Roman consul - Citizendia

This article is about the highest office of the Roman Republic. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome Events and trends 756 BC — Founding of Cyzicus. 755 BC — Ashur-nirari V succeeds Ashur-Dan III as king of Assyria The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events By place Western Roman Empire September 4 — Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern The Dominate was the ' despotic ' latter phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse The Roman Constitution or Mos maiorum (Latin for "custom of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly The Constitution of the Roman Kingdom or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Constitution of the Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed The Constitution of the Late Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The History of the Roman Constitution is a study of Ancient Rome that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the city of Rome The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation The Roman Magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office Aedile ( Aedilis, from aedes aedis "temple" "building" was an office of the Roman Republic. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the A Censor was a magistrate of high rank in the ancient Roman Republic. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases is a historical position of varying importance in several European nations The Tribuni militum consulari potestate, or Consular Tribunes were Tribunes elected with Consular power during the Conflict of the Orders The King of Rome ( Latin: rex regis) was the Chief magistrate of the Roman Kingdom. The term triumvirate (from Latin, "of three men" is commonly used to describe a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals Decemviri (singular decemvir) is a Latin term meaning "Ten Men" which designates any such commission in the Roman Republic (cf The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was a general in the Roman army, equivalent to a modern general officer Dux (plural duces) is Latin for leader (from the verb ducere, 'to lead' and could refer to anyone who commanded troops such Officium (plural officia) is a Latin word with various meanings in Ancient Rome, including "service" "(sense of duty" "courtesy" Prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: "make in front" i Vicarius is a Latin word meaning substitute or deputy. It is the root and origin of the English word " Vicar " and Cognate to the Persian The Vigintisexviri (sing vigintisexvir) was a college ( collegium) of minor magistrates ( magistratus minores) in the Roman Republic The lictor, derived from the Latin ligare (to bind was a member of a special class of Roman civil servant with special tasks of attending and guarding Magister militum ( Latin for "Master of the Soldiers" was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate. The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power The mos maiorum (lit ways of the ancestors) were the ancestral Traditions an unwritten code of Laws and conduct of the Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues Definition of collegiality Colleagues are those explicitly united in a common Purpose and respecting Citizenship in the time of Ancient Rome was a privileged status afforded to certain individuals with respect to laws property and governance Auctoritas is a Latin word and is the origin of English " Authority " The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring Information on politics by country is available for every Country, including both De jure and De facto independent The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the For other uses, see Consul. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire

Consul (abbrev. cos. ; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. A politician (from Greek " Polis " is an individual who is involved in influencing public decision making through the influence of Politics or a person The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial

During the time of ancient Rome as a Republic, the Consuls were the highest civil and military magistrates, serving as the heads of government for the Republic. This article focuses on the cases where the Head of Government is a separate office from the Head of State There were two consuls, and they ruled together. However, under the era of early Rome as an Empire, the Consuls were merely a figurative representative of Rome’s republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the Emperor acting as the supreme leader.

1 History
- 1.1 Under the Republic
- 1.2 Under the Empire
2 Powers and Responsibilities
3 Consular dating
4 References
5 See also
6 Lists of Roman consuls

History

Under the Republic

After the legendary expulsion of the last Etruscan King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus and the end of the Roman Kingdom, most of the powers and authority of the king were ostensibly given to the newly instituted consulship. Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (also called Tarquin the Proud or Tarquin II) was the last of the seven Legendary Kings of Rome, son of Tarquinius The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome Originally, consuls were called praetors ("leader"), referring to their duties as the chief military commanders. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before In 305 BC the name was changed to consul and the title praetor was given to an entirely new office. Events By place Seleucid Empire Seleucus establishes Seleucia on the Tigris River as his capital

The office of consul was believed by the Romans to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC but the Succession of Consuls was not continuous in the 5th century. The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. Consuls had extensive capacities in peacetime (administrative, legislative and judicial), and in war time often held the highest military command. Additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal importance, could only be carried out by top level state officials. Consuls also read auguries, an essential step before leading armies into the field. The Augur was a priest and official in the classical world especially Ancient Rome and Etruria.

Under the laws of the Republic, the minimum age of election to consul for patricians was 41 years of age, for plebeians 42. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. Two consuls were elected each year, serving together with veto power over each other's actions, a normal principle for magistracies. However these laws were not always applied and there are several cases of consuls elected before the appropriate age.

Consuls were elected by the massive Comitia Centuriata, which had a profound aristocratic bias in its voting structure which only increased over the years from its foundation. The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation However, they formaly assumed powers after the ratification of their election in the older Comitia Curiata, which granted the consuls their imperium, through the passing of a bill "lex curiata de imperio". The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power

In Latin, consules means "those who walk together". Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle), another would be elected, and be known as a consul suffectus.

According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for patricians and only in 367 BC did plebeians win the right to stand for this supreme office, when the Lex Licinia Sextia provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian. Events By place Greece The Theban general Epaminondas, again invades the Peloponnesus, but this time achieves little Lex Licinia Sextia was a Roman law passed in 367 BCE and took effect in 366 BCE The first plebeian consul, Lucius Sextius, was thereby elected the following year. Lucius Sextius Lateranus was a Roman tribune of the plebs and is noted for having been one of two men (the other being Gaius Licinius) behind the Lex Licinia Modern historians have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the Early Republic (see Conflict of the Orders), noting for instance that about thirty percent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names. The Conflict of the Orders, also referred to as the Struggle of the Orders, was a political struggle between the Plebeians (commoners and Patricians It might be possible that only the chronology has been distorted, but it seems that one of the first consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus came from a plebeian family. Lucius Junius Brutus (or Lucius Iunius Brutus) was the founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first Consuls in 509 BC ^[1] Another possible explanation is that during the 5th century social struggles, the office of consul was gradually monopolized by a patrician elite^[2]

During times of war, the primary criterion for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the cursus honorum, the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitious Roman. The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring

Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a Proconsul, the Roman Governor of one of the (senatorial) provinces. Ancient Rome In the Roman Republic, a proconsul was a Promagistrate (like a Propraetor) who after serving as Consul, spent a year A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin provincia, pl provinciae) was the basic and until the Tetrarchy (circa The most commonly chosen province for the proconsulship was Cisalpine Gaul.

Under the Empire

When Augustus established the Principate, he changed the political nature of the office, stripping it of most of its military powers. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, While still a great honor — in fact invariably the constitutional head of state, hence eponymous — and a requirement for other offices, many consuls would resign part way through the year to allow other men to finish their term as suffects. Those who held the office on January 1, known as the consules ordinarii, had the honor of associating their names with that year. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC As a result, about half of the men who held the rank of praetor could also reach the consulship. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Sometimes a suffect consul would in turn resign, and another suffect would be appointed. This reached its extreme under Commodus, when in 190 twenty-five men held the consulship. Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Events By Place Roman Empire A part of Rome burns and Emperor Commodus orders the city to be rebuilt under the name

Emperors frequently appointed themselves, protégés, or relatives consul, even without regard to the age requirements. For example, Emperor Honorius was given the consulship at birth. Flavius Honorius ( September 9, 384 &ndash August 15, 423) was Roman Emperor (393- 395 and then Western Roman Emperor Some didn't even stick to species limitations. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, also known as Caligula, is said to have thought about making his horse consul. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor

Holding the consulship was a great honor and the office was the major symbol of the still republican constitution. Probably as part of seeking formal legitimacy, the break-away Gallic Empire had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260–274). The Gallic Empire (in Latin Imperium Galliarum) is the modern name for the independent realm that existed from 260 to 273, during the Events By Place Roman Empire Gallienus becomes Emperor Gallienus defends what remains of the empire against barbarians and Events By Place Roman Empire December 25 — Roman emperor Aurelian has a temple dedicated to Sol Invictus on the third The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins.

One of the reforms of Constantine I was to assign one of the consuls to the city of Rome, and the other to Constantinople. Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Therefore, when the Roman Empire was divided into two halves on the death of Theodosius I, the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls—although one emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄ As a result, after the formal end of the Roman Empire in the West, many years would be named for only a single consul. This rank was finally allowed to lapse in the reign of Justinian I: first with the consul of Rome in 534, Decius Paulinus, then the consul of Constantinople in 541, Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Decimus Theodorius Paulinus is appointed Consul (the last to hold this Events By Place Byzantine Empire January 1 — Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius is appointed as Consul in On January 1, 541, Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius was appointed consul in Constantinople during the Byzantine Empire. The appointment to consulship became a part of the rite of proclamation of new emperor and Constans II was the last person to hold the position until Justinian II finally unified consulship with emperor's office. Constans II ( Greek: Κώνστας Β' Kōnstas II) also called "Constantine the Bearded" ( Kōnstantinos Pogonatos) ( November 7 Justinian II (Ιουστινιανός Β΄ Ioustinianos II; 669&ndashDecember 711 known as Rinotmetos or Rhinotmetus (Ρινότμητος Despite this, the title of Roman consul was offered by the Pope to Charles Martel in 739, although he refused^[3] because this could cause a conflict with the emperor. Charles "The Hammer" Martel (Carolus Martellus Charles "the Hammer" (ca

Powers and Responsibilities

Republican duties

After the expulsion of the kings and the establishment of the Republic, all the powers that had belonged to the kings were transferred to two offices: that of the Consuls and the Rex Sacrorum. The Rex Sacrorum ( Latin: "king of sacred things" was the office of the highest-ranking priest under the Roman Kingdom. While the Rex Sacrorum inherited the kings’ position as high priest of the state, the Consuls were given the civil and military responsibilities (imperium). Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power However, to prevent abuse of the kingly power, the imperium was shared by two Consuls, each of whom could veto the other’s actions.

The Consuls were invested with the executive power of the state and headed the government of the Republic. In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. Initially, the Consuls' powers were vast and held considerably more power than as just executives. In the gradual development of the Roman legal system, however, some important functions were detached from the Consulship and assigned to new officers. This was the case in 443 BC when the responsibility to conduct the census was stripped from the office and given to the office of Censor. Events By place Roman Republic No Consuls are elected in Rome, but rather military Tribunes with consular power are A census is the procedure of acquiring information about every member of a given population A Censor was a magistrate of high rank in the ancient Roman Republic. The second function taken from the Consulship was their judicial power. In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State Their position as chief judges was transferred to the Praetors in 366 BC. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Events By place Persian empire In Persia, a number of Satraps of King Artaxerxes II begin a revolt in alliance with After this time, the Consul would only serve as judges in extraordinary criminal cases and only when called upon by decree of the Senate.

Civil sphere

For the most part, power is divided between civil and military spheres. As long as the Consuls were in the pomerium (the city of Rome), they were at the head of government, and all the other magistrates, with the exception of the Tribunes of the Plebs, were subordinate to them, but remained independence of office. The pomerium (or pomoerium) from post + moerium>murum (wall was the sacred boundary of the city of Rome. This article focuses on the cases where the Head of Government is a separate office from the Head of State Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the The internal machinery of the republic was under the Consuls’ superintendence. In order to allow the Consuls greater authority in executing laws, the Consuls had the right of summoning and arrest, which was limited only by the right of appeal from their judgment. This power of punishment even extended to inferior magistrates.

As part of their executive functions, the Consuls were responsible for carrying into effect the decrees of the Senate and the laws of the assemblies. The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation Sometimes in urgent emergencies, they might even act on their own authority and responsibility. The Consuls also served as the chief diplomat of the Roman state. Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting Negotiations between representatives of groups or states Before any foreign ambassadors reached the Senate, they met with the Consuls. The Consul would introduce ambassadors to the Senate, and they alone carried on the negotiations between the Senate and foreign states.

The Consuls could convene the Senate, and presided over its meetings. Each consul served, as President of the Senate, for a month. They also could convene both the Centuriate Assembly and Curiate Assembly and presided over both. The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation Thus, the Consuls conducted the elections and put legislative measures to the vote. When both consuls were not in the city, their duties were assumed by the praetor urbanus. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before

Each Consul was accompanied in every public appearance by twelve lictors, who displayed the magnificence of the office and served as his bodyguard. Each lictor held the fasces, a bundle of rods that contained an axe. The lictor, derived from the Latin ligare (to bind was a member of a special class of Roman civil servant with special tasks of attending and guarding Fasces (ˈfæsiːz a Plurale tantum, from the Latin word fascis, meaning "bundle" symbolize summary power and Jurisdiction The rods symbolized the power of scourging, and the axe the power of capital punishment. When inside the pomerium, the lictors removed the axes from the fasces to show that a citizen couldn't be executed without a trial. Upon entering the Comitia Centuriata, the lictors would lower the fasces to show that the powers of the Consuls derive from the people (populus romanus).

Military sphere

Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the Consuls were far more extensive in their role as commanders-in-chief of all Roman legions. A commander-in-chief is the Commander of a nation's Military forces or significant element of those forces For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," It was in this function that the Consuls were vested with full imperium. When legions were ordered by a decree of the Senate, the Consuls conducted the levy in Campus Martius. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority For the pioneer fortification at Marietta Ohio see Campus Martius Marietta For the park in Detroit Michigan, see Campus Martius Park Upon entering the army, all soldiers had to take their oath of allegiance to the Consuls. The Consuls also oversaw the gathering of troops provide by Rome’s allies ^[4].

Within the city a Consul could punish and arrest a citizen, but had not the power to inflict capital punishment. When on campaign however, the consul could inflict any punishment he saw fit to any soldier, or officer, citizen or ally.

Each consul commanded an army, usually two legions strong, with the help of military tribunes and a quaestor who had financial duties. Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action In the rare case that both consuls marched together, each one held the command for a day respectively. Normally a consular army was about 20. 000 men strong and consisted of two citizen and two allied legions. In the early years of the republic, Rome's enemies were located in central Italy (country in central Europe), so campaigns lasted a few months. As Rome's frontiers expanded, in the 2nd century BC, the campaigns became lengthier. Romans were a warlike society, and very seldom did not wage war ^[5]. So the Consul upon entering office was expected by the Senate and the People to march his army against Rome's enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiers expected to return to their homes after the campaign with spoils. If the Consul won an overwhelming victory, was hailed as imperator by his troops, and could request to be granded a triumph. The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. A Roman triumph ( la [[wikttriumphus triumphus]], Old Latin la triumpus, attested as the exclamation la TRIVMPE in the Carmen Arvale; via

The Consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, and had unlimited powers. However after the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his misdeeds (for example for abusing the provinces, or wasting public money, as Scipio Africanus was accused by Cato in 205 BC).

Abuse prevention

Abuse of Consular power was prevented with each Consul given the power to veto his colleague. A veto, Latin for "I forbid" is used to Denote that a certain party has the right to stop unilaterally a certain piece of Legislation. Therefore, except in the provinces as Commanders-in-chief where each Consul’s power was supreme, the Consuls could only act in unison, or, at least, not against each other's determined will. Against the sentence of one Consul, an appeal could be brought before his colleague and overturn the sentencing. In order to avoid unnecessary conflicts, only one Consul would actually perform the office’s duties every month. This is not to say that the other Consul held no power but merely allowed the first Consul to act without direct interference. Then in the next month, the Consuls would switch roles with one another. This would continue until the end of the Consular term.

Another point which acted as a check against Consuls was the certainty that after the end of their term they would be called to account for their actions while in office.

However, the main restriction points on Consular power were the following three. Their term in office was short (one year); their duties were pre-decided by the Senate; and they could not stand again for election immediately after the end of their office. Usually a period of ten years was expected between each consulship.

Governorship

Main article: Roman Governor

After leaving office, the Consuls were assigned a province to administer by the Senate as Governor. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the The provinces each Consul was assigned were drawn by lot and determined before the end of his Consulship. Transferring his Consular Imperium to Proconsular Imperium, the Consul would become a Proconsul and governor of one (or several) of Rome’s many provinces. A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office Ancient Rome In the Roman Republic, a proconsul was a Promagistrate (like a Propraetor) who after serving as Consul, spent a year In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin provincia, pl provinciae) was the basic and until the Tetrarchy (circa As a Proconsul, his imperium was limited to only a specificed province and not the entire Republic. Any exercise of Proconsular imperium in any other province was illegal. Also, a Proconsul was not allowed to leave his province before his term was complete or before the arrival of his successor. Exceptions were given only on special permission of the Senate. Most terms as governor lasted between one and five years.

Appointment of the Dictator

In times of crisis, usually when Rome's territory was in immediate danger, a Dictator was appointed by the Consuls for a period of no more than six months, after the proposition of the Senate. Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic While the Dictator held office, the imperium of the Consuls was suspended.

Imperial duties

After Augustus became the first Roman Emperor in 29 BC with the establishment of the principate, the Consuls lost most of their powers and responsibilities under the Roman Empire. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Year 29 BC was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Though still officially the highest office of the state and powers, with the Emperor’s superior imperium, they were merely a symbol of Rome’s republican heritage. The imperial Consuls still maintained the right to preside at meetings of the Senate, however they could only exercise this right at the pleasure of the Emperor. They partially administered justice in extraordinary cases. They presented games in the Circus Maximus and all public solemnities in honor of the Emperor at their own expense. The Circus Maximus ( Latin for greatest circus, in Italian Circo Massimo) is an ancient Hippodrome and mass entertainment The high cost of sponsoring these events made the consulship increasingly unpopular, and was a factor in its decline and eventual disappearance.

Consular dating

The highest magistrates were eponymous, i. e. each year was officially identified (like a regnal year in a monarchy) by the two Consuls' names, though there was a more practical numerical dating ab urbe condita (i. A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign. From Latin regnum meaning kingdom rule e. by the era starting with the mythical foundation year of Rome). An era is a commonly used word for long period of time When used in science for example geology eras denote clearly defined periods of time of arbitrary but well defined For instance, the year 59 BC in the modern calendar was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus," since the two colleagues in the consulship were (Gaius) Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus — although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar" ^[6]. Year 59 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus (d 48 BC was a politician of the late Roman Republic.

In Latin, the ablative absolute construction is frequently used to express the date, such as "M. The grammar of Latin, like that of other ancient Indo-European languages, is highly inflected, which allows for a large degree of flexibility when choosing word order Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus," translated literally as "Marcus Messalla and Marcus Pupius Piso being Consuls," which appears in Caesar's De Bello Gallico. Marcus Valerius Messalla Niger was a senator of the Roman Republic. Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus belonged originally to the Gens Calpurnia, but was adopted by Marcus Pupius when the latter was an old man Commentarii de Bello Gallico is Julius Caesar 's third-person account of his nine years of war in Gaul.

References

^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. , Hornblower, S. and Spawforth, A. edd. , s. v. Iunius Brutus, Lucius
^ T. J. Cornell - The beginnings of rome ch 10. 4
^ e. The Frankish Kingdom. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History
^ Polybius - Histories book VI
^ War and society in the Roman World ed. Rich & Shipley
^ Suetonius' Lives of the Caesars - Julius Caesar Chapter XX

Lists of Roman consuls

For a complete list of Roman consuls, see:

List of Roman Consuls

The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff

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