This article is part of the series on: Military of ancient Rome (portal) 800 BC – AD 476

Structural history

Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals)

Roman navy (fleets, admirals)

Campaign history

Lists of wars and battles

Decorations and punishments

Technological history

Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads)

Personal equipment

Political history

Strategy and tactics

Infantry tactics

Frontiers and fortifications (limes, Hadrian's Wall)

Roman siege engines were, for the most part, adapted from Hellenistic siege technology. Commonwealth English! -->The military of ancient Rome relates to the combined military forces of Ancient Rome from the founding of the city The structural history of the Roman military describes the major chronological transformations in the organization and constitution of Ancient Rome 's armed forces, The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military This is a list of both unit types and ranks of the Roman army from the Roman Republic to the fall of This is a list of Roman legions, including key facts about each legion primarily focusing on Principate (early Empire 30BC - 284AD legions for which there exists Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = "supports" formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC&ndash284 AD A Manius Acilius Glabrio -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 191 BC -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 91 -- Titus The Roman Navy ( Latin: Classis, lit "fleet" comprised the naval forces of the Roman state The Roman Navy ( Latin: Classis, lit "fleet" comprised the naval forces of the Roman state From its origin as a city-state in Italy in 9th century BC the rise as an empire covering much of Eurasia and North The following is a List of Roman wars fought by the ancient Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, organized by date The following is a list of Roman Battles fought by the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire, and sometimes the Byzantine Empire As with most other military forces the Roman military adopted a "carrot and stick" approach to military with an extensive list of decorations for military gallantry The technology history of the Roman military covers the development of and application of technologies for use in the armies and navies of Rome from the Roman Republic to the fall The military engineering of Ancient Rome 's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries The Latin word castra, with its singular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to mean buildings or plots of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military List of ancient Roman Triumphal arches (By modern country France Carpentras Triumphal Arch The Roman Roads were essential for the growth of the Roman Empire, by enabling the Romans to move armies and trade goods and to communicate news Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns and used in an established way Rome's military was always tightly keyed to its political system The strategy of the Roman Military encompasses its Grand strategy (the arrangements made by the state to implement its political goals through a selection of military goals Roman infantry tactics refers to the theoretical and historical deployment formation and maneuvers of the Roman infantry from the start of the Roman Republic to the fall Roman military borders and fortifications were part of a Grand strategy of territorial defense in the Roman Empire. A limes (or the Limes Romanus) was a Border defense or delimiting system of Ancient Rome. Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman A siege engine is a device that is designed to Break or circumvent City walls and other Fortifications in Siege warfare. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Relatively small efforts were made to develop the technology; however, the Romans brought an unrelentingly aggressive style to siege warfare^[1]. Warfare refers to the conduct of conflict between opponents and usually involves escalation of aggression from the proverbial "war of words" between politicians Caesar looked at war as a means of conquering and establishing Roman rule over new territories, bringing wealth to those serving in the field as well as citizens of the empire. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC He also knew that success in the field would increase the loyalty of his soldiers, allowing for more territory to be conquered through continued service. To this end, he took great interest in the integration of siege engines, organizing their use for optimal battlefield efficiency^[2]. A siege engine is a device that is designed to Break or circumvent City walls and other Fortifications in Siege warfare.

Contents 1 Army engineering corps 2 Artillery 2.1 Ballistae 2.1.1 Early Roman ballista 2.1.2 First invasion of Britain 2.1.3 Siege of Alesia 2.2 The Onager 2.3 Scorpios 3 Breaching the walls 3.1 Battering rams 3.2 Siege Towers 3.3 Mines 4 Notes 5 References 6 External links 7 See also

Army engineering corps

Main article: Roman military engineering

To facilitate this organization and the army’s self-sufficiency, an engineering corps was developed. The military engineering of Ancient Rome 's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries An officer of engineers, or praefectus fabrum, is referenced in armies of the Late Republic, but this post is not verifiable in all accounts and may have simply been a military advisor on the personal staff of a commanding officer^[3]. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the There were legion architects (whose rank is yet unknown) who were responsible for the construction of war machines who would also assure that all artillery constructions in the field were level. Ensuring that constructions were level was the job of the libratores, who would also launch missiles and other projectiles (on occasion) during battle (Le Bohec 1994: 52). The engineering corps was in charge of massive production, frequently prefabricating artillery and siege equipment to facilitate its transportation^[4]. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine

Artillery

During a siege the Romans would attack the weakest area of their enemy’s defenses and attempt to breach the wall(s) there. To support this effort, artillery fire would commence, with three main objectives^[5]: to cause damage to defenses, casualties among the opposing army, and loss of morale. It would also provide cover fire for troops building siege ramps or in siege towers. There were machines called tormenta , which would launch (sometimes incendiary) projectiles such as javelins, arrows, rocks, or beams. These devices were on wheeled platforms to follow the line’s advance. All were “predicated on a principle of physics: a lever was inserted into a skein of twisted horsehair to increase torsion, and when the arm was released, a considerable amount of energy was thus freed”^[6]. It was later stated that sinew, instead of twisted hair, provided a better “spring. ” These weapons could be high-maintenance devices and were vulnerable to having their leather, sinew, or hemp skeins get wet or even damp, which would cause them to slacken and lose tension, rendering the engine useless^[7].

It is somewhat difficult to clearly define and describe Roman artillery , as names are easily confused and historians still do not agree on all definitions. Commonwealth English! -->The military of ancient Rome relates to the combined military forces of Ancient Rome from the founding of the city Perhaps best known are the ballista, the onager, and the scorpio. The ballista ( Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα - ballistra, from - βάλλω ballō, "to throw" plural ballistae The onager was a post-classical Roman Siege engine, which derived its name from the kicking action of the machine similar to that of an Onager (wild ass Scorpio (Dart-thrower ( Polybolos) was a Roman artillery piece invented in 50 BC.

Ballistae

After the absorption of the Ancient Greek City states into the Roman Republic in 146 BC, some advanced Greek technology began to spread across many areas of Roman influence. The ballista ( Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα - ballistra, from - βάλλω ballō, "to throw" plural ballistae The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the This included the hugely advantageous military advances the Greeks had made (most notably by Dionysus of Syracuse), as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments.

The Romans 'inherited' the torsion powered Ballistae which had by now spread to several cities around the Mediterranean, all of which became Roman spoils of war in time, including one from Pergamum, which was depicted among a pile of 'trophy' weapons in relief on a balustrade.

The torsion ballista, developed by Alexander, was a far more complicated weapon than its predecessor, and the Romans developed it even further.

Vitruvius in De Architectura Book X describes the construction and tuning of Ballistae. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum De architectura ( Latin: "On architecture" is a treatise on Architecture written by the Roman Architect Vitruvius

Every century (group of 60-100 men) in the Roman army had a ballista by the First Century (Le Bohec 1994: 138). Centuria ( Latin plural centuriae) is a Latin substantive from the stem centum (a hundred denoting units consisting of (originally only approximately It was the command of the chief of the ballista, under whom were the artillery experts, or doctores ballistarum and finally, the artillerymen, or ballistarii^[8]. Ballistae were heavy missile weapons, hurling large rocks great distances to damage rampart walls. They resembled large crossbows, rather than catapults. A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts A catapult is any one of a number of non-handheld mechanical devices used to throw a Projectile a great distance without the aid of an explosive substance—particularly various They were powered by two horizontal like arms, which were inserted into two vertical and tightly wound "skein" springs contained in a rectangular frame structure making up the head or principal part of the weapon. The arms were drawn rearward with a winch lever to further twist the skeins and thus gain the torsion power to cast a projectile^[7]. It has been said that the whirring sound of a ballista-fired stone struck fear and dread into the hearts of those inside the walls of besieged cities. The ballista ( Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα - ballistra, from - βάλλω ballō, "to throw" plural ballistae The stones chosen to be used in the ballista had to be a particular sort. The ballista ( Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα - ballistra, from - βάλλω ballō, "to throw" plural ballistae According to Vegetius river stones were best, since they are round, smooth, and dense. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus was a writer of the Later Roman Empire. Ballista stones found at the site of Masada were chiseled to make them as round as possible^[9]. The ballista ( Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα - ballistra, from - βάλλω ballō, "to throw" plural ballistae Masada ( Hebrew מצדה pronounced Metzada, from מצודה metzuda, "fortress" is the name for a site of ancient Palaces and

Early Roman ballista

The early Roman Ballistae were made of wood, and held together with iron plates around the frames and iron nails in the stand. The main stand had a slider on the top, into which were loaded the bolts or stone 'shot'. Attached to this, at the back, was a pair of Winches and a Claw, used to ratchet the bowstring back to the armed firing position. A winch is a mechanical device that is used to pull in (wind up or let out (wind out or otherwise adjust the " Tension " of a Rope or Wire rope In Mechanical engineering, a ratchet is a device that allows linear or rotary motion in only one direction while preventing motion in the opposite direction slider passed through the field frames of the weapon, in which were located the torsion springs (rope made of animal sinew), which were twisted around the bow arms, which in turn were attached to the bowstring. A tendon (or sinew) is a tough band of Fibrous connective tissue that usually connects Muscle to Bone and is capable of withstanding tension

Drawing the bowstring back with the winches twisted the already taut springs, storing the energy to fire the projectiles.

The ballista was a highly accurate weapon (there many accounts right from its early history of single soldiers being picked off by the operators), but some design aspects meant it could compromise its accuracy for range. The lightweight bolts could not gain the high momentum of the stones over the same distance as those thrown by the later onagers, trebuchets, or mangonels; these could be as heavy as 200-300 pounds (90-135 kg). The onager was a post-classical Roman Siege engine, which derived its name from the kicking action of the machine similar to that of an Onager (wild ass A trebuchet or trebucket is a Siege engine that was employed in the Middle Ages either to smash Masonry Walls or to throw A mangonel was a type of Catapult or Siege machine used in the medieval period to throw projectiles at a castle 's walls The pound or pound-mass (abbreviation lb, lbm, or sometimes in the United States #) is a unit of Mass

The Romans continued the development of the Ballista, and it became a highly-prized and valued weapon in the army of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial

It was used, just before the start of the Empire, by Julius Caesar during his conquest of Gaul and on both of his campaigns in conquering Britain. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Both attempted invasions of Britain and the siege of Alesi are recorded in his own Commentarii (journal), The Gallic Wars (De Bello Gallico), now translated and published many times. Commentarii ( Latin, Greek: ''hupomnemata'') are notes to assist the memory or Memoranda. The Gallic Wars were a series of Military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes, lasting from Commentarii de Bello Gallico is Julius Caesar 's third-person account of his nine years of war in Gaul. It was also used in the Roman siege of Masada.

First invasion of Britain

The first invasion of Britain took place in 55 BC, after a rapid and successful initial conquest of Gaul, in part as an exploratory expedition to see the land across the sea, and more practically to try and put an end to the re-enforcements sent across by the native Britons to fight the Romans in Gaul. This page refers to the conquest begun in AD 43 For other Roman invasions see Caesar's invasions of Britain and Carausian Revolt.

A total of eighty transports, carrying two legions attempted to land on the British shore (the eighteen accompanying cavalry transports had been blown off course on the way over), only to be driven back by the many British warriors assembled along the shoreline. The ships had to unload their troops on the beach, as it was the only one suitable for many miles, yet the massed ranks of British charioteers and javeliners were making it impossible. The chariot is the earliest and simplest type of Carriage, used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples

Seeing this, Caesar ordered the warships – which were swifter and easier to handle than the transports, and likely to impress the natives more by their unfamiliar appearance – to be removed a short distance from the others, and then be rowed hard and run ashore on the enemy’s right flank, from which position the slings, bows and artillery could be used by men on deck to drive them back. This manoeuvre was highly successful.
Scared by the strange shape of the warships, the motion of the oars, and the unfamiliar machines, the natives halted and then retreated a little. (Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul, p99)

Siege of Alesia

In Gaul, the stronghold of Alesia was under a Roman siege in 52 BC, and was famously almost completely surrounded by a fourteen mile long trench filled with water diverted from the local river, then another trench, then a wooden palisade and towers, then the besiegeing Roman army, then another series of palisades and trenches to protect them from any Gallic relief forces. The Battle of Alesia or Siege of Alesia took place in September 52 BC around the Gallic Oppidum of Alesia, a major town centre and palisade is a steel or wooden Fence or wall of variable height usually used as a defensive structure As was standard siege technique at the time, ballistae were placed up in the towers with snipers (armed with either bows or slings). A bow is a Weapon that projects arrows powered by the elasticity of the bow A sling is a projectile Weapon typically used to throw a blunt Projectile such as a stone

The Onager

This article is part of the series on: Military of ancient Rome (portal) 800 BC – AD 476

Structural history

Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals)

Roman navy (fleets, admirals)

Campaign history

Lists of wars and battles

Decorations and punishments

Technological history

Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads)

Personal equipment

Political history

Strategy and tactics

Infantry tactics

Frontiers and fortifications (limes, Hadrian's Wall)

The onager was a post-classical Roman siege engine, which derived its name from the kicking action of the machine, similar to that of an onager (wild ass). Commonwealth English! -->The military of ancient Rome relates to the combined military forces of Ancient Rome from the founding of the city The structural history of the Roman military describes the major chronological transformations in the organization and constitution of Ancient Rome 's armed forces, The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military This is a list of both unit types and ranks of the Roman army from the Roman Republic to the fall of This is a list of Roman legions, including key facts about each legion primarily focusing on Principate (early Empire 30BC - 284AD legions for which there exists Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = "supports" formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC&ndash284 AD A Manius Acilius Glabrio -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 191 BC -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 91 -- Titus The Roman Navy ( Latin: Classis, lit "fleet" comprised the naval forces of the Roman state The Roman Navy ( Latin: Classis, lit "fleet" comprised the naval forces of the Roman state From its origin as a city-state in Italy in 9th century BC the rise as an empire covering much of Eurasia and North The following is a List of Roman wars fought by the ancient Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, organized by date The following is a list of Roman Battles fought by the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire, and sometimes the Byzantine Empire As with most other military forces the Roman military adopted a "carrot and stick" approach to military with an extensive list of decorations for military gallantry The technology history of the Roman military covers the development of and application of technologies for use in the armies and navies of Rome from the Roman Republic to the fall The military engineering of Ancient Rome 's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries The Latin word castra, with its singular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to mean buildings or plots of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military List of ancient Roman Triumphal arches (By modern country France Carpentras Triumphal Arch The Roman Roads were essential for the growth of the Roman Empire, by enabling the Romans to move armies and trade goods and to communicate news Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns and used in an established way Rome's military was always tightly keyed to its political system The strategy of the Roman Military encompasses its Grand strategy (the arrangements made by the state to implement its political goals through a selection of military goals Roman infantry tactics refers to the theoretical and historical deployment formation and maneuvers of the Roman infantry from the start of the Roman Republic to the fall Roman military borders and fortifications were part of a Grand strategy of territorial defense in the Roman Empire. A limes (or the Limes Romanus) was a Border defense or delimiting system of Ancient Rome. Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial A siege engine is a device that is designed to Break or circumvent City walls and other Fortifications in Siege warfare. The Onager ( Equus hemionus) is a large Mammal belonging to the horse family and native to the deserts of Syria, Iran, Pakistan It is a type of catapult that uses torsional pressure, generally from twisted rope, to store energy for the shot. A catapult is any one of a number of non-handheld mechanical devices used to throw a Projectile a great distance without the aid of an explosive substance—particularly various In Solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied Torque.

The onager consisted of a frame placed on the ground to whose front end a vertical frame of solid timber was rigidly fixed; through the vertical frame ran an axle, which had a single stout spoke. Lumber or timber is Wood in any of its stages from felling through readiness for use as structural Material for Construction, or An axle is a central shaft for a rotating Wheel or Gear. In some cases the axle may be fixed in position with a bearing or Bushing A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a Wheel (the hub where the Axle connects connecting the hub with the round traction surface On the extremity of the spoke was a sling used to launch a projectile. A sling is a projectile Weapon typically used to throw a blunt Projectile such as a stone

In action the spoke was forced down, against the tension of twisted ropes or other springs, by a windlass, and then suddenly released. A rope is a length of Fibers twisted or Braided together to improve strength for pulling and Connecting. A spring is a flexible elastic object used to store mechanical Energy. A windlass is an apparatus for moving heavy weights Typically a windlass consists of a horizontal cylinder (barrel which is rotated by the turn of a crank or belt The spoke thus kicked the crosspiece of the vertical frame, and the projectile at its extreme end was shot forward.

The onagers of the Roman Empire were mainly used for sieging forts or settlements. They would often be armed with huge stones or rocks that could be covered with a flammable substance and set alight.

In the Middle Ages (recorded from around 1200) a less powerful version of the onager was used that held the projectile in a fixed bowl instead of a sling. This was so that many small projectiles could be thrown, as opposed to one large one. This engine was sometimes called the mangonel, although the same name may have been used for a variety of siege engines. A mangonel was a type of Catapult or Siege machine used in the medieval period to throw projectiles at a castle 's walls

Scorpios

The scorpio was a crossbow-like device that fired smaller arrows with deadly accuracy^[10] used both in the field and in sieges. Scorpio (Dart-thrower ( Polybolos) was a Roman artillery piece invented in 50 BC. A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts They were so-named for their deadly, armor-piercing sting and could be operated by just one or two men. Scorpions were meant to kill and injure enemy forces, rather than break down enemy fortifications. Due to their smaller size, they would be mounted on or in siege towers. A siege tower (or in the Middle Ages a Belfry) is a specialized Siege engine, constructed to protect assailants and ladders while approaching During the Siege of Amida, a scorpion-fired arrow killed the son of Grumbate, king of the Chionitae, when he was approaching the city to surrender^[11].

There has been some research done into the existence of the self-loading, serial-fire scorpio or polybolos. The polybolos (from Ancient Greek πολυβόλος, from πολύς - polys "many much" + βάλλω - ballo "to Legionaries either side would continuously keep turning cranks which turned a chain, which operated the various mechanisms to load and fire the catapult. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," All that was needed was for another soldier to keep feeding in more arrows^[12].

Please note that the above information has been called into question. According to some sources, the scorpion was a nickname for a particular mangonel catapult that is essentially identical to the onager. It was so named for the arm the stuck up vertically like the sting of a scorpion.

Breaching the walls

A gold walled or mural crown, called the ‘’corona muralis’’ was awarded to the first man who captured the wall of an enemy city. Livy reports that in 210 BC, at the capture of New Carthage, this honor was claimed by both a legionary centurion and a marine. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome In order to avoid a near mutiny from the ferocity of the resulting dispute between legionaries and marines both men were eventually awarded a crown^[13].

Battering rams

Roman battering rams, or aries were an effective weapon for breaking down an enemy’s walls as well as their morale. A battering ram is a Siege engine originating in ancient times to break open Fortification walls or doors Under Roman law, any defenders who failed to surrender before the first ram touched their wall were denied any rights (Goldsworthy 2000: 145). Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting The moment they heard the ram hit the wall, those inside the city knew that the siege proper had begun and there was no turning back^[14].

Josephus describes the battering ram used at Jotapata thus^[15]:

It is an immense beam, similar to a ship’s mast, with one end covered with iron shaped into a ram’s head; hence its name. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus Jotapata (also Yodfat Yodefat Tel Yodfat Iotapata Jodeptah Yotvah Tell Jafat Yotapatha or Jotbah was an ancient fortified Jewish village in the Galilee, north of It is suspended from another beam like a balance arm by cables around its middle, and this in turn is supported at both ends by posts fixed in the ground. It is drawn back by a huge number of men who then push it forward in unison with all their might so that it hits the wall with its iron head. There is no tower strong enough nor any wall thick enough to withstand repeated blows of this kind, and many cannot resist the first shock.

Vitruvius in De Architectura Book X describes the construction and use of battering rams. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum De architectura ( Latin: "On architecture" is a treatise on Architecture written by the Roman Architect Vitruvius

For protection, a battering ram was suspended in a mobile shelter called a tortoise, or testudo. A battering ram is a Siege engine originating in ancient times to break open Fortification walls or doors According to Vegetius, it was given this name because the ram would swing out of the shelter much like a tortoise’s head comes out of its shell. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus was a writer of the Later Roman Empire. Such shelters would provide the men underneath protection against missiles and incendiary devices. They were constructed from a framework of strong timbers with planks and wicker hurdles on the sides. The entire shelter would then be covered with a fireproof material such as uncured hides^[16]. According to Apollodorus, the shelter should be fixed to the ground while the ram was being used to both prevent skidding and strain on the axles from the weight of the moving apparatus. This would also increase the strength of the impact on the walls^[17].

Siege Towers

According to Josephus, the Roman siege towers at Jotapata were 50 feet high and iron-plated to protect them from fire; those at Masada were reported to be 75 feet high. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus A siege tower (or in the Middle Ages a Belfry) is a specialized Siege engine, constructed to protect assailants and ladders while approaching Jotapata (also Yodfat Yodefat Tel Yodfat Iotapata Jodeptah Yotvah Tell Jafat Yotapatha or Jotbah was an ancient fortified Jewish village in the Galilee, north of Masada ( Hebrew מצדה pronounced Metzada, from מצודה metzuda, "fortress" is the name for a site of ancient Palaces and It was possible to have many different devices on siege towers, such as artillery, draw bridges and rams. A siege tower (or in the Middle Ages a Belfry) is a specialized Siege engine, constructed to protect assailants and ladders while approaching Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine A drawbridge is a type of Movable bridge typically associated with the entrance of a Castle. A battering ram is a Siege engine originating in ancient times to break open Fortification walls or doors Those at the top of the tower were to keep defenders off the walls while those below them attempted to breach the wall using ramps^[18]. Following a basic design, details of tower construction varied from siege to siege and there is no known-of treatise which specifies at which level siege equipment should be placed. Vegetius noted that, “besiegers sometimes built a tower with another turret inside it that could suddenly be raised by ropes and pulleys to over-top the wall”^[19]. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus was a writer of the Later Roman Empire.

Mines

Mines could be dug under city walls as a means of entering a city secretly and capturing it but were more frequently constructed to weaken city walls. Mining, undermining, or sapping was a Siege method used since antiquity against a Walled city, Fortress or Castle Once dug, sappers would underpin the walls with wood and cause the walls to collapse by firing the supports with resin, sulfur and other incendiary materials^[20]. A sapper is an individual engineer soldier usually in British or Commonwealth military service

Notes

References

• James V. Garrison (1997). "Casting stones: ballista, stones as weapons, and death by stoning". Brigham Young University Studies 36 (3): 351-352.  
• Gilliver, C. M. (1999). The Roman Art of War. Charleston, SC: Tempus.  
• Goldsworthy, Adrian (2000). Roman Warfare. London: Cassell.  
• Keppie, Lawrence (1984). The Making of the Roman Army from Empire to Republic. Totowa, NJ: Barnes & Noble Books.  
• Le Bohec, Yann (1994). The Imperial Roman Army. London: B. T. Batsford Ltd. .  

External links

• Roman and Greek Siege Weapons - Gallery with Blueprints

See also

(no links yet)

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