provençal: Avinhon in classical norm or Avignoun in Mistralian norm is a commune ^[33]

Asia

The 17. 8 m monolith of Jain Tirthankara Bhagavan Gomateshwara Bahubali, which was carved between 978–993 AD and is located in Shravanabelagola, India, is anointed with saffron every 12 years by thousands of devotees as part of the Mahamastakabhisheka festival. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A monolith is a geological feature such as a Mountain, consisting of a single massive stone or rock or a single piece of rock placed as or within a monument Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. In Jainism, a Tirthankar (" Fordmaker " (also Tirthankara or Jina) is a Human being who achieves enlightenment (perfect Bhagavan, also written Bhagwan or Bhagawan, from the Sanskrit nt -stem bhaga-vant- (nominative/vocative sa भगवान् Gomateshwara is a monolithic statue standing at above a hill in a place called Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka state India According to Jain Scriptures Bahubali (also known as Gommateshvara) was the youngest of the one hundred sons of the first Tirthankara, Lord Rishabha Shravanabelagola (ಶ್ರವಣಬೆಳಗೊಳ is a city located in the Hassan district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Mahamasthakabhisheka (or Mahamasthak Abhishek) is an important Jain festival held once every twelve years in the town of Shravanabelagola in Karnataka

Saffron-based pigments have been found in 50,000 year-old depictions of prehistoric beasts in what is today Iraq. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. ^[26][34] Later, the Sumerians used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions. ^[35] Saffron was thus an article of long-distance trade before the Minoan palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Saffron was also honored in the Hebrew Song of Solomon. ^[36] Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii') in Derbena, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,^[26] ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes. ^[37] Thus, saffron threads would be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac. ^[28] During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Alexander's troops mimicked the practice and brought saffron-bathing back to Greece. ^[38]

Theories explaining saffron's arrival in South Asia conflict. Traditional Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 900–2500 years ago. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ^[39][40] Meanwhile, historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,^[4] attributing it to either Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks^[41] or to a Persian invasion and colonization of Kashmir. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. ^[28] From there, saffron use in foods and dyes spread throughout South Asia. For example, Buddhist monks in India adopted saffron-coloured robes after the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama's death. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder ^[42] However, the robes were not dyed with costly saffron but turmeric, a less expensive dye, or jackfruit. Turmeric ( Curcuma longa) is a Rhizomatous Herbaceous Perennial plant of the Ginger family Zingiberaceae See also Mangifera caesia The jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus) is a species of Tree of the mulberry family ( Moraceae) ^[43]

Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with Mongol invaders by way of Persia. ^[44] On the other hand, saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume Shennong Bencaojing (神農本草經—"Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as Pen Ts'ao or Pun Tsao) pharmacopoeia, a tome dating from 200–300 BC. Traditionally attributed to the legendary Yan ("Fire") Emperor (炎帝) Shennong, it documents 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders. Shennong ( also known as the Yan Emperor (炎帝 or the Emperor of the Five Grains ( is a Legendary ruler of China and Culture hero ^[45][46][42] Yet around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. For example, Wan Zhen, a Chinese medical expert, reported that "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha. " Wan also reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice "

Europe

Medieval European illuminated manuscripts, such as this 13th century depiction of Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket's assassination, often used saffron dyes to provide hues of yellow and orange. An illuminated manuscript is a Manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration such as decorated Initials borders and The Archbishop of Canterbury is the chief bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the St Thomas Becket (c 1118 &ndash December 29, 1170) was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 to 1170 Yellow is the Color evoked by light that stimulates both the L and M (long and medium wavelength Cone cells of the Retina about equally The colour orange occurs

In Europe, saffron cultivation declined steeply following the Roman Empire's fall. Saffron was reintroduced when Moorish civilization spread to Spain, France, and Italy. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or ^[47] During the 14th century Black Death, demand for saffron-based medicine skyrocketed, and much saffron had to be imported via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands^[48] such as Rhodes. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Rhodes (Ρόδος Ródos, ˈɾo̞ðo̞s Rodi ردوس Rodos; Ladino: Rodi or Rodes) is a Greek island The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week long "Saffron War". ^[48] The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred significant saffron cultivation in Basel, which grew prosperous. "Basilia" redirects here For the Fly Genus, see Basilia (fly. ^[49] Cultivation and trade then spread to Nuremberg, where epidemic levels of saffron adulteration brought on the Safranschou code, under which saffron adulterers were fined, imprisoned, and executed. ^[50] Soon after, saffron cultivation spread throughout England, especially Norfolk and Suffolk. Norfolk (ˈnɔrfək is a low-lying county in East Anglia, England, United Kingdom. Suffolk (ˈsʌfək is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in East Anglia, England. The Essex town of Saffron Walden, named for its new specialty crop, emerged as England's prime saffron growing and trading center. Saffron Walden is a medium-sized market town in the Uttlesford district of Essex, England. However, an influx of more exotic spices such as chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla from newly contacted Eastern and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of saffron to decline. Chocolate ( pronounced or /-ˈələt/ comprises a number of raw and processed foods that are produced from the seed of the tropical Cacao tree CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market Vanilla is a Flavoring derived from Orchids of the genus Vanilla native to Mexico. ^[51][52] Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain, did significant cultivation endure. ^[53]

Europeans brought saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the Schwenkfelder Church left Europe with a trunk containing saffron corms; indeed, many Schwenkfelders had widely grown saffron in Europe. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America The Schwenkfelder Church is a small American Christian body rooted in the 16th century Protestant Reformation teachings of Caspar Schwenkfeld ^[54] By 1730, the Pennsylvania Dutch were cultivating saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania Dutch (perhaps more strictly Pennsylvania Deitsch, Pennsylvania Germans or Pennsylvania Deutsch) are the descendants of German The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ( often colloquially referred to as PA (its abbreviation by natives and Northeasterners is a state located in the Northeastern Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold. Philadelphia (ˌfɪləˈdɛlfiə Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 ^[55] The trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-transporting merchant vessels were destroyed. The War of 1812 was fought between the United States of America and the British Empire, particularly Great Britain and her North American colonies ^[56] Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes. ^[57] American saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Lancaster County Pennsylvania, known as the Garden Spot of America since the 18th century is located in the southeastern part of the state of Pennsylvania ^[54]

Trade and use

Saffron is one of the three essential ingredients in the Spanish paella valenciana, and is responsible for its characteristic brilliant yellow colouring. Spanish cuisine consists of a variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography culture and climate Paella (pa'eʎa is an internationally famous dish consisting of White rice, Meat, Seafood, Beans and Vegetables (depending on

Main article: Trade and use of saffron

Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and somewhat bitter. Saffron has been used as a Seasoning, Fragrance, Dye, and Medicine for more than 3000 years Grass is the common word that generally describes Monocotyledonous green Plants The family Gramineae ( Poaceae) are the "true grasses" and include Hay is a generic term for grass or Legumes that have been cut dried and stored for use as animal feed, particularly for grazing animals like Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Iranian (Persian), Arab, Central Asian, European, Indian,Turkish, Moroccan and Cornish cuisines. Persian cuisine or the cuisine of Iran is diverse with each province featuring dishes culinary traditions and styles distinct to their regions Persian cuisine or the cuisine of Iran is diverse with each province featuring dishes culinary traditions and styles distinct to their regions Arab cuisine is defined as the various regional cuisines spanning the Arab World from Iraq to Morocco to Somalia to Yemen, and incorporating Asian cuisine is a term used in the West as an umbrella term for the various cuisines of South Asia, East Asia and Southeast Asia and for fusion European cuisine, or alternatively Western cuisine is a generalized term collectively referring to the Cuisines of Europe and other Western countries Turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine, which can be described as a fusion and refinement of Central Asian, Middle Eastern and Moroccan cuisine is one of the most diversified cuisines in the world Cornwall ( Kernow ˈkɛɹnɔʊ is the most southwesterly county of England, on the Peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar Confectionaries and liquors also often include saffron. Common saffron substitutes include safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "assafroa") and turmeric (Curcuma longa). Safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius L) is a highly branched Herbaceous, Thistle -like annual usually with many long sharp spines on the leaves Turmeric ( Curcuma longa) is a Rhizomatous Herbaceous Perennial plant of the Ginger family Zingiberaceae Medicinally, saffron has a long history as part of traditional healing; modern medicine has also discovered saffron as having anticarcinogenic (cancer-suppressing),^[18] anti-mutagenic (mutation-preventing), immunomodulating, and antioxidant-like properties. An anticarcinogen is any chemical which reduces the occurrence of Cancers reduces the severity of cancers that do occur or acts against cancers that do occur based on evidence An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules ^[58][18][59] Saffron has also been used as a fabric dye, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery. A dye can generally be described as a Colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

World saffron cultivation patterns
A map showing the primary saffron-producing nations.
	—  Major growing regions.
	—  Major producing nations.
	—  Minor growing regions.
	—  Minor producing nations.
	—  Major trading centres (current).
	—  Major trading centres (historical).

Most saffron is grown in a belt of land ranging from the Mediterranean in the west to Kashmir in the east. Annually, around 300 tonnes of saffron are produced worldwide. ^[6] Iran ranks first in the world production of saffron, with more than 81 percent of the world yield. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. ^[60] Iran's annual saffron production is expected to hit 300 tons by the end of the nation's Fourth Five-Year Socioeconomic Development Plan in 2009. Other minor producers of saffron are Spain, India, Greece, Azerbaijan, Morocco, and Italy. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest A pound of dry saffron (0. 45 kg) requires 50,000–75,000 flowers, the equivalent of a football field's area of cultivation. ^[61][62] Some forty hours of frenetic day-and-night labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers. ^[63] Upon extraction, stigmas are dried quickly and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers. ^[64] Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from US$500/pound to US$5,000/pound (US$1100–US$11,000 per kilogram)—equivalent to £250/€350 per pound or £5,500/€7,500 per kilo. In Western countries, the average retail price is $1,000/£500/€700 per pound (US$2200/£1100/€1550 per kilogram). ^[2] A pound comprises between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, recent harvest date, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.

Cultivars

Saffron threads (red-coloured stigmas) mixed with styles (yellow) from Iran.

Several saffron cultivars are grown worldwide. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar Spain's varieties, including the tradenames 'Spanish Superior' and 'Creme', are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are more potent, while the most intense varieties tend to be Macedonian Greek (Krokos Kozanis), Iranian, and Indian in origin. Macedonia ( Μακεδονία, Makedonía,) is a geographical and historical region of Greece in southeastern Europe Krokos is a small Greek town of 5000 inhabitants only 5 km south of the city of Kozani. Kozani (Κοζάνη is a city in northern Greece, capital of Kozani Prefecture and of West Macedonia Periphery. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Westerners may face significant obstacles in obtaining saffron from India. For example, India has banned the export of high-grade saffron abroad. Aside from these, various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries, some organically grown. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation In the U. S. , Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its earthy notes—is marketed in small quantities. ^[54][65]

Close-up of a single crocus thread (the dried stigma). Actual length is about 20 millimeters (0. 8 in).

Consumers regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron (zafferano dell'Aquila)—defined by high safranal and crocin content, shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour—is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's Abruzzo region, near L'Aquila. L'Aquila is a city and Comune of central Italy. Laid out within medieval walls on a hill in the wide valley of the Aterno river and surrounded It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition-era Spain. The Spanish Inquisition started and was established in 1478 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile to maintain But in Italy the biggest saffron cultivation, for quality and quantity, is in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia. Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) There, saffron is grown on 40 hectares (60% of Italian production); it also has very high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the Kashmiri "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron (Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir, combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its high prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its extremely dark maroon-purple hue, among the world's darkest, which suggests the saffron's strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.

Grades

Saffron types are graded by quality according to laboratory measurements of such characteristics as crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance) content. In Spectroscopy, the absorbance A is defined as A_\lambda = -\log_{10}(I/I_0\ where I is the intensity of light A nanometre ( American spelling: nanometer, symbol nm) ( Greek: νάνος nanos dwarf; μετρώ metrό count) is a Other metrics include floral waste content (i. e. the saffron spice sample's non-stigma floral content) and measurements of other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash"). A uniform set of international standards in saffron grading was established by the International Organization for Standardization, which is an international federation of national standards bodies. Namely, ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron. It establishes four empirical grades of colour intensity: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Saffron samples are then assigned to one of these grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, which is revealed by measurements of crocin-specific spectroscopic absorbance. In Spectroscopy, the absorbance A is defined as A_\lambda = -\log_{10}(I/I_0\ where I is the intensity of light Absorbance is defined as A_λ = − log(I / I₀), with A_λ as absorbance (Beer-Lambert law). In It is a measure of a given substance's transparency (I / I₀, the ratio of light intensity passing through sample to that of the incident light) to a given wavelength of light.

For saffron, absorbance is determined for the crocin-specific photon wavelength of 440 nm in a given dry sample of spice. In Physics, the photon is the Elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena In Physics wavelength is the distance between repeating units of a propagating Wave of a given Frequency. A nanometre ( American spelling: nanometer, symbol nm) ( Greek: νάνος nanos dwarf; μετρώ metrό count) is a ^[66] Higher absorbances at this wavelength imply greater crocin concentration, and thus a greater colourative intensity. These data are measured through spectrophotometry reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. In Physics, spectrophotometry is the quantitative study of electromagnetic spectra. These colour grades proceed from grades with absorbances lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores. ^[66] However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practiced by practised wine tasters. ^[67]

Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration—particularly among the cheapest grades—continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code. ^[68] Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beet, pomegranate fibers, red-dyed silk fibers, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odorless yellow stamens. The beet or beetroot is a Flowering plant species ( Beta vulgaris) in the family Chenopodiaceae. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Other methods included dousing saffron fibers with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabeled mixes of different saffron grades. ^[42] Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income. ^[69][70]

Notes

Saffron crocuses flowering in a garden in Osaka Prefecture (大阪府), Kansai, Honshū, Japan. WikipediaWikiProject Japanese prefectures for guidelines --> is a prefecture located in the Kinki region on Honshū, the main island of The or the lies in the southern-central region of Japan 's main island Honshū. or Honshu is the largest Island of Japan. The nation's main island, it is south of Hokkaidō across the Tsugaru Strait, north of For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics.

A saffron crocus flower.

References

External links

• Media related to Crocus sativus from the Wikimedia Commons.
• Red Gold Greek Saffron by Ellen Gooch, Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Winter 2006
• Crocus sativus List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's)