Ancient Rome
This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Ancient Rome
Periods
Roman Kingdom 753 BC – 509 BC Roman Republic 509 BC – 27 BC Roman Empire 27 BC – AD 476 Principate Western Empire Dominate Eastern Empire
Roman Constitution
Constitution of the Kingdom Constitution of the Republic Constitution of the Empire Constitution of the Late Empire History of the Constitution Senate Legislative Assemblies Executive Magistrates
Ordinary Magistrates
Consul Praetor Quaestor Promagistrate Aedile Tribune Censor Governor
Extraordinary Magistrates
Dictator Magister Equitum Consular tribune Rex Triumviri Decemviri
Titles and Honours
Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister Militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex Maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch
Precedent and Law
Roman Law Imperium Mos maiorum Collegiality Roman citizenship Auctoritas Cursus honorum
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The Roman Senate was the most permanent of Rome's political institutions, being founded before the first king of Rome ascended the throne. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome Events and trends 756 BC — Founding of Cyzicus. 755 BC — Ashur-nirari V succeeds Ashur-Dan III as king of Assyria The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events By place Western Roman Empire September 4 — Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern The Dominate was the ' despotic ' latter phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse The Roman Constitution or Mos maiorum (Latin for "custom of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly The Constitution of the Roman Kingdom or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Constitution of the Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed The Constitution of the Late Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The History of the Roman Constitution is a study of Ancient Rome that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the city of Rome The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation The Roman Magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office Aedile ( Aedilis, from aedes aedis "temple" "building" was an office of the Roman Republic. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the A Censor was a magistrate of high rank in the ancient Roman Republic. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases is a historical position of varying importance in several European nations The Tribuni militum consulari potestate, or Consular Tribunes were Tribunes elected with Consular power during the Conflict of the Orders The King of Rome ( Latin: rex regis) was the Chief magistrate of the Roman Kingdom. The term triumvirate (from Latin, "of three men" is commonly used to describe a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals Decemviri (singular decemvir) is a Latin term meaning "Ten Men" which designates any such commission in the Roman Republic (cf The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was a general in the Roman army, equivalent to a modern general officer Dux (plural duces) is Latin for leader (from the verb ducere, 'to lead' and could refer to anyone who commanded troops such Officium (plural officia) is a Latin word with various meanings in Ancient Rome, including "service" "(sense of duty" "courtesy" Prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: "make in front" i Vicarius is a Latin word meaning substitute or deputy. It is the root and origin of the English word " Vicar " and Cognate to the Persian The Vigintisexviri (sing vigintisexvir) was a college ( collegium) of minor magistrates ( magistratus minores) in the Roman Republic The lictor, derived from the Latin ligare (to bind was a member of a special class of Roman civil servant with special tasks of attending and guarding Magister militum ( Latin for "Master of the Soldiers" was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate. The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power The mos maiorum (lit ways of the ancestors) were the ancestral Traditions an unwritten code of Laws and conduct of the Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues Definition of collegiality Colleagues are those explicitly united in a common Purpose and respecting Citizenship in the time of Ancient Rome was a privileged status afforded to certain individuals with respect to laws property and governance Auctoritas is a Latin word and is the origin of English " Authority " The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring Information on politics by country is available for every Country, including both De jure and De facto independent It survived the fall of the Roman Kingdom in 510 BC, the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC, and the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD. The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Most modern senates are modelled after the Roman example.

The power of the senate waxed and waned throughout its history. During the days of the kingdom, it was little more than an advisory council to the king. The last king of Rome, the tyrant Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown following a coup’ d’état that was planned in the senate. The King of Rome ( Latin: rex regis) was the Chief magistrate of the Roman Kingdom. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (also called Tarquin the Proud or Tarquin II) was the last of the seven Legendary Kings of Rome, son of Tarquinius

During the early republic, the senate was politically weak. During these early years, the executive magistrates were quite powerful. The transition from monarchy to constitutional rule was probably more gradual than the legends suggest. Thus, it took a prolonged weakening of these executive magistrates before the senate was able to assert its authority over those magistrates. By the middle republic, the senate reached the apex of its republican power. The late republic saw a decline in the senate's power. This decline began following the reforms of the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the The Gracchi brothers were a pair of tribunes in 2nd century BC who attempted to pass Land reform legislation in Ancient Rome that would redistribute the major patrician

After the transition from republic to empire was complete, the senate arguably held more power than it had held at any previous point. All constitutional powers (legislative, executive and judicial) had been transferred to the senate. However, unlike the senate of the republic, the senate of the empire was dominated by the emperor. It was through the senate that the emperor exercised his autocratic powers. By the late principate, the senate's power had declined into near-irrelevance. The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, It never again regained the power that it had held before that point.

Contents 1 Senate of the Roman Kingdom 1.1 Role as sovereign power 1.1.1 Senate's role in the election of a new king 1.2 Role in the legislative process 1.3 Role as council to the king 2 Senate of the Roman Republic 2.1 Senatorial powers 2.2 Senate procedure 2.2.1 Venue of senate meetings 2.2.2 Presiding officer and senate debates 2.2.3 Procedure, minority rights, and final votes 3 Senate of the Roman Empire 3.1 Composition of the senate 3.1.1 Size of the senate 3.1.2 Appointment to the senate 3.1.3 Listing of senators 3.2 Procedure of the senate 3.2.1 Senate meetings 3.2.2 Enactment of bills 3.3 Powers of the senate 3.3.1 Legislative powers of the senate 3.3.2 Judicial powers of the senate 3.3.3 Electoral powers of the senate 4 Senate of the Late Roman Empire 5 Senate under barbarian and Byzantine rule 6 Patres conscripti: origins of the Senate 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Further reading 9.1 Primary sources 9.2 Secondary source material

Senate of the Roman Kingdom

Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Kingdom and Senate of the Roman Kingdom

The word senate derives from the Latin word senex, which means "old man". The Constitution of the Roman Kingdom or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Senate of the Roman Kingdom was a political institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. A senate is a Deliberative body, often the Upper house or chamber of a Legislature or Parliament. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Senex is Latin for old man. In Ancient Rome the title of Senex was only awarded to elderly men with families who had good standing in their village Therefore, senate literally means "board of old men. " The prehistoric Indo-Europeans who settled Italy in the centuries before the legendary founding of Rome in 753 BC^[1] were structured into tribal communities. ^[2] These communities would often include an aristocratic board of tribal elders. ^[3]

The early Roman family was called a gens or "clan"^[2]. Each clan was an aggregation of families under a common living male patriarch, called a pater (the Latin word for "father"). The pater was the undisputed master of his clan. ^[4] When the early Roman gens were aggregating to form a common community, the patres from the leading clans were selected^[5] for the confederated board of elders (what would become the Roman senate)^[4]. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome.

In time, the patres came to recognize the need for a single leader. Therefore, they elected a king (rex),^[4] and vested in him their sovereign power. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. ^[6] When the king died, that sovereign power would naturally revert back to the patres. ^[4]

The senate of the Roman Kingdom could only be convened by the king. The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome ^[7] Thus, the king functioned as its sole presiding officer. The senate held three principle responsibilities. It held the sovereign power^[8], functioned as a legislative body in concert with the People of Rome (who could assemble into curiae), and served as the council to the king. The Senate of the Roman Kingdom was a political institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Senate of the Roman Kingdom was a political institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. SPQR is an initialism from a Latin phrase Senātus Populusque Rōmānus ("The Senate and the People of Rome" or "The The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Senate of the Roman Kingdom was a political institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. ^[7]

Role as sovereign power

The patres that filled the ranks of the early senate held a position of absolute dominance over their respective families. ^[4] Since the senate was filled with the patres of the leading families, their individual dominance over their individual families was consolidated into collective dominance over the collective families of the early Roman community. These were the original patrician families. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and

This article is part of the Roman Constitution series. The Roman Constitution or Mos maiorum (Latin for "custom of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly

Roman Senate

Roman Assemblies

Roman Magistrates

History of the Roman Constitution

Constitution of the Roman Kingdom

Senate of the Roman Kingdom

Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom

Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom

History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom

Constitution of the Roman Republic

Senate of the Roman Republic

Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic

Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic

History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic

Constitution of the Roman Empire

Senate of the Roman Empire

Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire

Executive Magistrates of the Roman Empire

History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire

Constitution of the Late Roman Empire

History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire

The king was technically elected by the people. The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation The Roman Magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. The History of the Roman Constitution is a study of Ancient Rome that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the city of Rome The Constitution of the Roman Kingdom or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Senate of the Roman Kingdom was a political institution in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. The History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom is a study of the ancient Roman Kingdom that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. The History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a study of the ancient Roman Republic that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of The Constitution of the Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire were political institutions in the ancient Roman Empire. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Empire were elected individuals of the ancient Roman Empire. The History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire is a study of the ancient Roman Empire that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the Roman Empire The Constitution of the Late Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire is a study of the ancient Roman Empire that traces the progression of Roman political development from the abolition In practice, however, the senate chose each new king. Since the consolidated authority of the patres of the senate chose the king, the king became the embodiment of that authority. Since the authority of each pater over his family (and its dependents) was absolute^[4], the king was vested with that absolute authority over those families (thus over the entire state).

Senate's role in the election of a new king

The period between the death of one king, and the election of a new king, was called the interregnum. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. An interregnum (plural interregna or interregnums) is a period of discontinuity of a government organization or social order ^[8] The interregnum was the only period during which the senate exercised its sovereign power. When a king died, it was a member of the senate (the interrex) who would nominate a candidate to replace the king. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. ^[9] After the senate gave its approval to the nominee, he would then be formally elected by the people. ^[10] The senate would then give its final approval^[9].

Livy writes further on this as an example that after Romulus died there was no obvious candidate to replace him. The Roman senators feared that one of the neighboring states would take over Rome, so they set up a temporary government. They gave power of a king to a chosen senate individual for 5 days at a time. Then the next member in line took over control and had the power as a king. The time under this so called "rotating government" was called an interregnum. It was the government between the kings. The Roman people were glad to see the end of the interregnum when it finally came. They felt that during this time they were ruled by many masters, instead of just a single monarch. ^[11]

Role in the legislative process

It would be incorrect to view the laws passed during the time of the kingdom as "legislation". In effect, these "laws" were actually the decrees of the king. However, the king would often involve both the senate and the Comitia Curiata (the popular assembly) in the process. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom were political institutions in the ancient Roman Kingdom. However, the king was free to ignore any ruling that the senate or the Comitia Curiata ultimately passed. ^[1]

Role as council to the king

During the days of the Roman Kingdom, it was considered to be acceptable if the king chose to ignore any advice of the senate. The senate was, however, an influential advisory council to the king.

Senate of the Roman Republic

Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic and Senate of the Roman Republic

The senator and one-time consul Cicero also believed the senate to be superior to the other branches of government. The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. ^[12] Cicero noted that the senate was a self-sustaining and continuous body consisting of patres conscripti. The senate's auctoritas ("authority") derived from this self-sustaining trait. All of the senate's powers derived from its auctoritas. ^[13]

The senate's auctoritas derived from the esteem and prestige of the senate. ^[13] This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom (mos maiorum, or "customs of the ancestors"), as well as the high caliber and prestige of the senators. The mos maiorum (lit ways of the ancestors) were the ancestral Traditions an unwritten code of Laws and conduct of the ^[14] As the senate was the only political institution that was eternal and continuous (compared to, for example, the consulship, which expired at the end of every yearly term), to only it belonged the dignity of the antique traditions. ^[13]

Senatorial powers

The focus of the Roman senate was directed towards foreign policy. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Lucius Sergius Catilina (108 BC–62 BC known in English as Catiline, was a Roman Politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. ^[15] While its role in military conflict was officially advisory, the senate was ultimately the force that oversaw those conflicts. The relationship was effectively one of agency, rather than independence. The consuls would have formal command over the armies. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military However, the consular command of those armies was directed by the senate.

The senate managed the civil administration in the city. For example, only the senate could authorize the appropriation of public monies from the treasury. ^[15] In addition, the senate would try individuals accused of political crimes (such as treason). ^[15]

The senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consultum. This was officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, these were usually obeyed by the magistrates. ^[16]

Up until 202 BC, a dictator would be appointed during extreme military emergencies. The senate would authorize the consul to nominate a dictator. After the 202 BC, the senate would respond to extreme emergencies by passing the senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). Upon the passage of this decree, civil government would be suspended, and (something analogous to) martial law would be declared. ^[17] When this occurred, the consuls would, in effect, have the powers of a dictator.

Senate procedure

The rules and procedures of the Roman senate were both complex and ancient. The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. Many of these rules and procedures originated in the early years of the republic, and were upheld over the centuries under the principle of mos maiorum ("customs of the ancestors").

Venue of senate meetings

Meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city (the pomerium). The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. The pomerium (or pomoerium) from post + moerium>murum (wall was the sacred boundary of the city of Rome. However, all meetings took place no further than approximately one mile outside of the pomerium^[18]. As long as one was within one mile (1. 6 km) of the pomerium, they were inside the political boundary of the city.

The senate was as much a religious institution, as it was a political institution. Ancient Roman religion encompasses the collection of Beliefs and Rituals practised in Ancient Rome in the form of Cult practices As such, it operated while under various religious restrictions. The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. Every senate meeting would occur in an inaugurated space (a templum). Before any meeting could begin, a sacrifice to the Gods would be made, and the auspices would be taken. Roman mythology, or more appropriately Latin mythology, refers to the mythological beliefs of the Italic people inhabiting the region of Latium and its The auspices were taken in order to determine whether that particular senate meeting held favor with the Gods. An auspice ( Latin: auspicium from auspex, literally "one who looks at birds" is a type of Omen already familiar ^[19]

Presiding officer and senate debates

Meetings usually began at dawn. A magistrate who wished to summon the senate would have to issue an order called a cogere. Usually the presiding magistrate would be either a consul^[20] or a praetor. The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. While in session, the senate had the power to act on its own. The presiding magistrate would often begin each meeting with a speech called a verba fecit. ^[21] The presiding magistrate would then begin a discussion on an issue. He would refer the issue to the senators, and they would discuss the matter one at a time by order of seniority^[18]. Since all meetings had to end by nightfall^[16], a senator could talk a proposal to death (a filibuster or diem consumere), if they could keep the debate going until nightfall. A filibuster, or "talking out a bill", is a form of obstruction in a Legislature or other decision-making body ^[21]

Procedure, minority rights, and final votes

Unimportant matters could be voted on by a voice vote or a show of hands. The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic. However, important votes resulted in a physical division of the house^[18], with senators voting by taking a place on either side of the chamber.

There was an absolute right to free speech in the senate. Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. ^[18] During senate sessions, senators had several ways in which they could influence (or frustrate) a presiding magistrate. When a presiding magistrate was proposing a motion, the senators could call consule (consult). This would require that magistrate to ask for the opinions of the senators. The cry of numera would require a count of the senators present (similar to a modern "quorum call"). A quorum call or call to quorum is a Parliamentary procedure used to summon absent members of a Deliberative body if a Quorum is not present Any vote would always be between a proposal and its negative. ^[22]

Once a vote was held, any motion that passed could be vetoed. A veto, Latin for "I forbid" is used to Denote that a certain party has the right to stop unilaterally a certain piece of Legislation. Usually, vetoes were handed down by plebeian tribunes. ^[23] If the senate proposed a bill that the tribune did not agree with, he would make his displeasure known. If the senate refused to comply with his wishes, the tribune would literally 'interpose the sacrosanctity of his person'^[24] (intercessio) to physically prevent the senate from acting. Any resistance against the tribune would be tantamount to a violation of his sacrosanctity, and thus would be considered a capital offense.

Any act that was vetoed was recorded in the annals as a senatus auctoritas. Any motion that was passed and not vetoed would be turned into a final senatus consultum. Each senatus consultum was transcribed into a document by the presiding magistrate. The document was then deposited in the aerarium (treasury). Aerarium (from Latin "aes" in its derived sense of "money" was the name (in full "aerarium stabulum" - treasure-house given in Ancient Rome ^[16]

If a senatus consultum conflicted with a lex ("law") that was passed by a popular assembly, the lex would override the senatus consultum. ^[24] A senatus consultum, however, could serve to interpret a lex. ^[25]

Senate of the Roman Empire

Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire and Senate of the Roman Empire

While the senate of the early empire held a greater range of powers than did the senate of the late republic, its actual authority was ceded to the emperor. The Constitution of the Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. In practice, the actual authority of the imperial senate was negligible.

During the reigns of the first emperors, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers were all transferred from the legislative assemblies to the senate. Thus, all constitutional powers were now held by the senate. However, the control that the emperor had over the senate was absolute. Therefore, the senate acted as a vehicle through which the emperor would exercise his autocratic powers.

Composition of the senate

The composition of the senate was not drastically altered during the transition from republic to empire. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. There was, however, a decrease in its size. As it was under the republic, election to a magisterial office usually resulted in senate membership. In addition, greater measures were taken to account for membership in the imperial senate.

Size of the senate

The emperor Augustus inherited a senate whose membership had been increased to 900 senators by his predecessor, Julius Caesar. Augustus sought to reduce the size of the senate. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. Augustus revised the list of senators three times. ^[26] By the time that these revisions had been completed, the senate had been reduced to 600 members.

Appointment to the senate

Augustus then reformed the rules which specified how an individual could become a senator. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. These reforms were intended to make the senate more aristocratic. Under the empire, as was the case during the late republic, one would become a senator upon their election to the quaestorship. Under the empire, however, one could only stand for election to the quaestorship (or to any other magisterial office) if one was of senatorial rank. To be of senatorial rank, one had to be the son of a senator. ^[26]

If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were two ways for that individual to become a senator. Under the first method, the emperor would grant that individual the authority to stand for election to the quaestorship. ^[26] Under the second method, the emperor would simply appoint the individual to the senate. ^[27]

Listing of senators

Beginning in 9 BC, an official list of senators was maintained. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. This list, the album senatorium, was revised each year. In drafting the album senatorium for a given year, the list would have to be updated to reflect the senate's current membership. ^[27]

Procedure of the senate

After the fall of the republic, the most significant change in the nature of the senate derived from the role of the emperor as its presiding officer. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. The power of the emperor over the senate was absolute. ^[28]

Senate meetings

Senators of the early empire had the same rights as did senators of the late republic. Senators could ask extraneous questions, or request that a certain action be taken by the senate. Higher ranking senators would speak before lower ranking senators. The emperor, however, could speak at any time. ^[29]

Most senate meetings were presided over by the emperor. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. In addition, the emperor held a level of authority and prestige that robbed all magistrates of their independence. During senate meetings, the emperor would sit between the two consuls. ^[29]

The senate would ordinarily meet in the curia Julia. Curia Julia, (Latin Curia Iulia) the third named curia or senate house in Ancient Rome was built in 44 BC when Julius Caesar replaced Scheduled meetings would be held on the kalends (the first day of the month), and then again on the ides (around the fifteenth day of the month). The month is a unit of Time, used with Calendars which is approximately as long as some natural period related to the motion of the Moon;

Under Augustus, a quorum was set at 400 patres constricti for the senate members. As the senate increasingly became subordinated to the emperor, absenteeism increasingly became a problem. ^[29] Eventually, the quorum rules were relaxed and the membership became about 600. ^[30][31]

Enactment of bills

Most of the bills that were presented before the senate were presented by the emperor. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. ^[29] The emperor would usually appoint a committee to draft each bill. Since no senator could stand for election to a magisterial office without the emperor's approval, senators usually did not vote against a bill that was presented by the emperor. ^[32]

Each emperor would select a quaestor for the role of ab actis senatus. ^[32] This quaestor would compile the proceedings of the senate into a document called the acta senatus. Selected extracts from the acta senatus would be published in the acta diurna ("daily doings"), and distributed to the public. ^[32]

Powers of the senate

During the transition from republic to empire, the senate's influence was reduced to that of an advisory council. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. ^[32] After the transition from republic to empire had been completed, however, the senate's influence grew substantially. During the transition from republic to empire, the senate was granted legislative, judicial, and electoral powers. ^[32] While its power theoretically increased, its actual authority decreased. ^[28]

Legislative powers of the senate

While the legislative assemblies still existed after the founding of the empire, they were quickly neutered. Realizing that the assemblies were too dysfunctional and corrupt to salvage, the first emperors transferred all legislative powers to the senate. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. After this transfer, the senatus consulta had the full force of law. ^[28]

Legislatively, the senate of the early empire was most concerned with the financial and civil administration of Rome. It also had a significant amount of authority over the senatorial provinces. ^[28] If it received authorization from the emperor, the senate could enact new tax laws. The senate could also regulate festivals, and could grant special honors.

Judicial powers of the senate

During the early empire, all judicial powers that had been held by the legislative assemblies were transferred to the senate. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. Each senatorial province had a court, and the decisions of those provincial courts could be appealed to the senate. Such cases could only be appealed to the senate, however, upon the recommendation of a consul. ^[33]

Electoral powers of the senate

The senate often elected new emperors. The senate would confer upon the new emperor his imperium (his constitutional authority to be emperor). ^[33]

The emperor Tiberius transferred all electoral powers from the assemblies to the senate. The Senate of the Roman Empire was a political institution in the ancient Roman Empire. ^[33] While only the senate could elect new magistrates, the approval of the emperor was needed before any individual could seek election to a magisterial office. ^[33]

Senate of the Late Roman Empire

Main article: Constitution of the Late Roman Empire

The removal of the seat of government from Rome reduced the senate to a municipal body. The Constitution of the Late Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles This image was reinforced when the emperor Constantine would later create a similar body in Constantinople. Diocletian also discontinued the practice of having the senate ratify the imperial powers of a new emperor. Going back to the founding of the city, control of the state was considered to return to the senate whenever the chief magistracy became vacant. This particular reform robbed the senate of its status as the depository of supreme power. Diocletian's reforms also ended whatever illusion had remained that the senate had substantive legislative powers. And since the magistracies had become meaningless, the electoral powers of the senate had no real meaning.

The senate retained the power to elect praetors, quaestors, and some consuls (only the consules suffecti). It retained its legislative powers over public games and the senatorial order. It could also try cases, especially treason, if the emperor gave permission.

Senate ramained the last stronghold of the traditional Roman religion in the face of the spreading Christianity. Several times senators asked emperors to return Altar of Victory to the senatorial curia, first removed by Constantius II. The Altar of Victory was located in the Roman Senate House (the Curia) bearing a gold statue of the goddess Victory. Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II ( 7 August, 317 - November 3, 361) was a Roman Emperor Sometimes the senate tried to appoint their own emperor, such as in case of Eugenius who was later defeated by forces loyal to Theodosius I. Flavius Eugenius (died 6 September 394 was a Roman usurper (392-394 against Emperor Theodosius I. Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄

Senate under barbarian and Byzantine rule

Main article: Byzantine Senate

The Senate continued to function under Odoacer as well as under the Ostrogothic rule. The Byzantine Senate or Eastern Roman Senate was the continuation of the Roman Senate, established in the 4th century by Constantine I. Odoacer (435–493 also known as Odovacar (from the Germanic Audawakrs, meaning "watchful of wealth" was a Roman general and the The Senate appointed praefects, censors, questors and other Roman officials and elected consuls. The authority of the Senate rose considerably under barbarian leaders who protected the Senate. This period was characterised by the rise of prominent Roman senatorial families such as the Anicii, who occupied most state offices and gave many Roman consuls of the time. The Senate's leader, the princeps senatus, served as the right hand of the barbarian leader. The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate. Under Theodoric the Great the princeps senatus was sent as his personal representative to Constantinople. Theodoric the Great (454 – August 30, 526) known to the Romans as Flavius Theodoricus, was king of the Ostrogoths (471-526 ruler of

The dominant religion of the Senate at the time was Chalcedon Christianity, which was different from both the dominant religion of Ostrogoths (Arianism) and the official religion of the papacy and Constantinople (Nicene Christianity). The Confession of Chalcedon (also Definition or Creed of Chalcedon) also known as the "Doctrine of the Hypostatic Union" or the "2-Nature Doctrine" Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils.

This peaceful co-existence of the senatorial and barbarian rule continued until Ostrogothic leader Theodahad began an upspring against emperor Justinian and took senators as hostages. Theodahad (d 536 was the King of the Ostrogoths from 534 to 536 and a nephew of Theodoric the Great through his sister Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or A hostage is a person or entity which is held by a captor The original definition meant that this was handed over by one of two belligerent parties to the other or seized as security

After Rome was recaptured by the imperial army, the senate was restored, although it did not have the same power as before. It is not clearly known when the Roman senate disappeared, but it is known from Gregorian register that the Senate acclaimed new statues of emperor Phocas and empress Leontia in 603. Events By Place Europe Battle of Degsastan: Æthelfrith of Bernicia defeats Áedán mac Gabráin of ^[34]

Patres conscripti: origins of the Senate

Main article: Conscript Fathers

Latin of patres conscripti is English for Conscript Fathers. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It is the members of the ancient Roman Senate. ^{[35][36][37][38]}

Livy writes that Romulus and Remus originally created 100 senators known as patres. ^[35] The Latin title patres means head of family. ^[35] Romulus and Remus wanted the senators (patres) to advise them, especially in the case of alliances and treaties. ^[39] The Sabines later joined the Roman Kingdom and then another 100 members were added by Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. The Sabines ( Latin Sabini, Singular Sabinus) were an Italic tribe that lived in ancient Italy, inhabiting The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, also called Tarquin the Elder or Tarquin I, was held by ancient tradition to be the fifth King of Rome, said to have reigned ^[40][41] Cassius Dio in his Book II of "Roman History" provides a motive: Tarquin enlisted into the Senate Romans who would support his right to be king. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was ^[42] The complete body was then referred to as Patres Minrum Gentium . ^[43]

According to Livy in the time of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus he established his own personal senate of friends. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (also called Tarquin the Proud or Tarquin II) was the last of the seven Legendary Kings of Rome, son of Tarquinius Tarquinius would only take advice from his friends and not the original senate members (patres). ^[44] Tarquinius even had ordered several senators assassinated that he didn't like. AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media. Later when he was banished in 510 BCE several of his remaining "loyal" senate members (friends) followed him. ^[45] Once the Roman Republic had been established then the plebeians were allowed to be admitted to the Roman Senate around 509 BCE. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. ^[46] They were mostly wealthy non-patricians (equites). The vacancies of Tarquinius were then replaced by Lucius Junius Brutus whom brought the number up to 300 members. Lucius Junius Brutus (or Lucius Iunius Brutus) was the founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first Consuls in 509 BC ^[47][48] The new members that were enrolled by Brutus then in the senatorial register were called conscripti and replaced by equestrian noblemen, not patricians. Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and ^[38][49] When these certain new senators were first enrolled with the "fathers" by the censors the word "conscript" came into use because they compelled and drafted these new members into service (conscripted). ^[50] They were written or enrolled together with the original fathers and thus came about the tradition of summoning to the senate both patres and conscripti. ^[51][52] The original "old men" senators were called patres and the later ones conscripti and both were written upon the same list. ^[53][54][55]

Livy writes that Brutus filled the number of 300 by electing the principal men of equestrian rank to fill the places. From this Livy records that the Senate derived the custom of summoning into the senate both the patres and those who were conscripti. The "conscript fathers" were called the new senate, novus senatus. In Livy's words the old senators only were called patres. Livy shows the new members were distinguished from the old senators by the name conscripti, being the new members written or enrolled together with the original members. ^[56] This number of 300 members of the senate stayed about the same until the time of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, whom increased it then himself to some number of at least 400. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c ^[57] In the time of Julius Caesar the number had increased to over 900. ^[58] The number was later reduced to somewhere between 400 and 600 by Augustus. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was ^[59][60]

Dionysius of Halicarnassus gives the same name of patres conscripti to the first senators created by Romulus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Halicarnassus c 60 BC–after 7 BC was a Greek historian and teacher of Rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of ^[61] However this form, qui patres, quique conscripti essent, which was used when the senate was called together, shows the mistake of the Greek historians. ^[62] When the Latin writers used patres conscrpti to express the senate in general the words are to be used by a conjunction, thus patres et conscripti, meaning the original fathers and those that have been added to them. ^[61][62][63] Sextus Pompeius Festus agrees with this concept when he says of those that are named conscript are the ones that passed from the order of Roman knights into that of senators. Sextus Pompeius Festus was a Roman Grammarian who probably flourished in the later 2nd century AD, perhaps at Narbo ( Narbonne) in Gaul Plutarch in his Life of Romulus writes that the original senator members were first labeled patres. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c He goes on to say that when other members were added to these original ones they all were called patres conscript then.

See also

Roman Kingdom Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Law Plebeian Council Centuria

Curia Roman consul Praetor Roman censor Quaestor Aedile

Roman Dictator Master of the Horse Senate Cursus honorum Byzantine Senate Pontifex Maximus

Princeps senatus Interrex Procurator Acta Senatus

Notes

Further reading

Primary sources

• Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two
• Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius
• Livy, Roman History (Ab Urbe Condita)
• Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19-926108-3).
• Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1.
• Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By Mr. Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2.
• Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press (ISBN 0-472-08125-X).

Secondary source material

• Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and their Decline, by Montesquieu
• The Roman Constitution to the Time of Cicero
• What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us

• Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913)
• Brewer, E. Cobham; Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (1898).
• McCullough, Colleen; The Grass Crown HarperCollins (1992), ISBN 038071082X
• Wood, Reverend James, The Nuttall Encyclopædia (1907) - a work now in public domain.
• Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0).
• Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U. S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23.
• Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics, ISBN 0-543-92749-0.
• Hooke, Nathaniel; The Roman History, from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth, F. Rivington (Rome). Original in New York Public Library

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