Primary and secondary roots in a cotton plant

In vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant body that typically lies below the surface of the soil. Vascular plants (also known as tracheophytes or higher plants) are those Plants that have lignified tissues for conducting Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. But, this is not always the case, since a root can also be aerial (that is, growing above the ground) or aerating (that is, growing up above the ground or especially above water). "Pneumatophore" redirects here It is also a name for the air bladder of the Portuguese Man o' War. On the other hand, a stem normally occurring below ground is not exceptional either (see rhizome). In Botany, a rhizome is a horizontal stem of a Plant that is usually found underground often sending out Roots and Shoots So, it is better to define root as a part of a plant body that bears no leaves, and therefore also lacks nodes. A stem is one of two main structural axes of a Vascular plant. There are also important internal structural differences between stems and roots. The two major functions of roots are 1. ) absorption of water and inorganic nutrients and 2. ) anchoring the plant body to the ground. Roots also function in cytokinin synthesis, which supplies some of the shoot's needs. Cytokinins (CK are a class of Plant growth substances ( Plant Hormones that promote Cell division. They often function in storage of food. The roots of most vascular plant species enter into symbiosis with certain fungi to form mycorrhizas, and a large range of other organisms including bacteria also closely associate with roots. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ A mycorrhiza (Greek for fungus roots coined by Frank 1885 typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic (occasionally The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have

Root structure

Roots of a hydroponically grown plant

At the tip of every growing root is a conical covering of tissue called the root cap, which consists of undifferentiated soft tissue (parenchyma) with unthickened walls covering the apical meristem. Hydroponics (from the Greek words hydro (water and ponos (labour is a method of growing Plants using mineral Nutrient solutions without A meristem is a tissue in all Plants consisting of undifferentiated cells ( meristematic cells) and found in zones of the plant where growth can take place The root cap provides mechanical protection to the meristem as the root advances through the soil. As the root cap cells are worn away they are continually replaced by new cells generated by cell division within the meristem. The root cap is also involved in the production of mucigel, a sticky mucilage that coats the new formed cells. Mucigel is a slimy substance that covers the rootcap of the roots of Plants. These cells contain statoliths, starch grains that move in response to gravity and thus control root orientation.

The outside surface of the primary root is the epidermis. The epidermis is the outer single-layered group of cells covering a Plant, especially the Leaf and young tissues of a Vascular plant including stems Recently produced epidermal cells absorb water from the surrounding environment and produce outgrowths called root hairs that greatly increase the cell's absorptive surface. Trichomes, from the Greek meaning "growth of Hair " are fine outgrowths or appendages on Plants and certain Protists These are of diverse Root hairs are very delicate and generally short-lived, remaining functional for only a few days. However, as the root grows, new epidermal cells emerge and these form new root hairs, replacing those that die. The process by which water is absorbed into the epidermal cells from the soil is known as osmosis. Osmosis is the Diffusion of a solvent (frequently water through a semi-permeable membrane, from a solution of low solute concentration (high water potential For this reason, water that is saline is more difficult for most plant species to absorb. Salinity is the Saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of Water.

Cross section of the root of a dicotyledon

Beneath the epidermis is the cortex, which comprises the bulk of the primary root. Dicotyledons, or "dicots", is a name for a group of Flowering plants whose Seed typically has two embryonic leaves or Cotyledons There Its main function is storage of starch. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Intercellular spaces in the cortex aerate cells for respiration. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from An endodermis is a thin layer of small cells forming the innermost part of the cortex and surrounding the vascular tissues deeper in the root. Literally meaning "inner skin" endodermis is the layer of tissue deep in vascular plants This is an article about vascular tissue in plants For transport in animals see Circulatory system. The tightly packed cells of the endodermis contain a substance known as suberin in their cell walls. Suberin is a waxy substance found in higher Plants Suberin is a main constituent of cork, and is named after the Cork Oak, Quercus suber This suberin layer is the Casparian strip, which creates an impermeable barrier of sorts. In plant anatomy the Casparian strip is a band of Cell wall material in the radial and transverse walls of the Endodermis, which is chemically different from the Mineral nutrients can only move passively within root cell walls until they reach the endodermis. At that point, they must be actively transported across a cell membrane to continue further into the root. This allows the plant to accumulate mineral nutrients in the stele. In a Vascular plant, the stele is the central part of the Root or stem containing the Vascular tissue and occasionally a Pith.

The vascular cylinder, or stele, consists of the cells inside the endodermis. The outer part, known as the pericycle, surrounds the actual vascular tissue. The pericycle is a cylinder of parenchyma cells that lies just inside the Endodermis and is the outer most part of the Stele (biology of plants This is an article about vascular tissue in plants For transport in animals see Circulatory system. In monocotyledonous plants, the xylem and phloem cells are arranged in a circle around a pith or center, whereas in dicotyledons, the xylem cells form a central "hub" with lobes, and phloem cells fill in the spaces between the lobes. Monocotyledons or monocots are one of two major groups of Flowering plants (angiosperms that are traditionally recognised the other being Dicotyledons In Vascular plants xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue Phloem being the other In Vascular plants phloem is the living tissue that carries organic Nutrients (known as photosynthate particularly Sucrose, a sugar to Pith is a light substance that is found in Vascular plants It consists of soft spongy Parenchyma cells and is located in the center of the stem. Dicotyledons, or "dicots", is a name for a group of Flowering plants whose Seed typically has two embryonic leaves or Cotyledons There

Secondary growth

All roots have primary growth or growth in length. Roots of many vascular plants, especially dicots and gymnosperms, often undergo secondary growth, which is an increase in diameter. Dicotyledons, or "dicots", is a name for a group of Flowering plants whose Seed typically has two embryonic leaves or Cotyledons There A vascular cambium forms in the stele to produce secondary phloem and secondary xylem. In Vascular plants xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue Phloem being the other The epidermis is replaced by a periderm. As the stele increases in diameter, the cortex, pericycle and endodermis are lost. Even non-woody roots often undergo secondary growth, including those of tomato and alfalfa.

Root growth

Root systems of prairie plants

Cross Section of a mango tree

Early root growth is one of the functions of the apical meristem located near the tip of the root. Prairie, from the French prairie ("meadow" "grassland" "pasture" refers to an area of land of low topographic relief that historically Mangoes belong to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting Trees in the Flowering plant family Anacardiaceae The meristem cells more or less continuously divide, producing more meristem, root cap cells (these sacrificed to protect the meristem), and undifferentiated root cells. The latter will become the primary tissues of the root, first undergoing elongation, a process that pushes the root tip forward in the growing medium. Gradually these cells differentiate and mature into specialized cells of the root tissues.

Roots will generally grow in any direction where the correct environment of air, mineral nutrients and water exists to meet the plant's needs. Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five A nutrient is food or chemicals that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Roots will not grow in dry soil. Over time, given the right conditions, roots can crack foundations, snap water lines, and lift sidewalks. At germination, roots grow downward due to gravitropism, the growth mechanism of plants that also causes the shoot to grow upward. Germination is the process whereby growth emerges from a period of dormancy Gravitropism ''geotropism'' is a turning or growth movement by a Plant or Fungus in response to Gravity. In some plants (such as ivy), the "root" actually clings to walls and structures. Hedera (English name ivy, plural ivies) is a genus of 15 species of climbing or ground-creeping Evergreen woody plants in the family

Growth from apical meristems is known as primary growth, which encompasses all elongation. Secondary growth encompasses all growth in diameter, a major component of woody plant tissues and many nonwoody plants. A woody plant is any vascular Plant that has a perennial stem that is above ground and covered by a layer of thickened Bark. For example, storage roots of sweet potato have secondary growth but are not woody. The sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas) is a Dicotyledonous plant which belongs to the family Convolvulaceae Secondary growth occurs at the lateral meristems, namely the vascular cambium and cork cambium. A meristem is a tissue in all Plants consisting of undifferentiated cells ( meristematic cells) and found in zones of the plant where growth can take place The vascular cambium is a Lateral meristem in the Vascular tissue of plants Cork cambium is a tissue found in many vascular plants as part of the Periderm. The former forms secondary xylem and secondary phloem, while the latter forms the periderm. In Vascular plants xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue Phloem being the other In Vascular plants phloem is the living tissue that carries organic Nutrients (known as photosynthate particularly Sucrose, a sugar to Bark, also known as periderm is the outermost layer of stems and Roots of Woody plants such as Trees It overlays the Wood and consists

In plants with secondary growth, the vascular cambium, originating between the xylem and the phloem, forms a cylinder of tissue along the stem and root. A cylinder is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes the Surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given Straight line, the axis A stem is one of two main structural axes of a Vascular plant. The cambium layer forms new cells on both the inside and outside of the cambium cylinder, with those on the inside forming secondary xylem cells, and those on the outside forming secondary phloem cells. As secondary xylem accumulates, the "girth" (lateral dimensions) of the stem and root increases. As a result, tissues beyond the secondary phloem (including the epidermis and cortex, in many cases) tend to be pushed outward and are eventually "sloughed off" (shed).

At this point, the cork cambium begins to form the periderm, consisting of protective cork cells containing suberin. Cork material is a Prime-subset of generic cork tissue, harvested for commercial use primarily from the Cork Oak tree Quercus In roots, the cork cambium originates in the pericycle, a component of the vascular cylinder.

Stilt roots in the Amazon Rainforest support a tree in very soft, wet soil conditions

The vascular cambium produces new layers of secondary xylem annually. The Amazon Rainforest (Brazilian Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica or Amazonía The xylem vessels are dead at maturity but are responsible for most water transport through the vascular tissue in stems and roots.

Types of roots

A true root system consists of a primary root and secondary roots (or lateral roots). Lateral roots extend horizontally from the primary Root and serve to anchor the plant securely into the soil

The primary root originates in the radicle of the seedling. In Botany, the radicle is the first part of a Seedling (a growing plant Embryo) to emerge from the Seed during the process of It is the first part of the root to be originated. During its growth it rebranches to form the lateral roots. It usually grows downwards. Generally, two categories are recognized:

• the taproot system: the primary root is prominent and has a single, dominant axis; there are fibrous secondary roots running outward. A Plant 's taproot is a straight tapering Root that grows vertically down Usually allows for deeper roots capable of reaching low water tables. Most common in dicots. Dicotyledons, or "dicots", is a name for a group of Flowering plants whose Seed typically has two embryonic leaves or Cotyledons There The main function of the taproot is to store food. A Plant 's taproot is a straight tapering Root that grows vertically down
• the diffuse root system: the primary root is not dominant; the whole root system is fibrous and branches in all directions. Most common in monocots. Monocotyledons or monocots are one of two major groups of Flowering plants (angiosperms that are traditionally recognised the other being Dicotyledons The main function of the fibrous root is to anchor the plant.

Specialized roots

Aerating roots of a mangrove

Buttress roots of Ceiba pentandra

The roots, or parts of roots, of many plant species have become specialized to serve adaptive purposes besides the two primary functions described in the introduction. Mangroves (generally are Trees and Shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the Tropics and Subtropics. For the children's book see The Great Kapok Tree. Kapok ( Ceiba pentandra) is a tropical Tree of the order

• Adventitious roots arise out-of-sequence from the more usual root formation of branches of a primary root, and instead originate from the stem, branches, leaves, or old woody roots. They commonly occur in monocots and pteridophytes, but also in many dicots, such as clover (Trifolium), ivy (Hedera), strawberry (Fragaria) and willow (Salix). Monocotyledons or monocots are one of two major groups of Flowering plants (angiosperms that are traditionally recognised the other being Dicotyledons Dicotyledons, or "dicots", is a name for a group of Flowering plants whose Seed typically has two embryonic leaves or Cotyledons There Alsike redirects here Alsike Sweden is also a town in the Knivsta Municipality, Sweden. Hedera (English name ivy, plural ivies) is a genus of 15 species of climbing or ground-creeping Evergreen woody plants in the family Garden strawberries are a common variety of strawberry cultivated worldwide Willows, sallows and osiers form the Genus Salix, around 400 species of Deciduous Trees and Shrubs found primarily Most aerial roots and stilt roots are adventitious. In some conifers adventitious roots can form the largest part of the root system.
• Aerating roots (or pneumatophores): roots rising above the ground, especially above water such as in some mangrove genera (Avicennia, Sonneratia). Mangroves (generally are Trees and Shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the Tropics and Subtropics. Avicennia is a Genus of Mangrove Tree. As with other mangroves it occurs in the intertidal zones of estuarine areas and has the characteristic Sonneratia is a Genus of Plants in the family Lythraceae. Formerly the Sonneratia were placed in a family called Sonneratiaceae In some plants like Avicennia the erect roots have a large number of breathing pores for exchange of gases.
• Aerial roots: roots entirely above the ground, such as in ivy (Hedera) or in epiphytic orchids. An epiphyte is an organism that grows upon or attaches to a living plant They function as prop roots, as in maize or anchor roots or as the trunk in strangler fig. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica

• Contractile roots: they pull bulbs or corms of monocots, such as hyacinth and lily, and some taproots, such as dandelion, deeper in the soil through expanding radially and contracting longitudinally. Monocotyledons or monocots are one of two major groups of Flowering plants (angiosperms that are traditionally recognised the other being Dicotyledons They have a wrinkled surface.
• Coarse roots: Roots that have undergone secondary thickening and have a woody structure. These roots have some ability to absorb water and nutrients, but their main function is transport and to provide a structure to connect the smaller diameter, fine roots to the rest of the plant.
• Fine roots: Primary roots usually <2 mm diameter that have the function of water and nutrient uptake. They are often heavily branched and support mycorrhizas. These roots may be short lived, but are replaced by the plant in an ongoing process of root 'turnover'.
• Haustorial roots: roots of parasitic plants that can absorb water and nutrients from another plant, such as in mistletoe (Viscum album) and dodder. Mistletoe is the common name for a group of hemi-parasitic Plants in the order Santalales that grow attached to and within the Cuscuta ( Dodder) is a genus of about 100-170 species of yellow orange or red (rarely green Parasitic plants Formerly treated as the only genus in
• Propagative roots: roots that form adventitious buds that develop into aboveground shoots, termed suckers, which form new plants, as in Canada thistle, cherry and many others. A basal shoot, root sprout, adventitious shoot, water sprout or sucker is a shoot or cane which grows from a Bud at the base of a This article is about the Cherry berry also classified as fruit for the ornamental tree See Cherry Blossom.
• Proteoid roots or cluster roots: dense clusters of rootlets of limited growth that develop under low phosphate or low iron conditions in Proteaceae and some plants from the following families Betulaceae, Casuarinaceae, Eleagnaceae, Moraceae, Fabaceae and Myricaceae. Proteoid roots, also known as cluster roots, are Plant Roots that form clusters of closely spaced short lateral rootlets A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Proteaceae is a family of Flowering plants. Mainly restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, it is a fairly large family with around 80 genera Betulaceae, or the Birch Family, includes six genera of Deciduous nut -bearing Trees and Shrubs including the Birches Casuarinaceae is a family of dicotyledonous Flowering plants placed in the order Fagales, consisting of 3 or 4 genera and approximately 70 Moraceae is a family of Flowering plants commonly known as the mulberry or fig family Fabaceae or Leguminosae is a large and economically important family of Flowering plants which is commonly known as the legume family, pea The Myricaceae is a small family of Dicotyledonous Shrubs and small Trees in the order Fagales.
• Stilt roots: these are adventitious support roots, common among mangroves. Mangroves (generally are Trees and Shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the Tropics and Subtropics. They grow down from lateral branches, branching in the soil.
• Storage roots: these roots are modified for storage of food or water, such as carrots and beets. The carrot ( Daucus carota subsp sativus, Etymology: Middle French carotte, from Late Latin carōta, from Greek karōton The beet or beetroot is a Flowering plant species ( Beta vulgaris) in the family Chenopodiaceae. They include some taproots and tuberous roots.
• Structural roots: large roots that have undergone considerable secondary thickening and provide mechanical support to woody plants and trees.
• Surface roots: These proliferate close below the soil surface, exploiting water and easily available nutrients. Where conditions are close to optimum in the surface layers of soil, the growth of surface roots is encouraged and they commonly become the dominant roots.
• Tuberous roots: A portion of a root swells for food or water storage, e. g. sweet potato. The sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas) is a Dicotyledonous plant which belongs to the family Convolvulaceae A type of storage root distinct from taproot.

Roots from a fallen redwood at Yosemite National Park.

Rooting depths

The distribution of vascular plant roots within soil depends on plant form, the spatial and temporal availability of water and nutrients, and the physical properties of the soil. The deepest roots are generally found in deserts and temperate coniferous forests; the shallowest in tundra, boreal forest and temperate grasslands. The deepest observed living root, at least 60 m below the ground surface, was observed during the excavation of an open-pit mine in Arizona, USA. Some roots can grow as deep as the tree is high. The majority of roots on most plants are however found relatively close to the surface where nutrient availability and aeration are more favourable for growth. Rooting depth may be physically restricted by rock or compacted soil close below the surface, or by anaerobic soil conditions.

Root architecture

The pattern of development of a root system is termed 'root architecture', and is important in providing a plant with a secure supply of nutrients and water as well as anchorage and support. The architecture of a root system can be considered in a similar way to above-ground architecture of a plant - i. e. in terms of the size, branching and distribution of the component parts. In roots, the architecture of fine roots and coarse roots can both be described by variation in topology and distribution of biomass within and between roots. Having a balanced architecture allows fine roots to exploit soil efficiently around a plant, but the 'plastic' nature of root growth allows the plant to then concentrate its resources where nutrients and water are more easily available. A balanced coarse root architecture, with roots distributed relatively evenly around the stem base, is necessary to provide support to larger plants and trees.

Economic importance

Roots can also protect the environment by holding the soil to prevent soil erosion

Tree roots at Cliffs of the Neuse State Park, NC

The term root crops refers to any edible underground plant structure, but many root crops are actually stems, such as potato tubers. Root vegetables are plant roots used as Vegetables Other underground plants are often erroneously called root vegetables The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae Edible roots include cassava, sweet potato, beet, carrot, rutabaga, turnip, parsnip, radish, yam and horseradish. The cassava, yuca, manioc, or mandioca ( Manihot esculenta) is a woody Shrub of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge family native The sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas) is a Dicotyledonous plant which belongs to the family Convolvulaceae The beet or beetroot is a Flowering plant species ( Beta vulgaris) in the family Chenopodiaceae. The carrot ( Daucus carota subsp sativus, Etymology: Middle French carotte, from Late Latin carōta, from Greek karōton The swede, (yellow turnip, swedish turnip or rutabaga ( Brassica napobrassica, or Brassica napus var For similar vegetables also called "turnip" see Turnip (disambiguation. The parsnip ( Pastinaca sativa) is a Root vegetable related to the Carrot. The radish ( Raphanus sativus) is an edible Root vegetable of the Brassicaceae family that was domesticated in Europe in pre- Horseradish ( Armoracia rusticana, syn Cochlearia armoracia) is a Perennial plant of the Brassicaceae family which also includes mustard Spices obtained from roots include sassafras, angelica, sarsaparilla and licorice. Sassafras is a genus of three Sassafras trees grow from 15–35 m (50–120 feet tall and 70–150 cm (2 Angelica is a genus of about 60 species of tall biennial and perennial Herbs in the family Apiaceae, native to temperate and subarctic regions of the For the drink see Root beer. Sarsaparilla (IPA /ˌsæspəˈɹɪlə/ ( Smilax regelii and other closely related species of Liquorice (UK or licorice (US (see spelling differences;, or) is the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra, from which a sweet flavour can be extracted

Sugar beet is an important source of sugar. Sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L a member of the Chenopodiaceae family is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of Sucrose. Yam roots are a source of estrogen compounds used in birth control pills. The fish poison and insecticide rotenone is obtained from roots of Lonchocarpus spp. Rotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum Insecticide, Piscicide, and Pesticide. Important medicines from roots are ginseng, aconite, ipecac, gentian and reserpine. Ginseng refers to species within Panax, a genus of 11 species of slow-growing Perennial plants with fleshy roots in the family Araliaceae. Syrup of ipecac commonly referred to as simply Ipecac is derived from the dried Rhizome and Roots of the Ipecacuanha plant and is a well-known Gentiana is a genus of Flowering plants belonging to the Gentian family ( Gentianaceae) tribe Gentianeae and monophyletic subtribe Gentianinae Reserpine is an Indole Alkaloid Antipsychotic and Antihypertensive drug that has been used for the control of high blood pressure Several legumes that have nitrogen-fixing root nodules are used as green manure crops, which provide nitrogen fertilizer for other crops when plowed under. Specialized bald cypress roots, termed knees, are sold as souvenirs, lamp bases and carved into folk art. Taxodium distichum ( Baldcypress, Bald Cypress, or Swamp Cypress) is a species of conifer native to the southeastern United Native Americans used the flexible roots of white spruce for basketry. Picea glauca ( White Spruce) is a species of Spruce native to the north of North America, from central Alaska east to Newfoundland

Tree roots can heave and destroy concrete sidewalks and crush or clog buried pipes. A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or The aerial roots of strangler fig have damaged ancient Mayan temples in Central America and the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. As unique and spectacular as any Ancient Egypt, Greek or Roman architecture, Maya architecture spans several thousands of years A temple (from the Latin word Templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities such as prayer and sacrifice or analogous rites Angkor Wat (or Angkor Vat) (អង្គរវត្ត is a Temple complex at Angkor, Cambodia, built for King Suryavarman II The Kingdom of Cambodia ( formerly known as Kampuchea (, transliterated: Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchea) is a country in South East

Vegetative propagation of plants via cuttings depends on adventitious root formation. Vegetative reproduction is a type of Asexual reproduction found in plants and is also called vegetative propagation or vegetative multiplication. Hundreds of millions of plants are propagated via cuttings annually including chrysanthemum, poinsettia, carnation, ornamental shrubs and many houseplants. Chrysanthemums, often called 'mums' are a genus ( Chrysanthemum) of about 30 species of perennial Flowering plants in the family Asteraceae "Christmas Star" redirects here For the Christian tradition see Star of Bethlehem. A shrub or Bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of Woody plant, distinguished from a Tree

Roots can also protect the environment by holding the soil to prevent soil erosion.

See also

• Rooting Powder
• Root cutting
• Mycorrhiza - root symbiosis in which individual hyphae extending from the mycelium of a fungus colonize the roots of a host plant. Auxins are a class of Plant growth substance (often called Phytohormone or Plant hormone) Plant cutting, also known as striking/cloning is a technique for vegetatively (asexually propagating plants in whicha piece of the source plant containing at least one A mycorrhiza (Greek for fungus roots coined by Frank 1885 typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic (occasionally
• Fibrous root system
• Stolon

References

• Brundrett, M. A fibrous root system (sometimes also called adventitious root system) is the opposite of a taproot system. C. 2002. Coevolution of roots and mycorrhizas of land plants. New phytologist 154(2): 275-304. (Available online: DOI | Abstract | Full text (HTML) | Full text (PDF))
• Chen, R. , E. Rosen, P. H. Masson. 1999. Gravitropism in Higher Plants. Plant Physiology 120 (2): 343-350. (Available online: Full text (HTML) | Full text (PDF)) - article about how the roots sense gravity.
• Clark, Lynn. 2004. Primary Root Structure and Development - lecture notes
• Coutts, M. P. 1987. Developmental processes in tree root systems. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 17: 761-767.
• Raven, J. A. , D. Edwards. 2001. Roots: evolutionary origins and biogeochemical significance. Journal of Experimental Botany 52 (Suppl 1): 381-401. (Available online: Abstract | Full text (HTML) | Full text (PDF))
• Schenk, H. J. , and R. B. Jackson. 2002. The global biogeography of roots. Ecological Monographs 72 (3): 311-328.
• Sutton, R. F. , and R. W. Tinus. 1983. Root and root system terminology. Forest Science Monograph 24 pp 137.
• Phillips, W. S. 1963. Depth of roots in soil. Ecology 44 (2): 424.

External links

• Botany - University of Arkansas at Little Rock