An 1870 oil painting by Ford Madox Brown depicting Romeo and Juliet's famous balcony scene

Romeo and Juliet is an early tragedy by William Shakespeare about two teenage "star-cross'd lovers" whose "untimely deaths" ultimately unite their feuding households. Oil painting is the process of painting with Pigments that are bound with a medium of Drying oil — especially in early modern Europe Linseed oil Ford Madox Brown ( April 16, 1821 &ndash October 6, 1893) was an English painter of moral and historical subjects notable for his William Shakespeare ( baptised " Star-crossed " or " star-crossed lovers " is a phrase describing a pair of lovers whose Relationship is said to be doomed from the start A feud (ˈfjuːd (referred to in more extreme cases as a blood feud or vendetta) is a long-running argument or fight between parties&mdashoften through Guilt The play has been highly praised by literary critics for its language and dramatic effect. It was among Shakespeare's most popular plays during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Hamlet is a Tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1599 and 1601 Its influence is still seen today, with the two main characters being widely represented as archetypal young lovers. An archetype ( pronounced: /ˈɑːkɪtaɪp/ (Brit or /ˈɑrkɪtaɪp/ (Amer

Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to Ancient Greece. Its plot is based on an Italian tale, translated into verse as Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562, and retold in prose in Palace of Pleasure by William Painter in 1582. The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet is a narrative poem first published in 1562 by Arthur Brooke, who is reported to have translated it from an Italian poem Arthur Brooke may refer to Arthur Brooke (poet Arthur Brooke (entrepreneur Arthur Brooks William Painter (1540? - February 1594 London) English author was a native of Kent. William Painter (1540? - February 1594 London) English author was a native of Kent. Brooke and Painter were Shakespeare's chief sources of inspiration for Romeo and Juliet. He borrowed heavily from both, but developed minor characters, particularly Mercutio and Paris, in order to expand the plot. Mercutio is a character in William Shakespeare 's famous Tragedy, Romeo and Juliet. In William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, Count Paris is a suitor of Juliet 's Believed written between 1591–1595, the play was first published in a quarto version in 1597. This text was of poor quality, and later editions corrected it, bringing it more in line with Shakespeare's original text.

Shakespeare's use of dramatic structure, especially his expansion of minor characters,use of subplots to embellish the story, has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill. Dramatic structure refers to the arrangement of the constituent parts of a play or Screenplay. The play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters, sometimes changing the form as the character develops. Romeo, for example, grows more adept at the sonnet form over time. The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. Characters frequently compare love and death and allude to the role of fate.

Since its publication, Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times in stage, film, musical and operatic forms. During the Restoration, it was revived and heavily revised by William Davenant. The English Restoration, or simply The Restoration began in 1660 when the English monarchy, Scottish monarchy and Irish monarchy were restored Sir William Davenant (baptised 3 March, 1606 &ndash April 7, 1668) also spelled D'Avenant, was an English Poet Garrick's 18th century version, which continued to be performed into the Victorian era, also changed several scenes, removing material then considered indecent. David Garrick (born 19 February 1717 in Hereford &ndash 20 January 1779) was an English Actor, Playwright, Culture The Victorian fascination with novelty resulted in a deep interest in the relationship between modernity and cultural continuities Performances in the 19th century, including Charlotte Cushman's, restored the original text, and focused on greater realism. Charlotte Saunders Cushman ( July 23, 1816 &ndash February 18, 1876) was an American stage actress Gielgud's 1935 version kept very close to Shakespeare's text, and used Elizabethan costumes and staging to enhance the drama. Sir Arthur John Gielgud, OM, CH ( 14 April, 1904 – 21 May 2000) known as Sir John Gielgud, was an

Characters

Main article: Characters in Romeo and Juliet

Ruling house of Verona

• Prince Escalus: Prince of Verona
• Count Paris: Kinsman of Prince Escalus; desires to marry Juliet. The following is a list of characters in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, sorted by family allegiance and alphabetically by first name where applicable Prince Escalus', fictional Prince of Verona, is the mediator of the feuding families in William Shakespeare 's Verona is a city and provincial capital in Veneto, Northern Italy. In William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, Count Paris is a suitor of Juliet 's
• Mercutio: Another kinsman of Prince Escalus; a friend of Romeo. Mercutio is a character in William Shakespeare 's famous Tragedy, Romeo and Juliet.

Capulets

• Lord Capulet: Patriarch of the house of Capulet. The following is a list of characters in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, sorted by family allegiance and alphabetically by first name where applicable Lord Capulet, in William Shakespeare ’s Romeo and Juliet, is a loving but controlling father
• Lady Capulet: Matriarch of the house of Capulet; wishes Juliet to marry Paris. The following is a list of characters in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, sorted by family allegiance and alphabetically by first name where applicable
• Juliet: Daughter of the Capulets; the female protagonist. Juliet Capulet is one of the title characters in William Shakespeare 's tragedy Romeo and Juliet.
• Tybalt: Cousin of Juliet, nephew of Lady Capulet. Tybalt is a fictional character in William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet.

Capulet Servants

• Nurse: Juliet's personal attendant and confidante. The Nurse is a major character in William Shakespeare 's classic Drama Romeo and Juliet.
• Peter: Capulet servant, assistant to the nurse.
• Samson and Gregory: Capulet servants.

Montagues

• Lord Montague: Patriarch of the house of Montague. The following is a list of characters in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, sorted by family allegiance and alphabetically by first name where applicable The following is a list of characters in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, sorted by family allegiance and alphabetically by first name where applicable
• Lady Montague: Matriarch of the house of Montague. The following is a list of characters in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, sorted by family allegiance and alphabetically by first name where applicable
• Romeo: Son of the Montagues; the male protagonist. Romeo Montague is a fictional character in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet.
• Benvolio: Cousin and friend of Romeo. Benvolio Montague is a fictional character in William Shakespeare 's Drama Romeo and Juliet.

Montague Servants

• Abram and Balthasar: Montague servants. Balthasar is the servant of Romeo, who escorted him to the Capulet tomb towards the end.

Others

• Friar Lawrence (Friar Laurence): a Franciscan friar and Romeo's confidant. Friar Laurence (or Friar Lawrence) is a character in William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet. The term Franciscan is commonly used to refer to members of Catholic
• Chorus, who gives the opening prologue and one other speech, both in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet. Prologue ( Greek πρόλογος prologos, from προ~ pro~ - fore~, and lógos word) or prolog, is a prefatory The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe.
• Friar John: Another friar who is sent to deliver Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo.
• Apothecary: Druggist who reluctantly sells Romeo poison.
• Rosaline, an unseen character with whom Romeo briefly falls in love with before meeting Juliet. Rosaline (ˈrɒzəlɪn or /ˈrɒzəliːn/ is an Unseen character and niece of Lord Capulet in William Shakespeare's Tragedy Romeo Unseen characters are never directly observed by the audience but are only described by other characters

Synopsis

"Two Households, both alike in dignity . . . "

—Chorus

Romeo and Juliet by Francesco Hayez

The play begins with a street brawl between two families: the Montagues and the Capulets. Francesco Hayez ( February 10, 1791 - December 21, 1882) was an Italian painter the leading artist of Romanticism The following is a list of characters in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, sorted by family allegiance and alphabetically by first name where applicable The following is a list of characters in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, sorted by family allegiance and alphabetically by first name where applicable The Prince of Verona, Escalus, intervenes with his men and declares that the heads of the two families will be held personally accountable for any further breach of the peace. Prince Escalus', fictional Prince of Verona, is the mediator of the feuding families in William Shakespeare 's Later, Count Paris, a young nobleman, talks to Lord Capulet about marrying his thirteen-year-old daughter Juliet. In William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, Count Paris is a suitor of Juliet 's Juliet Capulet is one of the title characters in William Shakespeare 's tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Capulet is wary of this offer, citing the girl's young age, but still invites him to try to attract Juliet's attention during a ball that the family is to hold that night. Juliet's mother tries to persuade her daughter to accept Paris' courtship during this ball, leading Juliet to say that although she will make an effort to love him, she will not express love if it is not there. In this scene Juliet's nurse is introduced as a talkative and humorous character, who raised Juliet from infancy. The Nurse is a major character in William Shakespeare 's classic Drama Romeo and Juliet.

In the meantime, a young man named Benvolio talks with his cousin Romeo, Lord Montague's son, over Romeo's recent depression. Benvolio Montague is a fictional character in William Shakespeare 's Drama Romeo and Juliet. Romeo Montague is a fictional character in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet. Benvolio discovers that it stems from unrequited love for a girl named Rosaline, one of Lord Capulet's nieces who has sworn herself to chastity. Rosaline (ˈrɒzəlɪn or /ˈrɒzəliːn/ is an Unseen character and niece of Lord Capulet in William Shakespeare's Tragedy Romeo Upon the insistence of Benvolio and another friend, Mercutio, Romeo decides to attend the masquerade ball at the Capulet house in hopes of meeting Rosaline. Mercutio is a character in William Shakespeare 's famous Tragedy, Romeo and Juliet. Alongside his masked friends Romeo attends the ball as planned, but falls in love with Juliet (forgetting about Rosaline) and she with him. Despite the danger brought on by their feuding families, Romeo sneaks into the Capulet courtyard and overhears Juliet on her balcony vowing her love to him in spite of her family's hatred of the Montagues. Romeo soon makes himself known to her, and the two declare their love for each other and agree to be married. With the help of the Franciscan Friar Lawrence, who hopes to reconcile the two families through their children's union, they are married secretly the next day. Friar Laurence (or Friar Lawrence) is a character in William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet.

All seems well until Tybalt, Juliet's hot-blooded cousin, challenges Romeo to a duel for appearing at the Capulets' ball in disguise. Tybalt is a fictional character in William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet. Though no one is aware of the marriage yet, Romeo refuses to fight Tybalt since they are now part of the same family. Mercutio is incensed by Tybalt's insolence, and accepts the duel on Romeo's behalf. In the ensuing scuffle, Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo tries to separate them. Romeo, angered by his friend's death, pursues and slays Tybalt, then flees.

Despite his promise to call for the head of the wrongdoers, the Prince merely exiles Romeo from Verona, reasoning that Tybalt first killed Mercutio, and that Romeo merely carried out a just punishment of death to Tybalt, although without legal authority. Juliet grieves at the news, and Lord Capulet, misinterpreting her grief, agrees to engage her to marry Paris with the wedding to be held in just three days. He threatens to disown her if she refuses. The nurse, once Juliet's confidante, now tells her she should discard the exiled Romeo and comply. In theater the confidant (feminine confidante, same pronunciation character is usually someone the lead character confides in and trusts Juliet desperately visits Friar Lawrence for help. He offers her a drug, which will put her into a death-like coma for forty-two hours. She is to take it and, when discovered apparently dead, she will be laid in the family crypt. While she is sleeping the Friar will send a messenger to inform Romeo, so that he can rejoin her when she awakens.

The messenger, however, does not reach Romeo. Romeo then learns of Juliet's "death" from his servant Balthasar. Grief-stricken, he buys poison from an apothecary, returns to Verona in secret, and visits the Capulet crypt. The following is a list of characters in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet, sorted by family allegiance and alphabetically by first name where applicable He encounters Paris who has come to mourn Juliet privately. Paris confronts Romeo believing him to be a vandal, and in the ensuing battle Romeo kills Paris. He then says his final words to the comatose Juliet and drinks the poison to commit suicide. Juliet then awakens. Friar Lawrence arrives and, realizing the cause of the tragedy, begs Juliet to leave. She refuses, and at the side of Romeo's dead body, she stabs herself with her lover's dagger.

The feuding families and the Prince meet at the tomb to find all three dead. In explanation Friar Lawrence recounts the story of the two lovers. Montague reveals that his wife has died of grief after hearing of her son's exile. The families are reconciled by their children's deaths and agree to end their violent feud. The play ends with the Prince's brief elegy for the lovers: "For never was a story of more woe / Than this of Juliet and her Romeo. "

Sources

Frontispiece of Brooke's poem, Romeus and Juliet.

Romeo and Juliet is a dramatisation of Arthur Brooke's narrative poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet (1562). Arthur Brooke may refer to Arthur Brooke (poet Arthur Brooke (entrepreneur Arthur Brooks Narrative poetry is Poetry that tells a story The poems may be short or long and the story it relates to may be simple or complex The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet is a narrative poem first published in 1562 by Arthur Brooke, who is reported to have translated it from an Italian poem Shakespeare follows the poem closely^[1] but adds extra detail to both major and minor characters, in particular the Nurse and Mercutio. The Nurse is a major character in William Shakespeare 's classic Drama Romeo and Juliet. Mercutio is a character in William Shakespeare 's famous Tragedy, Romeo and Juliet. "The goodly History of the true and constant love of Rhomeo and Julietta" retells in prose a story by William Painter, with which Shakespeare may have been familiar. William Painter (1540? - February 1594 London) English author was a native of Kent. It was published in a collection of Italian tales entitled Palace of Pleasure in 1582. ^[2] Painter's version was part of a trend among writers and playwrights of the time to publish works based on Italian novelles. At the time of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Italian tales were very popular among theatre patrons. Critics of the day even complained of how often Italian tales were borrowed to please crowds. Shakespeare took advantage of their popularity, as seen in his writing of both All's Well That Ends Well and Measure for Measure (from Italian tales) and Romeo and Juliet. All's Well That Ends Well is a play by William Shakespeare, originally classified as a Comedy, though now often counted as one of his problem plays Measure for Measure is a play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1603 or 1604 Arthur Brooke's poem belonged to this trend, being a translation and adaptation of the Italian Giuletta e Romeo, by Matteo Bandello, included in his Novelle of 1554. Matteo Bandello (c 1480 &ndash 1562 was an Italian novelist Biography Matteo Bandello was born at Castelnuovo Scrivia, near Tortona (current ^[3] Bandello's story was translated into French and was adapted by Italian theatrical troupes, some of whom performed in London at the time Shakespeare was writing his plays. Although nothing is known of the repertory of these troupes, it is possible that they performed some version of the story. ^[4]

Pyramus and Thisbe: Their tragic story seems to have connections with Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.

Bandello's version was an adaptation of Luigi da Porto's Giulietta e Romeo, included in his Istoria novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti (c. Luigi Da Porto ( Vicenza, 1485 - May 10, 1529) was an italian writer and storiographer better known as the author of the novel 1530). ^[3] The latter gave the story much of its modern form, including the names of the lovers, the rival families of Montecchi and Capuleti, and the location in Verona, in the Veneto. Verona is a city and provincial capital in Veneto, Northern Italy. Veneto or Venetia ( Vèneto) is one of the 20 regions of Italy. ^[5] Da Porto is probably also the source of the tradition that Romeo and Juliet is based on a true story. ^[6] The names of the families (in Italian, the Montecchi and Capelletti) were actual 13th-century political factions. ^[7] The tomb and balcony of Giulietta are still popular tourist spots in Verona, although scholars have disputed the assumption that the story actually took place. ^[6] Before Da Porto, the earliest known version of the tale is the 1476 story of Mariotto and Gianozza of Siena by Masuccio Salernitano, in Il Novellino (Novella XXXIII). Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Siena. Masuccio Salernitano, born' Tommaso Guardati', (1410-1475 was an Italian poet ^[5]

Romeo and Juliet borrows from a tradition of tragic love stories dating back to antiquity. One of these, Pyramus and Thisbe, is thought by many scholars to have influenced da Porto's version. The former contains parallels to Shakespeare's story: the lovers' parents despise each other, and Pyramus' falsely believes his lover Thisbe is dead. ^[8] Brooke adjusted the Italian translation to reflect parts of Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde. Troilus and Criseyde (circa 1380-87 is Geoffrey Chaucer 's Poem in Rhyme royal ( rime royale) re-telling the tragic love story of The Ephisiaca of Xenophon of Ephesus, written in the third century, also contains several similarities to the play, including the separation of the lovers, and a potion which induces a deathlike sleep. The Ephesian Tale of Anthia and Habrocomes by Xenophon of Ephesus is a novel written in the mid- 2nd century CE. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca The 3rd century is the period from 201 to 300 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Marlowe's Hero and Leander and Dido, Queen of Carthage, both similar stories written in Shakespeare's day, are thought to be less of a direct influence, although they may have created an atmosphere in which tragic love stories could thrive. Hero and Leander is a Greek myth, relating the story of Hero, a priestess of Aphrodite who dwelt in a tower in Sestos, at the edge of the Dido Queen of Carthage is a short play written by the English playwright Christopher Marlowe, with possible contributions by Thomas Nashe. ^[9]

Date and text

Title page of the Second Quarto of Romeo and Juliet (published 1599)

It is unknown when exactly Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet. Juliet's nurse refers to an earthquake which she says occurred eleven years ago. ^[10] An earthquake did occur in England in 1580, possibly dating that particular line to 1591, although other earthquakes - both in England and in Verona - have been proposed in support of different dates. ^[11] But the play's stylistic similarities with A Midsummer Night's Dream and other plays conventionally dated around 1594-5, place the writing between 1591 and 1595. ^[12] One conjecture is that Shakespeare may have begun a draft in 1591, which he completed in 1595. ^[13]

Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet was published in two distinct quarto editions prior to the publication of the First Folio of 1623. The size of a specific Book is measured from the head to tail of the spine and from edge to edge across the covers Mr William Shakespeares Comedies Histories & Tragedies is the first published collection of William Shakespeare 's plays These are referred to as Q1 and Q2. Q1, the first printed edition, appeared in early 1597, printed by John Danter. Because its text contains numerous differences from the later editions, it is labelled a 'bad quarto'; the 20th century editor T. Bad quarto is a term and concept developed by twentieth-century Shakespeare scholars to explain some problems in the early transmission of the texts of Shakespearean J . B. Spencer described it as "a detestable text, probably a reconstruction of the play from the imperfect memories of one or two of the actors. ", suggesting that it had been pirated for publication. ^[14] An alternative explanation for Q1's shortcomings is that the play (like many others of the time) may have been heavily edited before performance by the playing company. ^[15] In any event, its appearance in early 1597 makes 1596 the latest possible date for the play's composition. ^[16]

The superior Q2 called the play The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedie of Romeo and Juliet. It was printed in 1599 by Thomas Creede and published by Cuthbert Burby. Thomas Creede ( fl 1593 &ndash 1617 was a printer of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras rated as "one of the best of his time Cuthbert Burby (died 1607 was a London bookseller and publisher of the Elizabethan and early Jacobean eras Q2 is about 800 lines longer than Q1. ^[15] Its title page describes it as "Newly corrected, augmented and amended". Scholars believe that Q2 was based on Shakespeare's pre-performance draft, (called his foul papers), since there are textual oddities such as variable tags for characters and "false starts" for speeches that were presumably struck through by the author but erroneously preserved by the typesetter. Foul papers is a term that refers to an author's working drafts most often applied in the study of the plays of Shakespeare and other dramatists of English Renaissance It is a much more complete and reliable text, and was reprinted in 1609 (Q3), 1622 (Q4) and 1637 (Q5). ^[14] In effect, all later Quartos and Folios of Romeo and Juliet are based on Q2, as are all modern editions since editors believe that any deviations from Q2 in the later editions (whether good or bad) are likely to arise from editors or compositors, not from Shakespeare. ^[17]

The First Folio text of 1623 was based primarily on Q3, with clarifications and corrections possibly coming from a theatrical promptbook or Q1. Mr William Shakespeares Comedies Histories & Tragedies is the first published collection of William Shakespeare 's plays ^[14][18] Other Folio editions of the play were printed in 1632 (F2), 1664 (F3), and 1685 (F4). ^[19] Modern versions considering several of the Folios and Quartos began printing with Nicholas Rowe's 1709 edition, followed by Alexander Pope's 1723 version. Nick or Nicholas Rowe may refer to Nicholas Rowe (actor (b 1966 an English actor Nicholas Rowe (dramatist (1674–1718 Alexander Pope (21 May 1688 – 30 May 1744 is generally regarded as the greatest English Poet of the eighteenth century best known for his Satirical Pope began a tradition of editing the play to add information such as stage directions missing in Q2 by locating them in Q1. This tradition continued late into the Romantic period. Fully annotated editions first appeared in the Victorian period and continue to be produced today, printing the text of the play with footnotes describing the sources and culture behind the play. ^[20]

Analysis and criticism

Samuel Pepys, the earliest known critic of the play, said it was "the worst I ever heard in my life. Samuel Pepys, FRS (23 February 1633 – 26 May 1703 was an English naval administrator and Member of Parliament, who is now most famous for "

Critical history

Though critics have picked apart many weak points in Romeo and Juliet since the play's first writing, it is still regarded by most as one of Shakespeare's better plays. Among the most prevalent debates in the critical of the play regards Shakespeare's intent. Was the play intended to be a story of two young lovers' struggle against fate and fortune, or was it a commentary on the foolishness of unbridled passion and the ultimate tragedy to which it will inevitably lead? Perhaps it was intended to show how two young lovers become instruments in the hands of fate or providence in uniting two warring families. Scholars have yet to agree on what the play is really about after centuries of analysis, though recently several have argued that it is a combination of all three. ^[21]

The earliest known critic of the play was Samuel Pepys, who wrote in 1662: "it is a play of itself the worst that I ever heard in my life. Samuel Pepys, FRS (23 February 1633 – 26 May 1703 was an English naval administrator and Member of Parliament, who is now most famous for "^[22] John Dryden wrote ten years later in praise of the play and its comic character Mercutio: "Shakespear show'd the best of his skill in his Mercutio, and he said himself, that he was forc'd to kill him in the third Act, to prevent being killed by him. John Dryden (– was an influential English poet Literary critic, Translator and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England "^[22] Criticism of the play in the eighteenth century was less sparse, but no less divided. Nicholas Rowe was the first known critic to ponder the theme of the play, which he saw as being the punishment of the two families for their unreasonable quarreling. Nicholas Rowe (1674 &ndash 1718 English Dramatist, poet and miscellaneous writer was appointed Poet Laureate in 1715 In mid-century Charles Gildon and Henry Home argued that the play was a failure in that it did not follow the classical rules of drama. Charles Gildon (c 1665–1724 was an English Hack writer who was by turns a translator biographer essayist playwright poet author of fictional letters fabulist Henry Home Lord Kames (1696 December 27, 1782) was a Scottish Philosopher of the 18th century Classical rules stated that the tragedy must occur because of some character flaw and not by some accident of fate, as happens in Romeo and Juliet. Hamartia ( Ancient Greek:) is a term developed by Aristotle in his work Poetics. Samuel Johnson, however, considered it one of Shakespeare's "most pleasing" plays. Samuel Johnson (often referred to as Dr Johnson) (18 September ^[21]

The nineteenth century centered on debates regarding the moral message of the play. David Garrick created a version of the play which excluded Rosaline, as Romeo's abandonment of her for Juliet was seen as reckless love at the time. David Garrick (born 19 February 1717 in Hereford &ndash 20 January 1779) was an English Actor, Playwright, Critics such as Charles Dibdin argued that Rosaline had been purposely included in the play to show how reckless the hero was, and that this was the reason for his tragic end. Charles Dibdin ( 4 March 1745 ? &ndash 25 July 1814) British Musician, Dramatist, Novelist, Critics of the time also debated whether Friar Laurence was actually Shakespeare's direct spokesman in his frequent warnings to the two lovers regarding their hastiness. As the twentieth century came, these arguments were disputed by the likes of Richard G. Moulton, who argued that accident, and not some character flaw, led to the lovers' deaths. Critics, however, remained divided on the issue of whether fate or recklessness was the driving force of the play. Another reading introduced early in the century argued that the tragedy is allowed to occur as a just punishment upon the two families, who are reconciled by the experience. Later in the twentieth century, criticism divided in the several ways described below in the Interpretations section. ^[23]

Romeo at Juliet's Deathbed, by Johann Heinrich Füssli

Dramatic structure

Shakespeare shows his dramatic skill freely in Romeo and Juliet, providing intense moments of shift between comedy and tragedy. Henry Fuseli (in German Johann Heinrich Füssli; February 7, 1741 – April 16, 1825) was a British painter Before Mercutio's death in Act three, the play is largely a comedy. ^[24] After his accidental demise, the play suddenly becomes very serious and takes on more of a tragic tone. Still, the fact that Romeo is banished, rather than executed, offers a hope that things will work out. When Friar Lawrence offers Juliet a plan to reunite her with Romeo the audience still has a reason to believe that all will end well. They are in a "breathless state of suspense" by the opening of the last scene in the tomb: If Romeo is delayed long enough for the Friar to arrive, he and Juliet may yet be saved. ^[25] This only makes it all the more tragic when everything falls apart in the end. ^[26]

Shakespeare also uses subplots to offer a clearer view of the actions of the main characters, and provide an axis around which the main plot turns. For example, when the play begins, Romeo is in love with Rosaline, who has refused all of his advances. Romeo's infatuation with her stands in obvious contrast to his later love for Juliet. This provides a comparison through which the audience can see the seriousness of Romeo and Juliet's love and marriage. Paris' love for Juliet also sets up a contrast between Juliet's feelings for him and her feelings for Romeo. The formal language she uses around Paris, as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo. Beyond this, the sub-plot of the Montague-Capulet feud overarches the whole play, providing an atmosphere of hate that is the main contributor to the play's tragic end. A subplot, sometimes referred to as a "B story" or a "C story" and so on is a secondary plot strand that is auxiliary to the main plot ^[26]

Language

Shakespeare uses a large variety of poetic forms throughout the play. He begins with a 14-line prologue in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet, spoken by a Chorus. Prologue ( Greek πρόλογος prologos, from προ~ pro~ - fore~, and lógos word) or prolog, is a prefatory The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. Most of Romeo and Juliet is, however, written in blank verse, and much of it in strict iambic pentameter, with less rhythmic variation than in most of Shakespeare's later plays. Blank verse is a type of Poetry, distinguished by having a regular meter, but no Rhyme. Iambic pentameter is a type of meter that is used in Poetry and Drama. ^[27] In choosing forms, Shakespeare matches the poetry to the character who uses it. Friar Lawrence, for example, uses sermon and sententiae forms, and the Nurse uses a unique blank verse form that closely matches colloquial speech. A sermon is an oration by a Prophet or member of the Clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, or religious topic Sententiae are brief Apophthegms from ancient sources quoted without context Blank verse is a type of Poetry, distinguished by having a regular meter, but no Rhyme. A colloquialism is an expression not used in formal speech, writing or Paralinguistics. ^[28] Each of these forms is also moulded and matched to the emotion of the scene the character occupies. For example, when Romeo talks about Rosaline earlier in the play, he uses the Petrarchan sonnet form. The sonnet is one of the poetic forms that can be found in Lyric poetry from Europe. Petrarchan sonnets were often used by men at the time to exaggerate the beauty of women who were impossible for them to attain, as in Romeo's situation with Rosaline. This sonnet form is also used by Lady Capulet to describe Count Paris to Juliet as a handsome man. ^[29] When Romeo and Juliet meet, the poetic form changes from the Petrarchan (which was becoming archaic in Shakespeare's day) to a then more contemporary sonnet form, using "pilgrims" and "saints" as metaphors. ^[30] Finally, when the two meet on the balcony, Romeo attempts to use the sonnet form to pledge his love, but Juliet breaks it by saying "Dost thou love me?"^[31] By doing this, she searches for true expression, rather than a poetic exaggeration of their love. ^[32] Juliet uses monosyllabic words with Romeo, but uses formal language with Paris. ^[33] Other forms in the play include an epithalamium by Juliet, a rhapsody in Mercutio's Queen Mab speech, and an elegy by Paris. Epithalamium (from Greek; epi- upon and thalamium Nuptial chamber sometimes also spelled "epithalamion" specifically refers to a Queen Mab is a Fairy referred to in Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. The term " elegy " was originally used for a type of poetic meter ( Elegiac metre but is also used for a Poem of mourning from the Greek ^[34] Shakespeare saves his prose style most often for the common people in the play, though at times for other characters, such as Mercutio. ^[35]

Themes and motifs

Scholars have found it extremely difficult to assign one specific, over-arching theme to the play. A theme, from Old French tesme, is a broad idea in a story or literary work or a message or lesson conveyed by a written text Proposals for a main theme include a discovery by the characters that human beings are neither wholly good nor wholly evil, but instead are more or less alike,^[36] awaking out of a dream and into reality, the danger of hasty action, or the power of tragic fate. None of these have widespread support. However, even if an overall theme cannot be found it is clear that the play is full of several small, thematic elements which intertwine in complex ways. Several of those which are most often debated by scholars are discussed below. ^[37]

Love

Romeo and Juliet statue in Central Park in New York City. Central Park is a large public Urban park in New York City, with about twenty-five million visitors annually The City of New York

Romeo and Juliet is sometimes considered to have no unifying theme, save that of young love. ^[36] In fact, the characters in it have become emblems of all who die young for their lovers. Since it is such an obvious subject of the play, several scholars have explored the language and historical context behind the romance of the play. ^[38]

On their first meeting, Romeo and Juliet use a form of communication recommended by many etiquette authors in Shakespeare's day: metaphor. By using metaphors of saints and sins, Romeo was able to test Juliet's feelings for him in a non-threatening way. This method was recommended by Baldassare Castiglione (whose works had been translated into English by this time). Baldasare Castiglione, count of Novellata ( December 15, 1478 &ndash February 28, 1529) was an Italian Courtier, He pointed out that if a man used a metaphor as an invitation, the woman could pretend she did not understand the man, and the man could take the hint and back away without losing his honour. Juliet, however, makes it clear that she is interested in Romeo by playing along with his metaphor. Later, in the balcony scene, Shakespeare has Romeo overhear Juliet's declaration of love for him. In Brooke's version of the story, her declaration is done in her bedroom, alone. By bringing Romeo into the scene to eavesdrop, Shakespeare breaks from the normal sequence of courtship. Usually, a woman was required to play hard to get, to be sure that her suitor was sincere. Breaking this rule, however, serves to speed along the plot. The lovers are able to skip a lengthy part of wooing, and move on to plain talk about their relationship—developing into an agreement to be married after knowing each other for only one night. ^[38] In the final suicide scene, there is a contradiction in the message – in the Catholic religion, suicides were often thought to be condemned to hell, whereas people who die to be with their loves under the "Religion of Love" are joined with their loves in paradise. Courtly love was a Medieval European conception of ennobling love which found its genesis in the ducal and princely courts of Aquitaine, Provence Romeo and Juliet's love seems to be expressing the "Religion of Love" view rather than the Catholic view. Another point is that although their love is passionate, it is only consummated in marriage, which prevents them from losing the audience's sympathy. ^[39]

The play arguably equates love and sex with death. Throughout the story, both Romeo and Juliet, along with the other characters, fantasize about it as a dark being, often equating it with a lover. In English Death is often given the name the " Grim Reaper " and shown as a skeletal figure carrying a large Scythe, and wearing a midnight black gown robe Capulet, for example, when he first discovers Juliet's (faked) death, describes it as having deflowered his daughter. ^[40] Juliet later even compares Romeo to death in an erotic way. One of the strongest examples of this in the play is in Juliet's suicide, when she says, grabbing Romeo's dagger, "O happy dagger! / . . . This is thy sheath / there rust, and let me die. " The dagger here can be a sort of phallus of Romeo, with Juliet being its sheath in death, a strong sexual symbol. The word phallus can refer to an erect Penis, or to an object shaped like a penis ^[41]

Fate and chance

Scholars are divided on the role of fate in the play. No consensus exists on whether the characters are truly fated to die together no matter what, or whether the events take place by a series of unlucky chances. Arguments in favour of fate often refer to the description of the lovers as "star-cross'd". ^[42] This phrase seems to hint that the stars have predetermined the lovers' future. ^[43] Another scholar of the fate persuasion, Draper, points out the parallels between the Elizabethan belief in humours and the main characters of the play (for example, Tybalt as a choleric). Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Interpreting the text in the light of the Elizabethan science of humourism reduces the amount of plot attributed to chance by modern audiences. ^[44] Still, other scholars see the play as a mere series of unlucky chances—many to such a degree that they do not see it as a tragedy at all, but an emotional melodrama. ^[44] Nevo believes the high degree to which chance is stressed in the narrative makes Romeo and Juliet a "lesser tragedy" of happenstance, not of character. For example, Romeo's challenging Tybalt is not impulsive, it is, after Mercutio's death, the expected action to take. In this scene, Nevo reads Romeo as being aware of the dangers of flouting social norms, identity and commitments. Social norms have been defined as "the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values beliefs attitudes and behaviors He makes the choice to kill, not because of a tragic flaw, but because of circumstance. Hamartia ( Ancient Greek:) is a term developed by Aristotle in his work Poetics. ^[45]

Light and dark

Scholars have long noted Shakespeare's widespread use of light and dark imagery throughout the play. Vagina Imagery is used in literature to refer to descriptive language that evokes sensory experience The light theme was initially taken to be "symbolic of the natural beauty of young love", an idea beginning in Caroline Spurgeon's work Shakespeare's Imagery and What It Tells Us, although the perceived meaning has since its publication branched in several directions. ^[45][46] For example, both Romeo and Juliet see the other as light in a surrounding darkness. Romeo describes Juliet as being like the sun,^[47] brighter than a torch,^[48] a jewel sparkling in the night,^[49] and a bright angel among dark clouds. ^[50] Even when she lies apparently dead in the tomb, he says her "beauty makes / This vault a feasting presence full of light. "^[51] Juliet describes Romeo as "day in night" and "Whiter than snow upon a raven's back. "^[52][53] This contrast of light and dark can be expanded as symbols—contrasting love and hate, youth and age in a metaphoric way. ^[45] Sometimes these intertwining metaphors create dramatic irony. Irony is a literary or Rhetorical device, in which there is an incongruity or Discordance between what one says or does and what one means or For example, Romeo and Juliet's love is a light in the midst of the darkness of the hate around them, but all of their activity together is done in night and darkness, while all of the feuding is done in broad daylight. This paradox of imagery adds atmosphere to the moral dilemma facing the two lovers: loyalty to family or loyalty to love. An ethical dilemma is a situation that will often involve an apparent conflict between Moral imperatives in which to obey one would result in transgressing another At the end of the story, when the morning is gloomy and the sun hiding its face for sorrow, light and dark have returned to their proper places, the outward darkness reflecting the true, inner darkness of the family feud out of sorrow for the lovers. All characters now recognize their folly in light of recent events, and things return to the natural order, thanks to the love of Romeo and Juliet. ^[46] The "light" theme in the play is also heavily connected to the theme of time, since light was a convenient way for Shakespeare to express the passage of time through descriptions of the sun, moon, and stars. ^[54]

Time

Time plays an important role in the language and plot of the play. Both Romeo and Juliet struggle to maintain an imaginary world void of time in the face of the harsh realities that surround them. For instance, when Romeo attempts to swear his love to Juliet by the moon, Juliet tells him not to, as it is known to be inconstant over time, and she does not desire this of him. From the very beginning, the lovers are designated as "star-cross'd"^[55] referring to an astrologic belief which is heavily connected to time. Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems Stars were thought to control the fates of men, and as time passed, stars would move along their course in the sky, also charting the course of human lives below. Romeo speaks of a foreboding he feels in the stars' movements early in the play, and when he learns of Juliet's death, he defies the stars' course for him. ^[56][44]

A "haste theme" can be considered as fundamental to the play. ^[54] For example, the action of Romeo and Juliet spans a period of four to six days, in contrast to Brooke's poem's spanning nine months. Scholars such as Tanselle believe that time was "especially important to Shakespeare" in this play, as he used references to "short-time" for the young lovers as opposed to references to "long-time" for the "older generation" to highlight "a headlong rush towards doom". ^[54] Romeo and Juliet fight time to make their love to last forever. In the end, the only way they seem to defeat time is through a noteworthy death which makes them immortal through art. ^[57]

Time is heavily connected to the theme of light and dark as well. The play is said in the Prologue to be about two hours long, creating a problem for any playwright wishing to express longer amounts of time. ^[57] In Shakespeare's day, plays were often performed at noon in broad daylight. This forced the playwright to use words to create the illusion of day and night in his plays. Shakespeare uses references to the night and day, the stars, the moon, and the sun to create this illusion. He also has characters frequently refer to days of the week and specific hours to help the audience understand that time has passed in the story. All in all, no fewer than 103 references to time are found in the play, adding to this illusion of its passage. ^[58]

Context and interpretation

Psychoanalytic

Psychoanalytic critics focus largely on Romeo's relationships with Rosaline and Juliet, as well as the looming image of inevitable death. Psychoanalytic literary criticism refers to Literary criticism which in method concept theory, or form is influenced by the tradition of Psychoanalysis ^[59] Romeo and Juliet is not considered to be extremely psychologically complex, and sympathetic psychoanalytic readings of the play make the tragic male experience equivalent with sicknesses. ^[60] The first line of criticism argues that Romeo is in love with Rosaline and Juliet because she is the all-present, all-powerful mother which fills a void. According to this theory, this void was caused by the negligence of his mother. Another theory argues that the feud between the families provides a source of phallic expression for the male Capulets and Montagues. This sets up a system where patriarchal order is in power. When the sons are married, rather than focusing on the wife, they are still owed an obligation to their father through the feud. This conflict between obligation to the father (the family name) and the wife (the feminine), determines the course of the play. Some critics argue this hatred is the sole cause of Romeo and Juliet's passion for each other. The fear of death and the knowledge of the danger of their relationship is in this view channelled into a romantic passion. ^[59]

Feminist literary critics have pointed out Juliet's dependence on male characters, such as Friar Laurence and Romeo.

Feminist

Feminist critics argue that the blame for the family feud lies in Verona's patriarchal society. Feminist literary criticism is Literary criticism informed by Feminist theory, or by the politics of Feminism more broadly Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over In this view, the strict, masculine code of violence imposed on Romeo is the main force driving the tragedy to its end. When Tybalt kills Mercutio, for example, Romeo shifts into this violent mode, regretting that Juliet has made him so "effeminate". ^[61] In this view, the younger males "become men" by engaging in violence on behalf of their fathers, or in the case of the servants, their masters. The feud is also linked to male virility, as the joke about the maid's heads shows. ^[62] Juliet also submits to a female code of docility by allowing others, such as the Friar, to solve her problems for her. Other critics, such as Dympna Callaghan, look at the play's feminism from a more historicist angle. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Historicism refers to philosophical theories that include one or both of two claims that there is an organic succession of developments a notion also They take into account the fact that the play is written during a time when the patriarchal order was being challenged by several forces, most notably the rise of Puritanism. A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of Worship and Doctrine, When Juliet dodges her father's attempt to force her to marry a man she has no feeling for, she is successfully challenging the patriarchal order in a way that would not have been possible at an earlier time. ^[63]

Gender studies

Gender studies critics largely question the sexuality of two characters, Mercutio and Romeo. Gender studies is a field of Interdisciplinary study which analyzes the phenomenon of Gender. From the perspective of this form of criticism, the difference between the two characters' friendship and sexual love is discussed heavily in the play. Mercutio's friendship with Romeo, for example, leads to several friendly conversations, including ones on the subject of Romeo's phallus. The word phallus can refer to an erect Penis, or to an object shaped like a penis This would seem to suggest traces of homoeroticism. Homoeroticism refers to the representation of same-sex love and desire most especially as it is depicted or manifested in the Visual arts and Literature. ^[64] Romeo, as well, admits traces of the same in the manner of his love for Rosaline and Juliet. Rosaline, for example, is distant and unavailable, bringing no hope of offspring. As Benvolio argues, she is best replaced by someone who will reciprocate. Shakespeare's procreation sonnets describe another young man who, like Romeo, is having trouble creating offspring and who is homosexual. The term procreation sonnets is a name given to Shakespearean sonnets numbers I to XVII. Gender critics believe that Shakespeare may have used Rosaline as a way to express homosexual problems of procreation in an acceptable way. In this view, when Juliet says ". . . that which we call a rose [or Rosaline] / By any other name would smell as sweet",^[65] she may be raising the question of whether there is any difference between the beauty of a man and the beauty of a woman. ^[66]

Influences

Romeo and Juliet has had a strong influence on subsequent literature. It is widely considered the first successful modern youthful love tragedy, and was followed by countless similar stories. ^[67] Until this play romance had not even been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy. ^[68] The play directly influenced several literary works, both in Shakespeare's own day through the works of Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher,^[69] and later works such as those of Charles Dickens. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Francis Beaumont (1584 &ndash March 6 1616) was a dramatist in the English Renaissance theatre, most famous for his collaborations with John John Fletcher (1579 &ndash 1625 was a Jacobean Playwright. Following William Shakespeare as house playwright for the King's Men, he was ^[70]

The play has also influenced world culture, specifically with regard to romance and relationships. For example, the word "Romeo" has become synonymous with "male lover" in English, especially one who goes to great lengths for love. ^[71] The juliet cap, worn either close to the scalp as a small headpiece or as a wedding headband to hold the bridal veil, was so named because of the actresses who wore it on stage in performances of the play. A veil is an article of clothing worn almost exclusively by women that is intended to cover some part of the head or Face. ^[72][73] It has inspired the name of a (later discredited^[74]) psychological problem between couples, called "the Romeo and Juliet Effect". This title is used to describe relationships which suffer divisions because of hatred between partners' parents. ^[75] More recently, scholars have described the play as having a unique adaptive and iconic ability, causing its characters to transcend the original texts and project themselves into the modern world. For example, Romeo and Juliet are mentioned in a song by Sublime titled Romeo, which portrays the Montague as a modern character pining for love in a modern way. Sublime was a hip-hop influenced American Ska-punk and Reggae band that originated in Long Beach California. Both characters have become symbols of love, teenage struggles, resistance to authority, and doers of the forbidden. Songs such as Romeo take advantage of the influence these characters have had by communicating through them to achieve their ends. ^[76]

Performances and adaptations

Richard Burbage, probably one of the first actors to portray Romeo. Richard Burbage ( January 7, 1568 &ndash March 13 1619) was an Actor and theatre owner Romeo Montague is a fictional character in William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet. ^[77]

Shakespeare's day

Romeo and Juliet ranks with Hamlet as one of Shakespeare's most-performed plays. Hamlet is a Tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1599 and 1601 ^[78] Its many adaptations have made it one of his most enduring and famous stories. ^[78] Even in Shakespeare's lifetime it was extremely popular. Gary Taylor measures it as the sixth most popular of Shakespeare's plays, in the period after the death of Marlowe and Kyd but before the ascendancy of Jonson during which Shakespeare was London's dominant playwright. Thomas Kyd ( 3 November 1558 – 16 July 1594) was an English Dramatist, the author of The Spanish Tragedy Benjamin Jonson ( c 11 June 1572 &ndash 6 August 1637) was an English Renaissance Dramatist ^[79] The exact date of the first performance of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, however, is unknown. The First Quarto, printed in 1597, says that "it hath been often (and with great applause) plaid publiquely", setting the first performance prior to that date. The Lord Chamberlain's Men were certainly the first to perform it. The Lord Chamberlain's Men was the Playing company that William Shakespeare worked for as Actor and Playwright for most of his career Besides their strong connections with Shakespeare, the Second Quarto actually names one of its actors, Will Kemp, instead of Peter in a line in Act five. See Will Kempe (actor for the contemporary television actor William Kempe (died 1603? also spelled Kemp, was an English Richard Burbage was probably the first Romeo, being the company's leading actor, and Master Robert Goffe (a male) the first Juliet. Richard Burbage ( January 7, 1568 &ndash March 13 1619) was an Actor and theatre owner A leading actor, leading actress, or simply lead, plays the role of the Protagonist in a film or play ^[77]

Mary Saunderson, probably the first woman to play Juliet professionally. Mary Saunderson (1637-1712 later known as Mary Saunderson Betterton after her marriage to Thomas Betterton) was an actress and singer in England during the 1660s

The Restoration and the 18th century

All theatres were closed down by the puritan government during the Commonwealth. A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of Worship and Doctrine, The English Interregnum was the period of Parliamentary and Military rule in the land occupied by modern-day England and Wales after the Upon the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, two patent companies (the King's Company and the Duke's Company) were established, and the existing theatrical repertoire divided between them. The English Restoration, or simply The Restoration began in 1660 when the English monarchy, Scottish monarchy and Irish monarchy were restored The King's Company was one of two enterprises granted the rights to mount theatrical productions in London at the start of the English Restoration. The Duke's Company was one of the two theatre companies (the other being the King's Company) that were chartered by King Charles II at the start of the English ^[80] Sir William Davenant of the Duke's Company staged a 1662 production in which Henry Harris played Romeo, Thomas Betterton was Mercutio, and Betterton's wife Mary Saunderson played Juliet: probably the first woman to play the role professionally. Sir William Davenant (baptised 3 March, 1606 &ndash April 7, 1668) also spelled D'Avenant, was an English Poet Henry Harris is the name of Sir Henry Harris (scientist (born 1925 Australian pioneer in medicine in the fields of oncology and human genetics Thomas Patrick Betterton (ca 1635 &ndash 28 April 1710) English Actor, son of an under-cook to King Charles I, was born in Mary Saunderson (1637-1712 later known as Mary Saunderson Betterton after her marriage to Thomas Betterton) was an actress and singer in England during the 1660s ^[81][82] This play was criticized by Samuel Pepys in 1662 as "the worst that ever I heard in my life. Samuel Pepys, FRS (23 February 1633 – 26 May 1703 was an English naval administrator and Member of Parliament, who is now most famous for "^[83] Versions immediately following this were changed to tragicomedies, where the two lovers did not die in the end. ^[82] For example, Thomas Otway's adaptation The History and Fall of Caius Marius, one of the more extreme of the Restoration versions of Shakespeare, debuted in 1680. Thomas Otway ( March 3, 1652 – April 14, 1685) was an English Dramatist of the Restoration period The scene is shifted from Renaissance Verona to ancient Rome; Romeo is Marius, Juliet is Lavinia, the feud is between patricians and plebeians; Juliet/Lavinia wakes from her potion before Romeo/Marius dies. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Otway's version was a hit, and was acted for the next seventy years. It altered the sexual language of the play as well, toning down the Queen Mab speech, for example. Queen Mab is a Fairy referred to in Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. ^[82] Theophilus Cibber mounted his own adaptation in 1744, followed by David Garrick's in 1748. Theophilus Cibber ( November 26, 1703 - 1758 was an English Actor, Playwright, author and son of the actor-manager Colley Cibber David Garrick (born 19 February 1717 in Hereford &ndash 20 January 1779) was an English Actor, Playwright, Both Cibber and Garrick used variations on Otway's innovation in the tomb scene. ^[84] These versions also eliminated elements deemed inappropriate for the time. For example, Garrick's version transferred all language describing Rosaline to Juliet, in order to heighten the idea of faithfulness and downplay the love-at-first-sight theme. ^[85] In 1750 a "Battle of the Romeos" began, with Spranger Barry and Susannah Maria Arne (Mrs. Spranger Barry ( November 23, 1719 &ndash January 10, 1777) British Actor, was born in Dublin, the son of a Susannah Maria Arne also known as Susanna Maria Cibber (1714 &ndash 1766 was a celebrated English Singer and actress, the sister of the composer Theophilus Cibber) at Covent Garden versus David Garrick and George Anne Bellamy at Drury Lane. WikipediaWikiProject Opera --> The Royal Opera House is an Opera house and major performing David Garrick (born 19 February 1717 in Hereford &ndash 20 January 1779) was an English Actor, Playwright, George Anne Bellamy (c 1731-88 was an English actress She was born by her own account at Fingal, Ireland. The Theatre Royal Drury Lane is a West End theatre in Covent Garden, in the City of Westminster, a borough of London. ^[86]

19th century theatre

The American Cushman sisters, Charlotte and Susan, as Romeo and Juliet in 1846

Garrick's altered version of the play was very popular, and ran for nearly a century. Charlotte Saunders Cushman ( July 23, 1816 &ndash February 18, 1876) was an American stage actress ^[82] Not until 1845 did Shakespeare's original return to the stage in the United States (with the sisters Charlotte and Susan Cushman as Romeo and Juliet),^[87][88] and in 1847 in Britain (Samuel Phelps at Sadler's Wells). Charlotte Saunders Cushman ( July 23, 1816 &ndash February 18, 1876) was an American stage actress Samuel Phelps (1804-1878 was an English Actor, born in Devonport. Sadler's Wells Theatre is the name of six theatres that have been built since 1683 at a site on Rosebery Avenue Clerkenwell in the London Borough of Islington ^[89] Cushman actively reverted Garrick's additions and changes to the original, and adhered to Shakespeare's version, beginning a string of eighty-four performances. Her portrayal of Romeo was considered genius by many, as she called more attention to Romeo's character than other's, making the play largely his tragedy. Cushman's success broke the Garrick tradition and paved the way for later plays. ^[82] Henry Irving's 1882 production at the Lyceum Theatre is considered an archetype of his "pictorial" style, placing the action on elaborate sets. Sir Henry Irving ( February 6 1838 &ndash October 13 1905) born John Henry Brodribb was an English stage actor in the Victorian era The Lyceum Theatre is a 2000-seat West End theatre located in the City of Westminster, on Wellington Street just off the Strand. Irving himself played Romeo, and Ellen Terry played Juliet. Dame Ellen Terry GBE ( 27 February 1847 &ndash 21 July 1928) was an English stage actress. ^[90] In 1895, actor Forbes-Robertson took over for Irving, and laid the groundwork for a more natural portrayal of Shakespeare that remains popular today. Sir Johnston Forbes-Robertson ( January 16, 1853 – November 6, 1937) was an English Actor and theatre manager Forbes-Robertson avoided the showiness of Irving and instead portrayed a down-to-earth Romeo, expressing the poetic dialogue as realistic prose and avoiding melodramatic flourish.

Meanwhile, American actors began performing the play, eventually rivalling their British counterparts with the likes of Edwin Booth (brother to John Wilkes Booth) and Mary McVicker as Romeo and Juliet. Edwin Thomas Booth (13 November 1833 &ndash 7 June 1893 was a famous 19th century American Actor. Abraham Lincoln assassination John Wilkes Booth (May 10 1838 – April 26 1865 was an American stage actor who assassinated Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the Booth's production in 1869 is significant in several respects. First, Edwin Booth chose the play to open his spectacular new theatre called Booth's Theatre on the southeast corner of Twenty-third Street at Sixth Avenue, with McVicker (soon to be his wife) getting top billing as Juliet (in the list of characters). Edwin Thomas Booth (13 November 1833 &ndash 7 June 1893 was a famous 19th century American Actor. Booth's Theatre was a theatre in Manhattan built by actor Edwin Booth. The sumptuous theatre that Booth built, with European-style stage machinery such as the New York Theatre had never seen, and built of granite with an air conditioning system unique in all of the city, opened on February 3, 1869, with one of the most elaborage productions of Romeo and Juliet ever seen in America, according to some reports. Events 1112 - Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona and Douce I of Provence marry uniting the fortunes of those two states Year 1869 ( MDCCCLXIX) is a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year ^[91] Second, the Booth-McVicker Romeo and Juliet was quite possibly one of the most popular productions of Romeo and Juliet in America up till then, running for over six weeks, and earning upwards of sixty thousand dollars (both figures were extraordinary for such productions in the mid 19th century. )^[92] Also noteworthy was a statement, on the program of Booth's production that read: "The tragedy will be produced in strict accordance with historical propriety, in every respect, following closely the text of Shakespeare. "^[93] This suggests that other versions of Romeo and Juliet were common, such as the hundred and twenty year-old but still popular adaptation by David Garrick. David Garrick (born 19 February 1717 in Hereford &ndash 20 January 1779) was an English Actor, Playwright,

The play found popularity throughout continental Europe, as well. ^[94]

20th century theatre

John Gielgud, who was among the more famous 20th-century actors to play Romeo, Friar Laurence and Mercutio on stage

In one of the most notable 20th-century performances, staged by John Gielgud at the New Theatre in 1935, Gielgud and Laurence Olivier played the roles of Romeo and Mercutio, exchanging roles six weeks into the run, with Peggy Ashcroft as Juliet. Sir Arthur John Gielgud, OM, CH ( 14 April, 1904 – 21 May 2000) known as Sir John Gielgud, was an Sir Arthur John Gielgud, OM, CH ( 14 April, 1904 – 21 May 2000) known as Sir John Gielgud, was an The Noël Coward Theatre is a West End theatre on St Martin's Lane in the City of Westminster. Laurence Kerr Olivier Baron Dame Peggy Ashcroft DBE ( 22 December, 1907 &ndash 14 June, 1991) was an acclaimed Academy Award -winning English ^[95] Gielgud used a scholarly combination of Q1 and Q2 texts, omitting only minor portions of the originals, such as the second Chorus. He also organized the set and costumes to match as closely as possible to the Elizabethan period. Romance and reality The Victorian era and the early twentieth century idealised the Elizabethan era His efforts were a huge success at the box office, and set the stage for increased historical realism in later plays. ^[96] Meanwhile, Peter Brook's 1947 version was the beginning of a different style of Romeo and Juliet performances. Peter Stephen Paul Brook CH, CBE (born 21 March 1925) is a British theatre and Film director and innovator Brook was less concerned with realism, and more concerned with translating the play into a form that could communicate with the more modern world. He argued, "A production is only correct at the moment of its correctness, and only good at the moment of its success. "^[97] Other notable 20th-century productions include Guthrie McClintic's 1934 Broadway staging in which Katharine Cornell had a triumph as Juliet opposite Basil Rathbone as Romeo and Edith Evans (who also played the role in the Gielgud production) as the Nurse. Gutherie McClintic born 6 August 1893 in Seattle Washington, USA was a successful Theatre director, Film director and Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Broadway theater, commonly called simply Broadway, refers to theatrical performances presented in one of the 39 large professional theaters with 500 seats or more located Katharine Cornell ( February 16 1893 - June 9 1974) was a stage actress writer and theater owner and producer. Basil Rathbone, MC (13 June 1892 – 21 July 1967 was a South African-born English Actor most famous for his portrayal of Sherlock Dame Edith Mary Evans DBE ( 8 February 1888 &ndash 14 October 1976) was an actress who had a long and distinguished career on the Sir Arthur John Gielgud, OM, CH ( 14 April, 1904 – 21 May 2000) known as Sir John Gielgud, was an Cornell later revived the production with Maurice Evans as Romeo and Ralph Richardson as Mercutio, both making their Broadway debuts. Maurice Herbert Evans ( June 3, 1901 - March 12, 1989) was an English Actor who became a US citizen in 1941 Sir Ralph David Richardson ( 19 December 1902 &ndash 10 October 1983) was an English Actor, one of a group of theatrical Broadway theater, commonly called simply Broadway, refers to theatrical performances presented in one of the 39 large professional theaters with 500 seats or more located Franco Zeffirelli mounted a legendary staging for the Old Vic in 1960 with John Stride and Judi Dench that served as the basis for his 1968 film. Franco Zeffirelli, KBE (born Gianfranco Corsi on February 12, 1923) is an Italian Film director. The Old Vic is a Theatre located just south-east of Waterloo Station in London on the corner of The Cut and Waterloo Road. John Stride (born July 11, 1936) is an English actor best known for his Television work during the 1970s Dame Judith Olivia Dench, CH, DBE, FRSA, (born 9 December, 1934) usually known as Judi Dench, is an English Romeo and Juliet ( 1968) is a movie adaptation of the William Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet. ^[98] Zeffirelli borrowed from Brook's ideas, altogether removing nearly a third of the play's text in order to make it more accessible to a contemporary audience. He also paid close attention to detail, making sure that nothing which would add to the realism of the performance was neglected. Zeffirelli's performances were so successful worldwide that he made a film of the play in 1968. ^[97]

In New York, Romeo and Juliet became the inaugural production of the Riverside Shakespeare Company of New York City, an Equity theatre company based on Manhattan's Upper West Side, which opened with a tour of Romeo and Juliet throughout the parks of Manhattan in the summer of 1977, leading eventually to the creation of The Shakespeare Center on Manhattan's Upper West Side. The Riverside Shakespeare Company of New York City was founded in 1977 as a professional (AEA theatre company on the Upper West Side of New York City by W The City of New York Template talkInfobox Union for usage --> The Actors' Equity Association (AEA commonly referred to as Actors' Equity The Upper West Side is a neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan in New York City that lies between Central Park and the Hudson River Manhattan Island, in New York Harbor, is much the largest part of the Borough of Manhattan, one of the Five Boroughs which form the City of New York The Shakespeare Center was the home of the Riverside Shakespeare Company, an Equity professional theatre company in New York City beginning in 1982 when the then six-year-old Manhattan Island, in New York Harbor, is much the largest part of the Borough of Manhattan, one of the Five Boroughs which form the City of New York The Upper West Side is a neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan in New York City that lies between Central Park and the Hudson River ^[99] Eight years later the company mounted a second outdoor production of this play, sponsored by Joseph Papp and the New York Shakespeare Festival on an expanded tour to the five boroughs of New York City. Joseph Papp ( June 22 1921 - October 31 1991) was an American Theatrical producer and director. New York Shakespeare Festival is the traditional name of a sequence of shows organized by the Public Theater in New York City, most often being held at the Delacorte ^[100] In fact, Romeo and Juliet has proven to be one of the most popular Shakespeare plays in New York theatre history, second only to Hamlet in the number of Broadway productions. ^[101]

More recent professional performances have grown ever more adaptive to the contemporary world. For example, the prestigious Royal Shakespeare Company developed a 1986 version of the play set in present-day Verona, Italy. The Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC is a British Theatre company Switchblades replace swords, feasts and balls become drug-laden rock parties, and Romeo commits suicide by hypodermic needle. A hypodermic needle is a hollow needle commonly used with a Syringe to inject substances into the body ^[102] Later, in 1997, the Folger Shakespeare Theatre produced another modern version, this time set in a typical suburban world. Romeo sneaks into the Capulet barbecue to meet Juliet, and Juliet discovers Tybalt's death while in class at school. ^[103] Other contemporary performances give the play a well-known historical setting, enabling audiences to understand, and perhaps to reflect upon, the underlying conflicts. For example, adaptations have been set in the midst of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,^[104] in the apartheid era in South Africa,^[105] and in the aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa The' Pueblo Revolt of 1680 or Popé's Rebellion' was an uprising of many Pueblos of the Pueblo people against Spanish colonization of the Americas in ^[106] Among the most famous of such adaptations is Peter Ustinov's 1956 comic adaptation, Romanoff and Juliet, set in a fictional mid-European country in the depths of the Cold War. Sir Peter Alexander Ustinov (ˈjuːstɪnɒf or /ˈuːstɪnɒf/ 16 April 1921 – 28 March 2004) born Peter Alexander Baron von Ustinow Romanoff and Juliet is a play by Peter Ustinov. A comic spoof of the Cold War, it is set in the small mythical mid- European country of Concordia Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the ^[107] A mock-Victorian revisionist version of Romeo and Juliet 's final scene (with a happy ending, Romeo, Juliet, Mercutio and Paris restored to life, and Benvolio revealing that he is Paris's love, Benvolia, in disguise) was also included as the conclusion of Part One of the 1980 stage-play The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby. The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby' is an eight-hour stage play presented over two performances adapted from the Charles Dickens novel of the same

Several ballet versions of the play have developed, including this one starring Tamara Karsavina and Serge Lifar.

Ballet, opera and musicals

At least 24 operas have been based on Romeo and Juliet. Opera is an art form in which Singers and Musicians perform a Dramatic work (called an opera which combines a text (called a Libretto ^[108] The earliest, Romeo und Julie (1776), a Singspiel by Georg Benda, omits much of the action of the play and most its characters, and has a happy ending. For the racehorse see Singspiel (horse. Singspiel ("song-play" (plural Singspiele is a form of German-language It is occasionally revived. The best-known is Gounod's Roméo et Juliette (1867, libretto by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré^[109]), a critical triumph when first performed^[110] and frequently revived today. Biography Gounod was born in Paris, the son of a pianist mother and a draftsman father Roméo et Juliette ( Romeo and Juliet) is an Opera in five acts by Charles Gounod to a French libretto by Jules Paul Jules Barbier ( 8 March, 1825 - 16 January, 1901) was a French poet writer and Opera librettist who often wrote in Michel Carré ( 20 October, 1821 - 27 June, 1872) was a prolific French librettist Bellini's I Capuleti e i Montecchi is also revived from time to time, but has sometimes been judged unfavourably because of its perceived liberties with Shakespeare; however, Bellini and his librettist, Felice Romani, worked from Italian sources – principally Romani's libretto for an opera by Nicola Vaccai – rather than directly adapting Shakespeare's play. Vincenzo Salvatore Carmelo Francesco Bellini ( November 3, 1801 &ndash September 23, 1835) was a Sicilian Opera Composer I Capuleti e i Montecchi ( The Capulets and the Montagues) is an Italian Opera by Vincenzo Bellini. Felice Romani ( January 31, 1788 — January 28, 1865) was an Italian Poet and scholar of literature and Mythology Nicola Vaccai, (born in Tolentino, 15 March, 1790 - died in Pesaro, 5 or 6 August, 1848) was an Italian Composer ^[111]

The play has also had a number of musical theatre adaptations, the most famous of which is West Side Story with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim. Musical theatre is a form of Theatre combining Music, Songs spoken Dialogue and Dance. West Side Story is a musical by Arthur Laurents (book Leonard Bernstein (music and Stephen Sondheim (lyrics WikipediaWikiProject Composers#Lead section --> WikipediaWikiProject Classical music#Biographical_infoboxes Stephen Joshua Sondheim (born March 22 1930 is an American musical and film composer and lyricist winner of an Academy Award, multiple Tony Awards (seven It débuted on Broadway in 1957 and in London's West End in 1958, and became a popular film in 1961. This version updated the setting to mid-20th century New York City, and the warring families to ethnic gangs. The City of New York ^[112] Other musical adaptations include Terrence Mann's 1999 rock musical William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, co-written with Jerome Korman,^[113] Gérard Presgurvic's 2001 Roméo et Juliette, de la Haine à l'Amour and Riccardo Cocciante's 2007 Giulietta & Romeo. Terrance Mann was the name of a character in the film Field of Dreams. Roméo et Juliette de la Haine à l'Amour is a French musical based on William Shakespeare 's play Riccardo Cocciante, also known in French -speaking countries as Richard Cocciante (born February 20, 1946) is a French-Italian Singer-songwriter Giulietta & Romeo is an Italian-language musical with music by Riccardo Cocciante and lyrics by Pasquale Panella, based on William Shakespeare ^[114] Several ballet versions have also been composed; the best-known is Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet, first performed in 1938. Ballet is a formalized form of Dance with its origins in the French court further developed in France and Russia as a Concert dance Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev (Серге́й Серге́евич Проко́фьев Sergéj Sergéjevič Prokófjev) ( - 5 March 1953 was a Russian composer who Romeo and Juliet (Op 64 (Ромео и Джульетта is a Ballet by Sergei Prokofiev based on William Shakespeare 's play Romeo ^[115]

Roméo et Juliette by Berlioz is a "symphonie dramatique", a large scale work in three parts for mixed voices, chorus and orchestra, premiered in 1839. Roméo et Juliette is a "symphonie dramatique" a large scale Choral symphony by French Composer Hector Berlioz. ^[116] The Romeo and Juliet Fantasy Overture (1869, revised 1870 and 1880), by Tchaikovsky is a long symphonic poem, containing the famous melody known as the "love theme". Romeo and Juliet is a musical work by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, subtitled Overture-Fantasy. A symphonic poem or tone poem is a piece of Orchestral Music in one movement in which some extramusical program provides a narrative or illustrative element ^[117]

Screen

Main article: Romeo and Juliet on screen

Shakespeare's play has been filmed numerous times. See also Shakespeare on screen. William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet may be the most-screened play of all time ^[118] In putting Romeo and Juliet on screen, the director must set the action in a social context that illuminates the characters, and mediates between the Renaissance play and modern audiences. More than 420 feature-length film versions of William Shakespeare ' s plays have been produced making Shakespeare the most filmed author ever in any language The social environment (context, also known as the Milieu, is the identical or similar Social positions and Social roles as a whole that influence the individuals ^[119] George Cukor, in 1970, commented on why his "stately" and "stodgy" 1936 film had not stood the test of time, saying that if he had the opportunity to make it again he would "get the garlic and the Mediterranean into it". George Dewey Cukor ( July 7, 1899 – January 24, 1983) was an Academy Award -winning American Film director. Romeo and Juliet is a film adaptation of the play by Shakespeare, directed by George Cukor from a screenplay by Talbot Jennings. ^[119] Yet that performance (featuring Norma Shearer and Leslie Howard, with a combined age over 75, as the teenage lovers) had garnered no fewer than four Oscar nominations. Edith Norma Shearer (August 10 1900 - June 12 1983 was an Academy Award&ndashwinning Canadian-American actress. Leslie Howard ( April 3, 1893 - June 1, 1943) was an English stage and Academy Award nominated Film "The Oscar" redirects here for the film see The Oscar (film. ^[119]

The films' openings highlight each director's care to establish authenticity: Cukor introduces his characters in a shot of a scene played on a proscenium stage; Renato Castellani's 1954 version opens with John Gielgud, famous as a stage Romeo, as the Prologue in Elizabethan doublet and hose; Zeffirelli sets his scene with an overview of Verona, and his Prologue, in voiceover, was another famous stage Romeo: Laurence Olivier. Proscenium theatre is a Theatre space whose primary feature is a large Archway (the proscenium arch) at or near the front of the stage, through Romeo and Juliet is a 1954 film adaptation of William Shakespeare 's play of the same title. Sir Arthur John Gielgud, OM, CH ( 14 April, 1904 – 21 May 2000) known as Sir John Gielgud, was an Laurence Kerr Olivier Baron In contrast, Romeo + Juliet in 1996 was targeted at a young audience, and opens with images of television and print journalism. ^[119]

A particular difficulty for the screen-writer arises towards the end of the fourth act, where Shakespeare's play requires considerable compression to be effective on the big screen, without giving the impression of "cutting to the chase". ^[120] In Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 version, Juliet's return home from the Friar's cell, her submission to her father and the preparation for the wedding are drastically abbreviated, and similarly the tomb scene is cut short: Paris does not appear at all, and Benvolio (in the Balthazar role) is sent away but is not threatened. Franco Zeffirelli, KBE (born Gianfranco Corsi on February 12, 1923) is an Italian Film director. Romeo and Juliet ( 1968) is a movie adaptation of the William Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet. ^[120] In Baz Luhrmann's Romeo + Juliet, the screenplay allows Juliet to witness Romeo's death, and the role of the watch is cut, permitting Friar Lawrence to remain with Juliet and to be taken by surprise by her sudden suicide. Baz Luhrmann (born Mark Anthony Luhrmann on 17 September 1962 is an Oscar and Golden Globe -nominated Australian Film director, Screenwriter ^[120]

In addition, several re-workings of the story have also been filmed. West Side Story (1961) — from the 1957 stage musical — replaces the duelling families with rival gangs, one white and born in the United States, the other Puerto Rican. West Side Story is a 1961 film directed by Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins. The year 1961 in film involved some significant events Events Last Year at Marienbad ( L'année dernière Year 1957 ( MCMLVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar) White People is the second album by Handsome Boy Modeling School. Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} Shakespeare in Love (1998) tells a fictionalized story of how Shakespeare came up with the play, placing him in the midst of his own tragic romance as he writes it. Shakespeare in Love is a 1998 Romantic comedy / Drama Film. The film was directed by John Madden and co-written by playwright The movie creates other parallels to the play as well, such as a quarrel between two playhouses, The Curtain and The Rose, and an antagonist with similarities to both Count Paris and Tybalt. The Rose was an Elizabethan theatre. It was the fourth of the public theatres to be built after The Theatre ( 1576) the Curtain ^[121] Romeo Must Die (2000) uses elements of the plot to introduce Jet Li to an American audience, with Asian Americans as Montagues and African Americans as Capulets. Romeo Must Die is a 2000 Action film with a Romeo and Juliet theme directed by Andrzej Bartkowiak. Li Lianjie (born April 26 1963 better known by his stage name Jet Li, is a Chinese martial artist (Kung fu Actor, Wushu champion ^[122] Disney's High School Musical (2006), also loosely adapts the Romeo and Juliet story, placing the two young lovers in rival high school cliques instead of feuding families. High School Musical is an Emmy Award -winning American Television film. ^[123] There is also an anime adaption of the play, titled Romeo X Juliet, which follows the plot loosely and adds fantastical elements.

Karmina's pop single "The Kiss"

Popular Music

Popular music duo Karmina released a single in May 2008 called "The Kiss" that embodies many of the themes found in Romeo + Juliet, particularly that of forbidden love. MAY ( also known as: Mei メイ 메이 is a Korean singer well known in South Korea for singing the song "Miracle" 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet is an Academy Award -nominated 1996 American film and the 10th on-screen adaptation of William The lyrics to the song's musical bridge borrow from Act 1, Scene 5 of Shakespeare's play:

" Palm to palm, let lips do what hands do
They pray
Is it a sin to do what we want to?
Dont care where we've been
Give me my sin again"

Also Radiohead's Towering Above the Rest album. William Shakespeare ( baptised The Introduction to Romeo as heard in Romeo + Juliet (1996).
"The Kiss" is found on the Karmina's 2008 album, Backwards Into Beauty. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common

References

Notes

Texts of Romeo and Juliet

Secondary Sources

External links

• Romeo and Juliet - text with notes, line numbers, and search function
• Romeo and Juliet - plain vanilla text from Project Gutenberg
• Romeo and Juliet - HTML version at MIT
• Romeo and Juliet - Full text with audio. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
• Arthur Brooke's Romeus and Juliet
• Essay: How Romeus Became Romeo Comparing Brooke's work with Shakespeare's
• Analysis of Romeo and Juliet at Theatrehistory. com
• Romeo and Juliet Audiobook
• Full summary of Romeo and Juliet
• http://karmina.com/bio