Ancient Rome
This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Ancient Rome
Periods
Roman Kingdom 753 BC – 509 BC Roman Republic 509 BC – 27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 476 Principate Western Empire Dominate Eastern Empire
Roman Constitution
Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire History of the Constitution Senate Legislative Assemblies Executive Magistrates
Ordinary Magistrates
Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor
Extraordinary Magistrates
Dictator Magister Equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri
Titles and Honours
Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister Militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch
Precedent and Law
Roman Law Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Roman citizenship Auctoritas Cursus honorum
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The first Roman assembly, the Comitia Curiata, was founded during the early kingdom. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome Events and trends 756 BC — Founding of Cyzicus. 755 BC — Ashur-nirari V succeeds Ashur-Dan III as king of Assyria The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events By place Western Roman Empire September 4 — Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern The Dominate was the ' despotic ' latter phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse The Roman Constitution or Mos maiorum (Latin for "custom of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly The Constitution of the Roman Kingdom or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Constitution of the Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed The Constitution of the Late Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The History of the Roman Constitution is a study of Ancient Rome that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the city of Rome The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The Roman Magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office Aedile ( Aedilis, from aedes aedis "temple" "building" was an office of the Roman Republic. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the A Censor was a magistrate of high rank in the ancient Roman Republic. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases is a historical position of varying importance in several European nations The Tribuni militum consulari potestate, or Consular Tribunes were Tribunes elected with Consular power during the Conflict of the Orders The King of Rome ( Latin: rex regis) was the Chief magistrate of the Roman Kingdom. The term triumvirate (from Latin, "of three men" is commonly used to describe a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals Decemviri (singular decemvir) is a Latin term meaning "Ten Men" which designates any such commission in the Roman Republic (cf The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was a general in the Roman army, equivalent to a modern general officer Dux (plural duces) is Latin for leader (from the verb ducere, 'to lead' and could refer to anyone who commanded troops such Officium (plural officia) is a Latin word with various meanings in Ancient Rome, including "service" "(sense of duty" "courtesy" Prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: "make in front" i Vicarius is a Latin word meaning substitute or deputy. It is the root and origin of the English word " Vicar " and Cognate to the Persian The Vigintisexviri (sing vigintisexvir) was a college ( collegium) of minor magistrates ( magistratus minores) in the Roman Republic The lictor, derived from the Latin ligare (to bind was a member of a special class of Roman civil servant with special tasks of attending and guarding Magister militum ( Latin for "Master of the Soldiers" was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate. The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power The mos maiorum (lit ways of the ancestors) were the ancestral Traditions an unwritten code of Laws and conduct of the Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues Definition of collegiality Colleagues are those explicitly united in a common Purpose and respecting Citizenship in the time of Ancient Rome was a privileged status afforded to certain individuals with respect to laws property and governance Auctoritas is a Latin word and is the origin of English " Authority " The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring Information on politics by country is available for every Country, including both De jure and De facto independent Its only political role was to elect new kings. Sometimes, the king would submit his decrees to it for ratification. During the early republic, the Comitia Curiata was the only legislative assembly with any power. Shortly after the founding of the republic, however, the Comitia Centuriata and the Comitia Tributa became the predominant legislative assemblies.

Most modern legislative assemblies are bodies consisting of elected representatives. Their members typically propose and debate bills. These modern assemblies use a form of representative democracy. Representative democracy is a form of government founded on the principles of the people's representatives In contrast, the assemblies of the Roman Republic used a form of direct democracy. Direct Democracy is a movement within the British Conservative Party dedicated to localism and Constitutional reform as a means of reviving public The assemblies were bodies of ordinary citizens, rather than elected representatives. In this regard, bills voted on (called plebiscites) were similar to modern popular referenda. A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita

After the founding of the empire, the powers of the assemblies were transferred to the senate. When the senate elected magistrates, the results of those elections would be read to the assemblies. Occasionally, the emperor would submit laws to the Comitia Tributa for ratification.

Contents 1 Legislative assemblies of the Roman Kingdom 1.1 Curiae 1.2 Comitia Curiata 1.2.1 Powers of the Comitia Curiata 1.3 Comitia Calata 2 Legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic 2.1 Comitia, Concilium, Conventio 2.2 Assembly procedure 2.3 Assembly of the Centuries 2.3.1 Equites, pedites, and unarmed adjuncts 2.3.2 Reorganization of the Comitia Centuriata 2.3.3 Voting procedure and powers of the Comitia Centuriata 2.4 Assembly of the Tribes 2.4.1 Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Tribal Assembly) 2.4.2 Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly) 2.5 Assembly of the Curiae 2.5.1 Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Curiate Assembly) 2.5.2 Comitia Curiata (Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly) 3 Legislative assemblies of the Roman Empire 3.1 Comitia Centuriata 3.2 Comitia Tributa 3.2.1 Concilium Plebis 3.3 Comitia Curiata 4 See also 5 References 6 Notes 7 Further reading 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary source material

Legislative assemblies of the Roman Kingdom

Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Kingdom and Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom

The legislative assemblies of the Roman Kingdom had no real political power. The Constitution of the Roman Kingdom or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome One assembly, the Comitia Curiata, theoretically had some legislative powers. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. ^[1] The functions of the other assembly, the Comitia Calata, were purely religious. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. Ancient Roman religion encompasses the collection of Beliefs and Rituals practised in Ancient Rome in the form of Cult practices

Curiae

During the years of the kingdom, the People of Rome were organized on the basis of units called curiae. SPQR is an initialism from a Latin phrase Senātus Populusque Rōmānus ("The Senate and the People of Rome" or "The A Curia in early Roman times was a subdivision of the people i ^[1] All of the People of Rome were divided amongst a total of thirty curiae. ^[1] Membership in an individual curiae was hereditary. These curiae were the basic units of division in the two popular assemblies. ^[2].

According to legend, the first curiae were founded by the first Roman king, Romulus. Romulus (c 771 BC– c 717 BC and Remus (c 771 BC–c 753 BC are the traditional founders of Rome, appearing in Roman mythology ^[3] They were eventually organized to resemble the ethnic breakdown of Rome during the period of the kingdom and the early republic^[2]. Ten curiae were to consist of Latins, ten were to consist of Sabines, and ten were to consist of Etruscans. Latin is the name of various peoples or ethnicities related to the Latium region in the Italian Peninsula, to the Latin language, or to its descendants The Sabines ( Latin Sabini, Singular Sabinus) were an Italic tribe that lived in ancient Italy, inhabiting Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy

Comitia Curiata

The Comitia Curiata ("Curiate Assembly") was the only popular assembly with any political significance during the period of the Roman Kingdom. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. ^[1] It was organized on the basis of the thirty curiae. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The king would preside over the assembly, and submit decrees to it for ratification. ^[4] An interrex would preside over this assembly during interim periods between kings (the interregnum). The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. An interregnum (plural interregna or interregnums) is a period of discontinuity of a government organization or social order The interrex would preside over this assembly as it elected a new king. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom.

Powers of the Comitia Curiata

This article is part of the Roman Constitution series. The Roman Constitution or Mos maiorum (Latin for "custom of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly

Roman Senate

Roman Assemblies

Roman Magistrates

History of the Roman Constitution

Constitution of the Roman Kingdom

Senate of the Roman Kingdom

Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom

Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom

History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom

Constitution of the Roman Republic

Senate of the Roman Republic

Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic

Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic

History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic

Constitution of the Roman Empire

Senate of the Roman Empire

Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire

Executive Magistrates of the Roman Empire

History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire

Constitution of the Late Roman Empire

History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire

Each meeting of this assembly would fall under one of four categories. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The Roman Magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. The History of the Roman Constitution is a study of Ancient Rome that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the city of Rome The Constitution of the Roman Kingdom or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Senate of the Roman Kingdom was a political institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. The History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom is a study of the ancient Roman Kingdom that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. The History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a study of the ancient Roman Republic that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of The Constitution of the Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Empire were elected individuals of the ancient Roman Empire. The History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire is a study of the ancient Roman Empire that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the Roman Empire The Constitution of the Late Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire is a study of the ancient Roman Empire that traces the progression of Roman political development from the abolition The assembly might meet to elect a king, to listen to announcements, to hear an appeal, or to vote on legislative matters. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. ^[4]

After a king died, the interrex would select a candidate to replace the king. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. ^[5] After the nominee received the approval of the senate, the interrex would hold the formal election before the Comitia Curiata. The Senate of the Roman Kingdom was a political institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. After the Comitia Curiata elected the new king, the senate would ratify that election.

Two times per month (on the kalends and the nones), this assembly would meet to hear announcements. The Calends ( Latin Kalendae "the called" gen plural - arum) correspond to the first days of each month of the Roman calendar. The Roman calendar changed its form several times in the time between the foundation of Rome and the fall of the Roman Empire. ^[4] These announcements usually regarded the calendar.

Appeals heard by this assembly often dealt with questions concerning the gentes ("family"). ^[6] In this respect, the assembly had the powers of a family law court. During two fixed days in the spring, the assembly was scheduled to meet to witness wills and adoptions (adrogatio). ^[4] All other meetings were held on an "as needed" basis. ^[4] The assembly would often decide these matters under the presidency of the pontifex maximus. The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. ^[2]

During the years of the Roman Kingdom, this assembly was the principle legislative assembly (comitia). ^[1] As such, it was responsible for ratifying laws and (theoretically) electing the king. However, the rejection of such laws by the assembly would not prevent their enactment.

Comitia Calata

The Comitia Calata ("Calate Assembly") was the oldest of the Roman assemblies. Very little is known about this assembly. Like the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Calata was also organized on the basis of the thirty curiae. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The purpose of this assembly was to decide various religious matters (such as inaugurating priests and selecting Vestal virgins^[7]). Ancient Roman religion encompasses the collection of Beliefs and Rituals practised in Ancient Rome in the form of Cult practices In Ancient Rome, the Vestal Virgins ( sacerdos Vestalis) were the virgin Holy female Priests of Vesta, the Goddess of the The pontifex maximus presided over this assembly.

Legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic

Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic and Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic

The importance of the People of Rome in the Roman state can be seen in the symbol of Roman state authority, Senatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and the People of Rome", or "SPQR"). The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. This was the stamp of power, authority and approval (political as well as religious) that the Roman legions and their golden eagles marched under as they conquered the Mediterranean world. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," The signa militaria were the Roman military Ensigns or standards The most ancient standard employed by the Romans is said to have been a handful ( maniple ^[8] The People of Rome expressed their collective will when they gathered into their legislative assemblies.

Comitia, Concilium, Conventio

There were two types of assembly. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The first was the comitia ("committee"). ^[9] Comitia were assemblies of all citizens (populus Romanus, or "People of Rome"). ^[10] Comitia were used for official purposes, such as for the enactment of laws. Acts of a comitia applied to all of the members of that comitia (and thus, of all of the People of Rome).

The second type of assembly was the concilium ("council"). Concilium were forums where specific groups of people would meet for an official purpose (such as to enact a law). ^[10] For example, the concilium plebis would be a concilium where plebeians would meet. ^[11] Acts of a concilium would only apply to the members of that concilium. This is why, for example, acts of the plebeian concilium (plebiscita) originally applied only to plebeians.

In contrast to the comitia and the concilium, the conventio ("conventions") were unofficial forums for communication. These were simply forums where Romans would meet for specific unofficial purposes, such as to hear a political speech. ^[9] Ordinary citizens could only speak before a conventio (and not before a comitia or concilium). ^[12] Conventio were simply meetings, rather than any mechanism through which to make legal decisions. As such, the voters would first assemble into conventio to hear speeches, and then into comitia or concilium to actually vote. ^[13]

Assembly procedure

A notice would always have to be given several days before the assembly was to actually vote. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. ^[14] Before any session could begin, the auspices would have to be taken. This was to ensure that the session had the approval of the Gods. If the auspices were favorable, the magistrate (or tribune, in the case of the Concilium Plebis) would proceed with the day's business. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic.

First, the electors would assemble into a conventio ("convention"). The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. Citizens would not assemble into their respective century, tribe, or curiae while in a conventio. They would stay in their conventio until voting was to begin. ^[13] While in the conventio, speeches would be heard, and any bill would be read to the assembly by a herald.

The electors would then be told "discedite, quirites" ("depart to your separate groups"). At this point, the conventio would break apart, and the electors would form into a comitia or a concilium. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. This would be the point at which they would form into their respective century, tribe, or curiae.

The baskets (cistae) that held the votes were watched by officers known as custodes. The custodes would count (diribitio) the ballots, and report the results to the presiding magistrate. The majority of votes in any century, tribe or curiae would decide how that century, tribe, or curiae voted. Each century, tribe and curiae received exactly one vote. Once a majority of centuries, tribes or curiae voted in the same way on a given measure, the matter would be decided and the electors would be dismissed. ^[15]

If the process had not been completed by nightfall, the electors would be dismissed without having reached a decision. The process would have to begin again the next day. ^[16]

Assembly of the Centuries

During the years of the Roman Republic, citizens were organized on the basis of centuries (for military purposes) and tribes (for civil purposes). Each of the two blocks (centuries and tribes) gathered into an assembly for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. The Comitia Centuriata ("Century Assembly" or "Army Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries (centuriae). The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic.

The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually either a consul^[17] or a praetor. Since these magistrates were elected by the Comitia Centuriata, they were considered to be the elected representatives of the Comitia Centuriata. Thus, the Comitia Centuriata was presided over by its own elected representative.

Usually, only consuls would preside over elections. This was because consuls were always elected together with (lower ranking) praetors. The only other magistrate elected by this assembly, the censor, technically outranked the consuls. Censors, however, did not hold imperium, and thus they were never allowed to preside over an assembly.

Equites, pedites, and unarmed adjuncts

The 193 centuries^[18] in the Comitia Centuriata were divided into three different grades. These were the equites, pedites and unarmed adjuncts. ^[19][18] The equites (cavalry) were the higher ranking soldiers who fought on horseback. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. They represented the elite of the army, and thus the officer class. ^[19] The equites were organized into eighteen centuries. ^[18]

The 170 centuries of pedites constituted the foot soldiers (infantry) of the Roman army. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The pedites were divided into five classes. ^[18] The first class consisted of soldiers with heavy armor. The lower classes consisted of soldiers with successively less armor. The soldiers of the fifth class had nothing more than slings and stones. ^[20] Each of the five classes was divided evenly between centuries of iuniores (younger soldiers) and seniores (older soldiers). ^[18]

The unarmed soldiers were divided into the final five centuries. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. Four of these centuries were composed of artisans and musicians (such as trumpeters and horn blowers). The fifth century, the proletarii, consisted of soldiers with little or no property. ^{[21] [22]}

Reorganization of the Comitia Centuriata

The Comitia Centuriata had originally been designed by the legendary king Servius Tullius. The King of Rome ( Latin: rex regis) was the Chief magistrate of the Roman Kingdom. Servius Tullius was the sixth legendary king of Ancient Rome, and the second king of the Etruscan dynasty ^[18] Under the Servian design, the assembly was so aristocratic that the equites and the first class of pedites controlled enough centuries for an outright majority. In 241 BC, the assembly was reorganized, and made much more democratic. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. ^[23] Under the old system, there were a total of 193 centuries. Under the new system, there were a total of 373 centuries.

Under the new system, the thirty-five tribes were each divided into ten centuries. ^[24] Five of these centuries were of seniores, and five were of iuniores. Of each of these five centuries, one was assigned to one of the five property classes. Therefore, each tribe had two centuries (one of seniores and one of iuniores) in each of the five property classes. In total, this resulted in 350 centuries of pedites. Eighteen centuries of equites, and five centuries of unarmed soldiers were also included in the redesign. ^[23] Now, majorities usually could not be reached until the third class of pedites had begun voting.

Voting procedure and powers of the Comitia Centuriata

The seven classes would vote by order of seniority (first equites, then first class pedites, then second class pedites, then third class pedites, then fourth class pedites, then fifth class pedites and then finally the unarmed centuries). The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The centuries in each class would vote, one at a time, until the entire class had voted. When a measure received a majority of the vote, voting would end.

According to Cicero, the assembly was deliberately arranged in this way so that the masses would not have much power. ^[25] According to Livy, the purpose was so that everyone would have a vote, but the "best men" of the state would hold the most power. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome ^[26]

Only the Comitia Centuriata had the power to elect higher magistrates. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. After the election, the assembly would swear in the new magistrate.

Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare offensive war. A declaration of war is a formal performative Speech act or signing of a document by an authorised party of a government in order to initate a state of War Technically, no other assembly, and not even the senate, could declare offensive war. ^[27] The Comitia Centuriata could also pass a law that would grant imperium to consuls and praetors (lex de imperio) and censorial powers to censors (lex potestate de censoria). ^[27] While the Comitia Curiata could pass a similar law (lex curiata de imperio), this law had no legal consequence.

The Comitia Centuriata served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases (in particular, cases involving capital punishment). ^[28] In addition, it was this assembly that ratified the results of a census. ^[29]

Assembly of the Tribes

During the years of the Roman Republic, citizens were organized on the basis of centuries (for military purposes) and tribes (for civil purposes). Each of the two blocks (centuries and tribes) gathered into assemblies for legislative, electoral, and judicial purposes. While the centuries gathered into a single assembly (the Comitia Centuriata), the tribes gathered into two different assemblies. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. These two assemblies were the Concilium Plebis (the "Plebeian Council") and the Comitia Tributa (the "Tribal Assembly"). In effect, the Concilium Plebis was an "Assembly of the Plebeian Tribes", while the Comitia Tributa was an "Assembly of the Patricio-Plebeian Tribes". ^[30]

The only difference between the two assemblies was that patricians could not vote in the Plebeian Tribal Assembly (i. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and e. the Concilium Plebis). Since patricians were excluded, the Plebeian Tribal Assembly did not constitute the entire populus Romanus ("People of Rome"). Because of this, the Plebeian Tribal Assembly could not elect magistrates. As such, the magistrates had no legal relationship with the Plebeian Tribal Assembly. To address this problem, the Plebeian Tribal Assembly elected their own officers (plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles). These officers constituted the elected representatives of the plebeians^[31] and thus only they could preside over the Plebeian Tribal Assembly. Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome.

The president of the Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly) was usually either a consul^[17] or praetor. These magistrates were elected by the People of Rome (both patricians and plebeians) while organized on the basis of the centuries. Thus, while they were not elected by the Comitia Tributa, they were still the representatives of the members of the Comitia Tributa. Thus, the Comitia Tributa was presided over by its own elected representative.

Other than the fact that the Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Tribal Assembly) excluded patricians, and thus was presided over by a plebeian officer, it was identical to the Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly).

The two tribal assemblies were composed of thirty-five blocks known as "tribes" (tribus). The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups. Tribal divisions were geographical. ^[32]

In addition to the presiding magistrate, several additional magistrates would be present during meetings. They served as adjuncts to the presiding magistrate. They were available to help resolve procedural disputes, and to provide a mechanism through which electors could appeal any action taken by the presiding magistrate. ^[33] There would also be an augur either in attendance or on-call. The Augur was a priest and official in the classical world especially Ancient Rome and Etruria. Augurs were priests who studied omens (known as "taking the auspices"), and attempted to determine the will of the Gods from those omens.

The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The order was not chosen at once. Instead, after each tribe had voted, a lot was used to determine which tribe would vote next. ^[34]

Once a majority of tribes had voted the same way, voting would end.

Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Tribal Assembly)

The Concilium Plebis was originally organized on the basis of the curiae. It was, in effect, a Plebeian Curiate Assembly. Around the year 471 BC,^[31] it was reorganized on the basis of the tribes. Thus, it became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic.

This assembly elected two types plebeian officers, the tribunes and the aediles. Tribunes and aediles were, therefore, the elected representatives of the plebeians. ^[31] Since tribunes would preside over the Concilium Plebis, this assembly was presided over by its own elected representative. Occasionally, a plebeian aedile would preside over this assembly.

Following the passage of the Lex Hortensia in 287 BC, laws passed by the Concilium Plebis (plebiscita) had the full force of law. In Roman law, Lex Hortensia ( 287 BCE) was the final result of the long class struggle between Patricians and Plebeians where the plebeians Before this point, the plebiscita only applied to the class that enacted them (plebeians). A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita ^[35] After this point, however, plebiscita applied to all of the People of Rome.

After the passage of the Lex Hortensia, most legislation that was passed came from the Concilium Plebis. Since the Concilium Plebis was composed only of plebeians, it was more populist than the Comitia Tributa. Therefore, it was usually the engine behind the more controversial reforms (such as those of the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus). The Gracchi brothers were a pair of tribunes in 2nd century BC who attempted to pass Land reform legislation in Ancient Rome that would redistribute the major patrician

Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly)

The Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly (Comitia Tributa) consisted of both patricians and plebeians. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. A curule magistrate, usually a consul^[17] or praetor, would preside over this assembly.

The Comitia Tributa elected quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes. ^[36]. It also had the power to try judicial cases. While the Comitia Tributa had the power to enact new laws, it rarely exercised this power.

Assembly of the Curiae

During the first decades of the republic, the People of Rome were organized into thirty curiae. ^[37][2][29] The curiae were organized on the basis of the clans (ethnic kinships). ^[38] During this time, neither centuries nor tribes were used for political purposes. The curiae would assemble for legislative, electoral and judicial purposes. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic.

During these first decades, there were two assemblies of the curiae. One of these assemblies, the "Plebeian Curiate Assembly", was composed only of plebeians. This was the original Concilium Plebis. The other of these two assemblies, the "Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly" ("Comitia Curiata"), was composed of both patricians and plebeians.

Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Curiate Assembly)

The Plebeian Curiate Assembly was the original Concilium Plebis. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. ^[39] The only difference between the Plebeian Curiate Assembly and the Plebeian Tribal Assembly was that the Plebeian Curiate Assembly was composed of plebeians organized by curiae rather than by tribe.

Before the first plebeian secession (in 494 BC), the plebeians probably did gather into an assembly on the basis of the curiae. Secessio plebis ( withdrawal of the commoners, or Secession of the Plebs) was an informal exercise of power by Rome's Plebeian citizens similar to a general However, this assembly probably had no political role until the offices of plebeian tribune and plebeian aedile were created in 494 BC. As a result of the plebeian secession, the patrician aristocracy formally recognized the political power of the plebeian tribune. ^[40] When they legitimized the power of the plebeian tribune, they legitimized the power of the assembly (the Plebeian Curiate Assembly) that the plebeian tribune would preside over.

After 494 BC, the Plebeian Curiate Assembly would always be presided over by a plebeian tribune. This assembly would elect the plebeian tribunes and the plebeian aediles. ^[31] It would also pass legislation (plebiscita) which would only apply to the plebeians.

Around the year 471 BC,^[31] the Plebeian Curiate Assembly began to use tribes, rather than curiae, as its basis for organization. When they were organized by curiae (and thus by clan), the plebeians were dependent on their patrician patrons. When they transitioned to a tribal organization (an organization based on geography rather than clan), the plebeians were no longer dependent on those patricians. ^[41] As such, the Plebeian Curiate Assembly became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly (what we more commonly know as the Concilium Plebis). ^[39]

Comitia Curiata (Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly)

During the first decades of the republic, consuls (the only magistrates with imperium at the time) would preside over the Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. ^[42] This assembly had the full range of legislative, electoral, and judicial powers. Its laws (lex) applied to all of the People of Rome (patricians and plebeians). While plebeians could participate in this assembly, they could not vote.

Shortly after the founding of the republic, the powers of the Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly were transferred to the Comitia Centuriata and the Comitia Tributa (specifically, the Century Assembly and the Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly). ^[2] The Patricio-Plebeian Curiate Assembly then fell into disuse, and became known as the "Comitia Curiata" of the later republic.

The now-obsolete Comitia Curiata would be presided over by a curule magistrate (usually either a consul^[17] or praetor). Any law passed by the Comitia Curiata could be vetoed by a tribune. In addition, the activity of the assembly could be interfered with by the auspices. ^[29]

After it had fallen into disuse, the primary legislative role of the Comitia Curiata was to pass the annual lex curiata de imperio. Theoretically, this was necessary to ratify the election of consuls and praetors by granting them imperium powers. In practice, however, this may have been a ceremonial (and unnecessary) task. ^[29]

The curiae were organized on the basis of clan (or ethnic kinship). ^[38] Therefore, long after the Comitia Curiata had lost most of its political powers, it retained jurisdiction over clan matters. ^[42] Under the presidency of the Pontifex Maximus^[2], it would witness wills and ratify adoptions (adrogatio)^[2]. The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. It would also inaugurate certain priests, and transfer citizens from patrician class to plebeian class.

Legislative assemblies of the Roman Empire

Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire and Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire

During the reign of the second emperor, Tiberius, the powers that had been held by the legislative assemblies (the comitia) were transferred to the senate. The Constitution of the Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. The neutering of the comitia had become inevitable due to their decadence. The comitia were decedent for reasons beyond the fact that they were composed of the rabble of Rome. The electors in each of the comitia were ignorant as to the merits of the important questions that were laid before them. ^[43] In addition, the electors were often willing to sell their votes to the highest bidder.

Comitia Centuriata

Under the empire, soldiers continued to organize by centuries. However, after the fall of the republic, the centuries lost all of their relevance. The division of the Comitia Centuriata into centuries of seniores (senior soldiers) and iuniores (junior soldiers) continued well into the empire. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. ^[44] The classification of centuries on the basis of property ownership continued as well. ^[44]

Legislation was never submitted to the imperial Comitia Centuriata. After the founding of the empire, all judicial powers that had been held by the republican Comitia Centuriata were transferred to independent jury courts (quaestiones). ^[44] Under the emperor Tiberius, all electoral powers that had been held by the Comitia Centuriata were transferred to the senate. ^[44]

After the Comitia Centuriata lost its legislative, judicial, and electoral powers, it had no remaining authority. Now, its only function was to hear the renuntiatio. ^[44] The renuntiatio was heard after the senate had 'elected' the magistrates. It was a ceremony in which the results of the election were read to the electors. The renuntiatio allowed the emperor to claim that the magistrates had been elected by a sovereign people.

Comitia Tributa

After the founding of the empire, the tribal divisions of citizens and freedmen continued. The only political purpose of the tribal divisions was such that they better enabled the senate to maintain a list of citizens. ^[44] Tribal divisions also simplified the process by which grain was distributed. ^[44]

Any legislation that the emperor submitted to the assemblies for ratification would be submitted to the Comitia Tributa. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. ^[44]

Under the emperor Tiberius, the electoral powers of the Comitia Tributa were transferred to the senate. Each year, after the senate had elected the annual magistrates, the Comitia Tributa would hear the renuntiatio. ^[44] The renuntiatio served the same function in the Comitia Tributa as it served in the Comitia Centuriata.

Concilium Plebis

The Concilium Plebis did survive the fall of the republic. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. ^[44] The Concilium Plebis, however, lost its legislative, judicial and electoral powers to the senate. By virtue of his tribunician powers, the emperor always had absolute control over the Concilius Plebis. ^[44]

Comitia Curiata

After the fall of the republic, the Comitia Curiata no longer passed the lex curiata de imperio. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. ^[44] This power was transferred to the senate. After the founding of the empire, this assembly continued to consist of thirty lictors. The only two functions of the imperial Comitia Curiata were to witness wills and to ratify adoptions. ^[44]

See also

Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria

Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile

Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus

Princeps senatus Interrex Procurator Acta Senatus

References

• Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By Mr. Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2.
• Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press (ISBN 0-472-08125-X).

Notes

Further reading

Primary sources

• Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two
• Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius

Secondary source material

• Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu
• The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero
• What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us

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