The Pont du Gard in France is a Roman aqueduct built in ca. The Pont du Gard is an aqueduct in the South of France constructed by the Roman Empire, and located in Vers-Pont-du-Gard near Remoulins This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. 19 BC. Year 19 BC was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.

Roman technology is the engineering practice which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years. Roman Trade was the engine that drove the economy of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire had the most advanced set of technology of their time, some of which may have been lost during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in The Early Middle Ages is a period in the History of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire spanning roughly five centuries from AD 500 Gradually, some of the technological feats of the Romans were rediscovered and/or improved upon and some others – such as firearms, advanced sailing ship technologies and moveable type printing – went ahead of what the Romans had done by the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Era. The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c However the Roman technological feats of many different areas, like civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and some inventions such as the mechanical reaper went unmatched until the 19th century. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar

Process of acquiring new technology

Foreign influence

  Much of what is described as typically Roman technology, as opposed to that of the Greeks, comes directly from the Etruscan civilization, which was thriving to the North when Rome was just a small kingdom. Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy  Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2  The Etruscans had perfected the stone arch, and used it in bridges as well as buildings. An arch is a structure that spans a space while supporting weight (e  Etruscan cities had paved streets and sewer systems, unlike most city-states, which had muddy roads and no sewers save filthy open-air trenches. 

Some of later Roman technology was taken directly from Greek civilization. Many of the implements of land based Roman armies came out of the experimentation and the new developments in weapons of the Hellenistic wars that raged for decades between the successors of Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Most of the Greek city states abandoned the new weapons developed during these wars, reverting to simpler Macedonian arms and tactics of old, while the Romans took the newest developments and adapted them to their social forms.

Roman fleets were based directly on Carthaginian quinqueremes but were quickly adapted with the Roman innovation of the corvus (Polybius 1,21-23). A quinquereme (Latin or penteres (Greek is a type of ancient oar-propelled warship that was used by the Greeks of the Hellenistic period and later by the Carthaginians A corvus (meaning "crow" or "raven" in Latin) or harpago (probably the correct ancient name) was a Roman military

Speed of innovation

Transparent glass bowl of fruit. Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many Wall painting in the Roman Villa Boscoreale, Italy (1st century AD). Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Villa Boscoreale is an ancient Roman villa located in the town of Boscoreale, about two kilometers outside Pompeii in Campania, southern Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest

Small scale innovation was common as devices were gradually made more efficient, such as the improvement of the overshot water wheel and the improvements in wagon construction. Technology could and did evolve. The scale of the Empire encouraged the geographical spread of innovations. The ideal Roman citizen was an articulate veteran soldier who could wisely govern a large family household, which was supported by slave labor. Innovators did have some prestige; Pliny, for example, often records their names, or has some story to account for the innovation. Romans also knew enough history to be aware that technological change had occurred in the past and brought benefits. Military innovation was always valued. One text, De Rebus Bellicis, devoted to a number of innovations in military machinery, has survived. De Rebus Bellicis is a 4th or 5th century anonymous work about war machines used by the Roman army of the time

The apparent period in which technological progress was fastest and greatest was during the 2nd century and 1st century BC, which was the period in which Roman political and economic power greatly increased. The 2nd century is the period from 101 to 200 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. Innovation continued until the fall of the Empire, and it would take hundreds of years for all of its technological advancements to be rediscovered by other civilizations. Our understanding of Roman technology is provided by Pliny's Naturalis Historia, the De Architectura of Vitruvius and the De Aquaductae of Frontinus, all reliable works which give good information, and many inventions they mention have been confirmed by modern archaeology. Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. De architectura ( Latin: "On architecture" is a treatise on Architecture written by the Roman Architect Vitruvius Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum Sextus Julius Frontinus (ca 40-103 AD was one of the most distinguished Roman aristocrats of the late first century AD but is best known to the post-Classical world as an Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos By the beginning of the 1st century, most of what is considered today as typical Roman technology was already invented and refined, such as: concrete, plumbing facilities, cranes, wagon technology, mechanized harvesting machines, domes, the arch in building practice, wine and oil presses, and glass blowing. The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. Concrete is a construction material composed of Cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as Fly ash and Slag Plumbing, from the Latin plumbum for Lead, is the skilled trade of working with pipes, tubing and Plumbing fixtures for A crane is a lifting machine equipped with a Winder, Wire ropes or Chains and sheaves that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to In Agriculture, the harvest is the process of Gathering mature crops from the fields Reaping is the cutting of Grain A dome is a common structural element of Architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a Sphere. An arch is a structure that spans a space while supporting weight (e Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is Glassblowing is a glassforming technique that involves inflating the molten glass into a bubble or parison with the aid of the blowpipe or blow tube

The energy constraint

All technology uses energy to transform a, usually material, object. The cheaper energy is, the wider the class of technologies that are considered economic. This is why technological history can be seen as a succession of ages defined by energy type i. e. human, animal, water, peat, coal, oil, a gross simplification which is easily exaggerated. The Romans had water power, and exploited wood and coal for heating. There were huge reserves of wood, peat and coal in the Roman Empire, and wood at least was easily transportable to the major urban centres. The very early industrial revolution would rely on cheap fossil fuel energy. Coal would power the Industrial Revolution, from numerous coalfields which supplied London and other cities in Britain. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the A coalfield is an area of certain uniform characteristics where coal is mined The Romans worked almost all the coalfields of England that outcropped on the surface, by the end of the 2nd century (Smith 1997; 323). But after c. 200 AD the commercial heart of the Empire was in Africa and the East. There was no large coalfield on the edge of the Mediterranean. If there had been, history may have been different. As it was, hypocausts did allow them to exploit fuels like wood. A hypocaust (Latin hypocaustum) is an ancient Roman system of Central heating.

The energy constraint shows up in archaeology by the extent to which energy intensive technologies exploited economies of scale e. g. pottery kilns with 40,000 items and baths with 1,600 bathers. La Graufesenque is an archaeological site 2km from Millau, Aveyron, France at the junction of the Tarn and Dourbie rivers The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths or Thermae, built in Rome between AD 212 and 216 during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla

Craft basis

Roman technology was largely based on a system of crafts, although the term engineering is used today to describe the technical feats of the Romans. Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and The Greek words used were mechanic or machine-maker or even mathematician which had a much wider meaning than now. There were a large number of engineers employed by the army. The most famous engineer of this period was Apollodorus of Damascus. Normally each trade, each group of artisans—stone masons, surveyors, etc. A trade as an occupation usually refers to the profession that require some particular kind of skilled work An artisan, also called a Craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who crafts items that may be functional or strictly decorative including furniture clothing —within a project had its own practice of masters and apprentices, and many tried to keep their trade secrets, passing them on solely by word of mouth, a system still in use today by those who do not want to patent their inventions. A patent is a set of Exclusive rights granted by a State to an inventor or his assignee for a fixed period of time in exchange for a disclosure of an Writers such as Vitruvius, Pliny the Elder and Frontinus published widely on many different technologies, and there was a corpus of manuals on basic mathematics and science such as the many books by Archimedes, Ctesibius, Heron, Euclid and so on. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Sextus Julius Frontinus (ca 40-103 AD was one of the most distinguished Roman aristocrats of the late first century AD but is best known to the post-Classical world as an Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius ( Greek Κτησίβιος ( fl The herons are wading Birds in the Ardeidae family Some are called Egrets or Bitterns instead of herons Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry Not all of the manuals which were available to the Romans have survived, as lost works illustrates. A lost work is a document or literary work produced some time in the past of which no surviving copies are known to exist

Most of what is known of Roman technology comes indirectly from archaeological work and from the third-hand accounts of Latin texts copied from Arabic texts, which were in turn copied from the Greek texts of scholars such as Hero of Alexandria or contemporary travelers who had observed Roman technologies in action. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ( Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (c Writers like Pliny the Elder and Strabo had enough intellectual curiosity to make note of the inventions they saw during their travels, although their typically brief descriptions often arouse discussion as to their precise meaning. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. On the other hand, Pliny is perfectly clear when describing gold mining, his text in book xxxiii having been confirmed by archaeology and field-work at such sites as Las Medulas and Dolaucothi. "Gold mine" redirects here See Goldmine for other uses of the term Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Las Médulas, located near the town of Ponferrada in León province, Spain, used to be the most important Gold mine in the Roman The Dolaucothi Gold Mines ( also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are Roman surface and deep mines located in the valley of the River Cothi,

Engineering and construction

Further information: Roman architecture and Roman engineering and Roman military engineering

The Colosseum in Rome, Italy. The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture for their own purposes which were so different from Greek buildings as to create a new Origins The Romans are generally famous for their advanced Engineering accomplishments although some of their own inventions were improvements on older ideas concepts The military engineering of Ancient Rome 's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries The Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre ( Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest

The Romans made great use of aqueducts, dams, bridges, and amphitheaters. An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees A bridge is a Structure built to span a Gorge, Valley, Road, railroad track, River, Body of water An amphitheatre (alternatively amphitheater) is an open-air venue for spectator sports concerts rallies or theatrical performances They were also responsible for many innovations to roads, sanitation, and construction in general. Roman architecture in general was greatly influenced by the Etruscans. Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy Most of the columns and arches seen in famous Roman architecture were adopted from the Etruscan civilization.

In the Roman Empire, cements made from pozzolanic ash/pozzolana and an aggregate made from pumice were used to make a concrete very similar to modern Portland cement concrete. Pozzolana, also known as pozzolanic ash is a fine sandy Volcanic ash, originally discovered and dug in Italy at Pozzuoli in the region around Concrete is a construction material composed of Cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as Fly ash and Slag In 20s BC the architect Vitruvius described a low-water-content method for mixing concrete. Events and trends The Pax Romana ( 27 BC – 180) begins for the Roman Empire. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum The Romans found out that insulated glazing (or "double glazing") improved greatly on keeping buildings warm, and this technique was used in the construction of public baths. Insulated Glazing Unit or Insulating Glass Unit (commonly referred to as IGU) is a set of two or more sheets of glass spaced apart and Hermetically sealed This page is on buildings used for Roman bathing For the activity in general see Ancient Roman bathing.

Another truly original process which was born in the empire was the practice of glassblowing, which started in Syria and spread in about one generation in the empire. Glassblowing is a glassforming technique that involves inflating the molten glass into a bubble or parison with the aid of the blowpipe or blow tube

Machines

Reconstruction of a 10. 4m high Roman Polyspastos at Bonn, Germany. Bonn is the 19th largest city in Germany. Located about 20 kilometres south of Cologne on the river Rhine in the Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.

There were many types of presses to press olives, In the 1st century, Pliny the Elder reported the invention and subsequent general use of the new and more compact screw presses. However, the screw press was almost certainly not a Roman invention. It was first described by Hero of Alexandria, but may have already been in use when he mentioned it in his Mechanica III. Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ( Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (c

Cranes were used for construction work and possibly to load and unload ships at their ports, although for the latter use there is according to the “present state of knowledge” still no evidence. A crane is a lifting machine equipped with a Winder, Wire ropes or Chains and sheaves that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to ^[1] Most cranes were capable of lifting about 6-7 tons of cargo, and according to a relief shown on Trajan's column were worked by treadwheel. Trajan's Column is a Monument in Rome raised in honour of the Roman emperor Trajan and constructed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus The word Treadmill, originally a type of mill operated by a person treading steps of a wheel to grind grain now designates a piece of indoor sporting equipment for running without

Roads

Via Appia, a road connecting the city of Rome to the Southern parts of Italy remains usable even today. The Appian Way ( Latin and Italian: Via Appia) was the most important ancient Roman road. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest

Main article: Roman road

Further information: Roman bridge

The Romans primarily built roads for their military. The Roman Roads were essential for the growth of the Roman Empire, by enabling the Romans to move armies and trade goods and to communicate news For a list of all known Roman bridges see List of Roman bridges For the railway station in Wales, see Roman Bridge railway station Their economic importance was probably also significant, although wagon traffic was often banned from the roads to preserve their military value. At its largest extent the total length of the Roman road network was 85 000 km (53 000 miles).

Way stations providing refreshments were maintained by the government at regular intervals along the roads. A separate system of changing stations for official and private couriers was also maintained. This allowed a dispatch to travel a maximum of 800 km (500 miles) in 24 hours by using a relay of horses.

The roads were constructed by digging a pit along the length of the intended course, often to bedrock. Bedrock is the native consolidated rock underlying the surface of a terrestrial planet usually the Earth. The pit was first filled with rocks, gravel or sand and then a layer of concrete. Finally they were paved with polygonal rock slabs. Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads built until the early 19th century. Bridges were constructed over waterways. The roads were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. After the fall of the Roman empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000 years.

Aqueducts

Main article: Aqueduct

Further information: Roman aqueduct

Aqueduct of Segovia

The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water. An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another The ancient Romans constructed numerous aqueducts ( Latin aquaeductūs, sing The city of Rome itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts that provided the city with over 1 million cubic meters of water each day, sufficient for 3. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 5 million people even in modern day times,^[1] and with a combined length of 350 km (260 miles). ^[2] Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface with only small portions above ground supported by arches. The longest Roman aqueduct, 178km (94 miles) in length, was built to supply the city of Carthage. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers ^[3]

Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerances, and to a technological standard that was not to be equaled until modern times. Powered entirely by gravity, they transported very large amounts of water very efficiently. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 m had to be crossed, inverted siphons were used to force water uphill. A siphon (also spelled syphon) is a continuous tube that allows liquid to drain from a reservoir through an intermediate point that is higher than the reservoir the flow being ^[2] An aqueduct also supplied water for the overshot wheels at Barbegal in Roman Gaul, a complex of water mills hailed as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world". The Barbegal aqueduct and mill is a Roman Watermill complex located on the territory of the commune of Fontvieille, near the town of Arles, in For Gaul before the Roman conquest see Gaul. Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day ^[2]

Bridges

First century Roman bridge in Vaison la Romaine, France

Roman bridge and Moorish alcazaba at Mérida, Spain

Main article: Roman bridge

Roman bridges were the among first large and lasting bridges built. Vaison-la-Romaine (Latin Vasio Vocontiorum) is a small town and former bishopric in Provence. An alcazaba (from the Arabic for citadel al-qasbah, القصبة is a Moorish fortification in Spain. Mérida is the capital of the autonomous community of Extremadura, Spain. For a list of all known Roman bridges see List of Roman bridges For the railway station in Wales, see Roman Bridge railway station They were built with stone and had the arch as its basic structure. An arch is a structure that spans a space while supporting weight (e Most utilized concrete as well. Built in 142 BC, the Pons Aemilius, later named Ponte Rotto (broken bridge) is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. The Pons Aemilius (today Ponte Rotto) is the oldest Roman stone bridge in Rome, Italy. The biggest Roman bridge was Trajan's bridge over the lower Danube, constructed by Apollodorus of Damascus, which remained for over a millennium the longest bridge to have been built both in terms of overall and span length. See also Roman Dacia Trajan's Bridge (Podul lui Traian Serbian: Трајанов мост Trajanov Most) or Bridge of Apollodorus They were most of the time at-least 60 ft above the body of water.

An example of temporary military bridge construction are the two Caesar's Rhine bridges. Caesar’s Rhine bridges, the first two Bridges to cross the Rhine River, were built by Julius Caesar and his legionaries during the Gallic

Dams

They also built many dams for water collection, such as the Subiaco dams, two of which fed Anio Novus, one of the largest aqueducts of Rome. A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees Anio Novus (named after a river Anio at the forty-second mile of the Via Sublacensis from which the water was taken originally is an Aqueduct Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 They built 72 dams in just one country, Spain and many more are known across the Empire, some of which are still in use. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. At one site, Montefurado in Galicia, they appear to have built a dam across the river Sil to expose alluvial gold deposits in the bed of the river. The site is near the spectacular Roman gold mine of Las Medulas. Las Médulas, located near the town of Ponferrada in León province, Spain, used to be the most important Gold mine in the Roman Several earthen dams are known from Britain, including a well-preserved example from Roman Lanchester, Longovicium, where it may have been used in industrial-scale smithing or smelting, judging by the piles of slag found at this site in northern England. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Longovicium (or Lanchester Roman Fort) was an auxiliary Castra on Dere Street, in the Roman province of Britannia Inferior A smith, or metalsmith, is a person involved in the shaping of Metal objects Chemical reduction, or smelting, is a form of Extractive metallurgy. Tanks for holding water are also common along aqueduct systems, and numerous examples are known from just one site, the gold mines at Dolaucothi in west Wales. The Dolaucothi Gold Mines ( also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are Roman surface and deep mines located in the valley of the River Cothi, Masonry dams were common in North Africa for providing a reliable water supply from the wadis behind many settlements. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Wadi (وادي) (also Vadi) is traditionally a valley In some cases it can refer to a dry riverbed that contains water only during times of heavy rain

Mining

Development of Dolaucothi mine

The Romans also made great use of aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire, some sites such as Las Medulas in north-west Spain having at least 7 major channels entering the minehead. The Dolaucothi Gold Mines ( also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are Roman surface and deep mines located in the valley of the River Cothi, Las Médulas, located near the town of Ponferrada in León province, Spain, used to be the most important Gold mine in the Roman Other sites such as Dolaucothi in south Wales was fed by at least 5 leats, all leading to reservoirs and tanks or cisterns high above the present opencast. The Dolaucothi Gold Mines ( also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are Roman surface and deep mines located in the valley of the River Cothi, A leat (also lete or leet) is the name common in the south and west of England, for an artificial Watercourse, or Aqueduct, supplying For cisterns in Neuroanatomy, see Cistern (neuroanatomy.For the village in England see Syston. The water was used for hydraulic mining, where streams or waves of water are released onto the hillside, first to reveal any gold-bearing ore, and then to work the ore itself. Hydraulic mining, or hydraulicking, is a form of Mining that employs Water to dislodge rock material or move sediment Rock debris could be sluiced away by hushing, and the water also used to douse fires created to break down the hard rock and veins, a method known as fire-setting. Hushing is an ancient Mining method using a flood or torrent of water to reveal mineral veins A method of mining fires were set against a rock face to break the rock by Thermal shock after dousing with water

Alluvial gold deposits could be worked and the gold extracted without needing to crush the ore. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Washing tables were fitted below the tanks to collect the gold-dust and any nuggets present. Vein gold needed crushing, and they probably used crushing or stamp mills worked by water-wheels to comminute the hard ore before washing. Large quantities of water were also needed in deep mining to remove waste debris and power primitive machines, as well as for washing the crushed ore. Pliny the Elder provides a detailed description of gold mining in book xxxiii of his Naturalis Historia, most of which has been confirmed by archaeology. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos That they used water mills on a large scale elsewhere is attested by the flour mills at Barbegal in southern France, and on the Janiculum in Rome. The Barbegal aqueduct and mill is a Roman Watermill complex located on the territory of the commune of Fontvieille, near the town of Arles, in This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Janiculum ( Gianicolo in Italian) is a hill in western Rome. Although the second-tallest hill (after Monte Mario) in the contemporary city of Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2

Sanitation

Roman public baths in Bath, England. This page is on buildings used for Roman bathing For the activity in general see Ancient Roman bathing. Bath is a city in Somerset in the south west of England It is situated west of London and south-east of Bristol. The loss of the original roof has encouraged green algae growth.

Further information: Thermae

The Romans were one of the first known civilizations to invent indoor plumbing. This page is on buildings used for Roman bathing For the activity in general see Ancient Roman bathing. The Roman public baths, or thermae served hygienic, social and cultural functions. Bathing is the immersion of the body in a Fluid, usually Water or an aqueous solution This page is on buildings used for Roman bathing For the activity in general see Ancient Roman bathing. The baths contained three main facilities for bathing. After undressing in the apodyterium or changing room, Romans would proceed to the tepidarium or warm room. The tepidarium was the warm ( tepidus) bathroom of the Roman baths heated by a Hypocaust or Underfloor heating system In the moderate dry heat of the tepidarium, some performed warm-up exercises and stretched while others oiled themselves or had slaves oil them. The tepidarium’s main purpose was to promote sweating to prepare for the next room, the caldarium or hot room. A Caldarium (also called a Calidarium, Cella Caldaria or Cella Coctilium) was a room with a hot plunge bath used in a Roman bath complex The caldarium, unlike the tepidarium, was extremely humid and hot. Temperatures in the caldarium could reach 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit). The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. Many contained steam baths and a cold-water fountain known as the labrum. The last room was the frigidarium or cold room, which offered a cold bath for cooling off after the caldarium. A frigidarium is a large cold pool to drop into after enjoying a hot Roman bath. The Romans also had flush toilets. A flush toilet or Water Closet (WC is a Toilet that disposes of human waste by using water to flush it through a drainpipe to another location

Science, logic, and mathematics

A reconstruction of a Roman abacus in the Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.

Further information: Roman arithmetic and Roman numerals

If we define Roman by period then the stunning Antikythera mechanism is a Roman analogue computer. In Mathematics, Roman arithmetic is the use of Arithmetical operations on Roman numerals. Roman numerals are a Numeral system originating in ancient Rome, adapted from Etruscan numerals. The Antikythera mechanism (ˌæntɪkɪˈθɪərə an-ti-ki- theer -uh is an ancient mechanical Calculator (also described as the first known " mechanical The Romans developed the Roman abacus, the first portable counting device, based on earlier Greek counting boards. The Romans developed the Roman hand Abacus, a portable but less capable base-10 version of the previous Babylonian abacus It greatly reduced the time needed to perform basic Roman arithmetic operations, and was used heavily by merchants, tax collectors and engineers. In Mathematics, Roman arithmetic is the use of Arithmetical operations on Roman numerals. It was also used by rich schoolchildren, and another version was to help calculate the movement of the planets.

They were excellent surveyors, using at least four instruments, the groma, chorobates, dioptra and odometer in building aqueducts and other large structures. A chorobates (Greek χωροβἀτης from khŏros; "place" + -batos, "going" was a kind of level used in Classical A dioptra is a classical astronomical and surveying instrument dating from the 3rd century BCE. An odometer (often known colloquially as a mileometer or milometer) is a device used for indicating Distance traveled by an Automobile or other They are described and discussed by Vitruvius and Pliny the Elder. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author The Romans made many maps, a few of which have survived in degraded form, as shown by the Ravenna Cosmography and the Peutinger Table. A map is a visual representation of an area—a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, Regions, and Themes The Ravenna Cosmography was compiled by an anonymous cleric in Ravenna around AD 700 The Tabula Peutingeriana ( Peutinger table) is an Itinerarium showing the Cursus publicus, the road network in the Roman Empire. The latter is an itinerary of the Roman Empire, so directions are totally distorted for the sake of a linear sequence. Travel literature is Travel writing considered to have value as Literature. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial

Roman numerals, the basis for Roman mathematics, were derived from the earlier Etruscan numerals. Roman numerals are a Numeral system originating in ancient Rome, adapted from Etruscan numerals. The Etruscan numerals were used by the ancient Etruscans The system was adapted from the Greek Attic numerals and formed the inspiration for the later Roman

Roman military technology

Further information: Roman military engineering

A Roman Ballista

The Roman military had some of the most advanced technology available to armies of the time. The military engineering of Ancient Rome 's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries This ranged from personal equipment and armament to deadly siege engines. They inherited almost all ancient weapons. Ancient weapons Mêlée (excluding polearms) Axe Khopesh Masakari

While heavy, intricate armour was not uncommon (cataphracts), the Romans perfected a relatively light, full torso armour made of segmented plates (lorica segmentata). A cataphract was a form of Heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Ancient Greeks and Romans. The lōrīca segmentāta was a type of segmented Armour exclusively used in the Roman Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century This segmented armour provided flexibility and protection of most vital areas, and was not associated with the laborious craftwork that other armours (such as chainmail) were. Mail (also maille, often given as chain mail or chain maille) is a type of Armour or jewellery that consists of small metal rings linked Furthermore, the rest of the Roman soldier's equipment used similarly innovative and effective technology.

The Roman cavalry saddle had four horns [4] and was believed to have been copied from Celtic peoples.

Roman siege engines such as ballistas, scorpions and onagers were not unique. The ballista ( Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα - ballistra, from - βάλλω ballō, "to throw" plural ballistae Scorpio (Dart-thrower ( Polybolos) was a Roman artillery piece invented in 50 BC. But the Romans were probably the first people to put ballistas on carts to provide battlefield support for the Roman legions. On the battlefield they were accurate enough to take out enemy leaders.

List of Roman inventions and Roman-developed technologies

References

Further reading

Current state of research

• Andrew Wilson, "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92 (2002), pp. 1-32
• Kevin Greene, "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M. I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb. , 2000), pp. 29-59

General history of inventions

• Derry, Thomas Kingston and Trevor I. Williams. A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A. D. 1900. New York : Dover Publications, 1993
• Williams, Trevor I. A History of Invention From Stone Axes to Silicon Chips. New York, New York, Facts on File, 2000

Metallurgy

• Neil Beagrie, "The Romano-British Pewter Industry", Britannia, Vol. 20 (1989), pp. 169-91

Milling

• Lewis, M. J. T. , 1997, Millstone and Hammer, University of Hull Press
• Moritz, L. A. , 1958, Grainmills and Flour in Classical Antiquity, Oxford

Mining

• Oliver Davies, "Roman Mines in Europe", Clarendon Press (Oxford), 1935.
• Jones G. D. B. , I. J. Blakey, and E. C. F. MacPherson, "Dolaucothi: the Roman aqueduct," Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 19 (1960): 71-84 and plates III-V.
• Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "The Dolaucothi gold mines, I: the surface evidence," The Antiquaries Journal, 49, no. 2 (1969): 244-72.
• Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain," Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169-85.
• Lewis, P. R. , "The Ogofau Roman gold mines at Dolaucothi," The National Trust Year Book 1976-77 (1977).
• Barry C. Burnham, "Roman Mining at Dolaucothi: the Implications of the 1991-3 Excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint", Britannia 28 (1997), 325-336
• A. H. V. Smith, "Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales", Britannia, Vol. 28 (1997), pp. 297-324

Transport

• Lewis, M. J. T. , "Railways in the Greek and Roman world", in Guy, A. / Rees, J. (eds), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (2001), pp. 8-19 (10-15)

Overview of ancient technology

• Drachmann, A. G. , Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity, Lubrecht & Cramer Ltd, 1963 ISBN 0934454612
• Hodges, Henry. , Technology in the Ancient World, London: The Penguin Press, 1970
• Landels, J. G. , Engineering in the Ancient World, University of California Press, 1978
• White, K. D. , Greek and Roman Technology, Cornell University Press, 1984

Sails

• Toby, A. Steven "Another look at the Copenhagen Sarcophagus", International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 1974 vol. 3. 2: 205-211

Water supply

• ^  "De Aquaeductu Urbis Romae" by Sextus Julius Frontinus (On the water management of the city of Rome, translated by R. Sextus Julius Frontinus (ca 40-103 AD was one of the most distinguished Roman aristocrats of the late first century AD but is best known to the post-Classical world as an H. Rodgers, 2003, University of Vermont) (retrieved November 22, 2005)
• ^ ^a  Water and Wastewater Systems in Imperial Rome. Events 498 - Kofi Aseidu- After the death of Anastasius II, Symmachus is elected Pope in the Lateran Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. WaterHistory. org. International Water History Association. Retrieved on 2005-11-22. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 498 - Kofi Aseidu- After the death of Anastasius II, Symmachus is elected Pope in the Lateran
• ^ Rihll, T. E. (2007-04-11). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 491 - Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine Emperor, with the name of Anastasius I. Greek and Roman Science and Technology: Engineering. Swansea University. Swansea University (Prifysgol Abertawe is a University located in Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom. Retrieved on 2008-04-13. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1111 - Henry V is crowned Holy Roman Emperor. 1204 - The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople
• Hodge, A. T. (2001). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply, 2nd ed. London: Duckworth.

See also

• De Architectura
• Dolaucothi
• Frontinus
• History of technology
• Naturalis Historia
• Pliny the Elder
• Roman architecture
• Roman aqueducts
• Roman engineering
• Roman mining
• Vitruvius

External links

• Traianus - Technical investigation of Roman public works
• Roman Traction Systems - Horse, harness, wagon
• Roman Horse Harnesses - With pictorial evidence
• Roman Concrete - Roman concrete buildings
• Roman dams in Spain
• Spanish site dedicated to Roman technology, especially aqueducts and mines