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Roman Empire Provinces (compare with above) around a century after the end of the Republic. Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national Capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist the capital was moved or the capital Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Ancient Roman religion encompasses the collection of Beliefs and Rituals practised in Ancient Rome in the form of Cult practices For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Lucius Junius Brutus (or Lucius Iunius Brutus) was the founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first Consuls in 509 BC Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (fl 6th century BC is traditionally one of the first two consuls of Rome, together with Lucius Junius Brutus. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Agrippa redirects here For other uses of the name see Agrippa (disambiguation. A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean Lucretia is a legendary figure in the history of the Roman Republic. Year 44 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate. This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area.
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The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its The republican period began with the overthrow of the Monarchy c. The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome 509 BC and lasted over 450 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period. Subversion refers to an attempt to overthrow structures of Authority, including the State. List of Civil wars involving Rome. There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century,
The Roman Republic was governed by a complex constitution, which centered on the principles of a separation of powers and checks and balances. The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The evolution of the constitution was heavily influenced by the struggle between the aristocracy and the average Roman. The History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a study of the ancient Roman Republic that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy of individuals who could trace their ancestry back to the founding of the republic. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance. Thus, only a revolution could overthrow this new aristocracy. Rome also saw its territory expand during this period, from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries, Rome expanded to the point of dominating Italy. During the next century, Rome grew to dominate North Africa, Spain, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, Rome grew to dominate the rest of modern France, as well as much of the east. By this point, however, its republican political machinery was finally crushed under the weight of imperialism.
The precise event which signaled the transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire is a matter of interpretation. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Historians have variously proposed the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's grant of Octavian's extraordinary powers under the first settlement (January 16, 27 BC), as candidates for the defining pivotal event. The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate.
The Constitution of the Roman Republic
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Much of what is known about the Constitution of the Roman Republic comes to us from the Greek historian Polybius. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome Events and trends 756 BC — Founding of Cyzicus. 755 BC — Ashur-nirari V succeeds Ashur-Dan III as king of Assyria Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events By place Western Roman Empire September 4 — Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern The Dominate was the ' despotic ' latter phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse The Roman Constitution or Mos maiorum (Latin for "custom of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly The Constitution of the Roman Kingdom or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The Constitution of the Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed The Constitution of the Late Roman Empire or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The History of the Roman Constitution is a study of Ancient Rome that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the city of Rome The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The Roman Assemblies were institutions in Ancient Rome. They functioned as the machinery of the Roman legislative branch and thus (theoretically at least passed all legislation The Roman Magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office Aedile ( Aedilis, from aedes aedis "temple" "building" was an office of the Roman Republic. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the A Censor was a magistrate of high rank in the ancient Roman Republic. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic The Master of the Horse was (and in some cases is a historical position of varying importance in several European nations The Tribuni militum consulari potestate, or Consular Tribunes were Tribunes elected with Consular power during the Conflict of the Orders The King of Rome ( Latin: rex regis) was the Chief magistrate of the Roman Kingdom. The term triumvirate (from Latin, "of three men" is commonly used to describe a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals Decemviri (singular decemvir) is a Latin term meaning "Ten Men" which designates any such commission in the Roman Republic (cf The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was a general in the Roman army, equivalent to a modern general officer Dux (plural duces) is Latin for leader (from the verb ducere, 'to lead' and could refer to anyone who commanded troops such Officium (plural officia) is a Latin word with various meanings in Ancient Rome, including "service" "(sense of duty" "courtesy" Prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: "make in front" i Vicarius is a Latin word meaning substitute or deputy. It is the root and origin of the English word " Vicar " and Cognate to the Persian The Vigintisexviri (sing vigintisexvir) was a college ( collegium) of minor magistrates ( magistratus minores) in the Roman Republic The lictor, derived from the Latin ligare (to bind was a member of a special class of Roman civil servant with special tasks of attending and guarding Magister militum ( Latin for "Master of the Soldiers" was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate. The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power The mos maiorum (lit ways of the ancestors) were the ancestral Traditions an unwritten code of Laws and conduct of the Collegiality is the relationship between colleagues Definition of collegiality Colleagues are those explicitly united in a common Purpose and respecting Citizenship in the time of Ancient Rome was a privileged status afforded to certain individuals with respect to laws property and governance Auctoritas is a Latin word and is the origin of English " Authority " The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring Information on politics by country is available for every Country, including both De jure and De facto independent The Roman Constitution or Mos maiorum (Latin for "custom of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories According to Polybius, the senate was the predominate branch of government. Polybius noted that it was the consuls who lead the armies and the civil government in Rome[2], and it was the legislative assemblies which had the ultimate authority over elections, legislation and criminal trials. However, since the senate controlled money, administration, and the details of foreign policy, it had the most control over day-to-day life. [3][4]
The Senate
The senate's ultimate authority (auctoritas) derived from the esteem and prestige of the senate. [5] This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom (mos maiorum, or "customs of the ancestors"), as well as the high caliber and prestige of the senators. The mos maiorum (lit ways of the ancestors) were the ancestral Traditions an unwritten code of Laws and conduct of the [6] The senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consultum. This was officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, these were usually obeyed by the magistrates. [7] The focus of the Roman senate was directed towards foreign policy. [3] While its role in military conflict was officially advisory, the senate was ultimately the force that oversaw those conflicts. The relationship was effectively one of agency, rather than independence. The consuls would have formal command over the armies. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military However, the consular command of those armies was directed by the senate. The senate managed the civil administration in the city. For example, only the senate could authorize the appropriation of public monies from the treasury. [3] In addition, the senate would try individuals accused of political crimes (such as treason). [3]
Legislative Assemblies
According to Polybius, it was the People of Rome (and thus the assemblies) who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates[8], the enactment of new laws[9], the carrying out of capital punishment[8], the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances[8]. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. SPQR is an initialism from a Latin phrase Senātus Populusque Rōmānus ("The Senate and the People of Rome" or "The Under the Constitution of the Roman Republic, the people (and thus the assemblies) held the ultimate source of sovereignty. [10] There were two types of legislative assemblies. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The first was the comitia ("committee"). [11] Comitia were assemblies of all citizens (populus Romanus, or "People of Rome"). [12] The second type of assembly was the concilium ("council"). Concilium were forums where specific groups of people would meet for an official purpose (such as to enact a law). [12]
Assembly of the Centuries
Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes (for civil purposes). The Comitia Centuriata ("Century Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries (centuriae). The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul[2]. The 193 centuries[13] in the Comitia Centuriata were divided into three different grades. These were the equites, pedites and unarmed adjuncts. [14][13] The pedites were divided amongst five classes. The centuries in each class would vote, one at a time by seniority, until the entire class had voted. When a measure received a majority of the vote, the voting would end. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare offensive war. A declaration of war is a formal performative Speech act or signing of a document by an authorised party of a government in order to initate a state of War [15] The Comitia Centuriata could also pass a law that would grant imperium to consuls and praetors, and censorial powers to censors. [15] The Comitia Centuriata also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases. [16] In addition, it was this assembly that ratified the results of a census. [17]
Assembly of the Tribes
During the years of the Roman Republic, the tribes would gather into two different assemblies. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. These two assemblies were the Concilium Plebis (the "Plebeian Council") and the Comitia Tributa (the "Tribal Assembly"). In effect, the Concilium Plebis was an "Assembly of the Plebeian Tribes", while the Comitia Tributa was an "Assembly of the Patricio-Plebeian Tribes". [18] The only difference between the two assemblies was that patricians could not vote in the Plebeian Tribal Assembly (i. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and e. the Concilium Plebis or "Plebeian Council"). Since patricians were excluded, the Plebeian Tribal Assembly did not constitute the entire populus Romanus ("People of Rome"). The Plebeian Tribal Assembly elected their own officers (plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles). The Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly), in contrast, was presided over by a consul[2]. Other than the fact that the Concilium Plebis (Plebeian Tribal Assembly) excluded patricians, and thus was presided over by a plebeian officer, it was identical to the Comitia Tributa (Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly).
The two tribal assemblies were composed of thirty-five blocks known as "tribes". The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups. Tribal divisions were geographical. [19] The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot. The Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic were political institutions in the ancient Roman Republic. [20] Once a majority of tribes had voted the same way, voting would end. Most laws were passed by the Plebeian Tribal Assembly (the Concilium Plebis). While the Comitia Tributa did not pass many laws, it did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes. [21].
Executive Magistrates
Each magistratus was vested with a degree of maior potestas ("major powers"). The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. The Roman Magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. [22] Each magistrate could only veto an action that was taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of maior potestas. Thus, no magistrate could veto an act of the senate or assemblies (since neither institution possessed any maior potestas). Since plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates,[23] they were outside of the maior potestas standard. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the Aedile ( Aedilis, from aedes aedis "temple" "building" was an office of the Roman Republic. In general, this made them independent of the other magistrates. [2][22] Tribunes relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. If a magistrate, an assembly or the senate did not comply with the orders of a tribune, the tribune could 'interpose the sacrosanctity of his person' [24] (intercessio) to physically stop that particular action. Any resistance against the tribune would be tantamount to a violation of his sacrosanctity, and thus would be considered a capital offense.
Any magistrate could obstruct ("veto") an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of maior potestas. If this obstruction occurred between two magistrates with equal maior potestas (such as two praetors), then it would be called par potestas. [25] To prevent this, magistrates used a principle of alteration, assigned responsibilities by lot or seniority, or gave certain magistrates control over certain functions. [26] If this obstruction occurred against a magistrate with a lower degree of maior potestas it would be called intercessio. [25] In this case, the higher ranking magistrate would interpose his higher maior potestas.
Magisterial powers, and checks on those powers
Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers (potestas). The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Only the People of Rome (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer potestas on any individual magistrate. [27] The most powerful form of potestas was imperium. Imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Imperium gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. All magistrates had the power of coercitio (coercion). The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Coercitio was used by magistrates to maintain public order. [28] While in Rome, all citizens had an absolute protection against coercitio. This protection was called provocatio (see below). Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens (auspicia). The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. The auspices would often be used to obstruct (obnuntiatio) political opponents.
One check over a magistrate's power was collega (collegiality). The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people. Another check over the power of a magistrate was provocatio. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Provocatio was a primordial form of due process. Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her It was a precursor to our own habeas corpus. Habeas corpus (ˈheɪbiəs ˈkɔɹpəs ( Latin: command that you have the body is the name of a legal action or Writ, through which a person can seek relief If any magistrate was attempting to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune. [29] An additional check over a magistrate's power was that of provincia. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Provinicia required a division of responsibilities. [30] In addition, once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Since this did create problems for some magistrates, these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium "prorogued" (prorogare). In effect, they would retain the powers of the office (as a promagistrate), without officially holding that office. A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office [31]
Consuls, praetors, censors, aediles, quaestors, tribunes, and dictators
The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate[2][32]. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Throughout the year, one consul would be superior in rank to the other consul. To prevent par potestas, this ranking would flip every month, between the two consuls. [33] Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the superior consul for the month was the head of the Roman government. [2] The management of the government would be under the ultimate authority of that consul. He would also preside over the senate, the Comitia Centuriata, and the Comitia Tributa. [2][34] While abroad, each consul would command an army. [2][34] His authority would be nearly absolute. [2]
Praetors would administer civil law[35] and command provincial armies. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Every five years, two censors would be elected for an eighteen month term. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. During their term in office, the two censors would conduct a census. A census is the procedure of acquiring information about every member of a given population During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate. [36] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Aediles had wide ranging powers over day-to-day affairs inside the city of Rome. [37]. The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Their duties were often financial. Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct[38]. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune[38]. In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months[39]. The Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic were elected officials of the ancient Roman Republic. Constitutional government would dissolve, and the dictator would become the absolute master of the state. [40] When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government would be restored.
Political history of the Roman Republic
The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases. The History of the Roman Constitution is a study of Ancient Rome that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the city of Rome The History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a study of the ancient Roman Republic that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 510 BC. The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome The final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Throughout the history of the republic, the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens. The Conflict of the Orders, also referred to as the Struggle of the Orders, was a political struggle between the Plebeians (commoners and Patricians
The patrician era (509-367 BC)
According to legend, the last king was overthrown in 510 BC. While this story is nothing more than a legend which later Romans created in order to explain their past, it is likely that Rome had been ruled by a series of kings. [41] The historical monarchy, as the legends suggest, was probably overthrown quickly. The constitutional changes which occurred immediately after the revolution were probably not as extensive as the legends suggest. The most important constitutional change probably concerned the chief executive. Before the revolution, a king (rex) would be elected by the senators (patres or "fathers") for a life term. Now, two consuls were elected by the citizens for an annual term. [41] Each consul would check his colleague, and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office. His political powers, when exercised conjointly with his colleague, were no different from those of the old king. [42] In the immediate aftermath of the revolution, the senate and the assemblies were as powerless as they had been under the monarchy.
In the year 494 BC, the city was at war with two neighboring tribes. [43] The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy, and instead seceded (secessio) to the Aventine hill. Secessio plebis ( withdrawal of the commoners, or Secession of the Plebs) was an informal exercise of power by Rome's Plebeian citizens similar to a general The Aventine Hill is one of the seven hills on which ancient Rome was built The plebeians demanded the right to elect their own officials. The patricians agreed, and the plebeians returned to the battlefield. [43] The plebeians would call these new officials "plebeian tribunes". The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles The tribunes would have two assistants, called "plebeian aediles". Aedile ( Aedilis, from aedes aedis "temple" "building" was an office of the Roman Republic. In 367 BC, the tribunes C. Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius passed a law called the lex Satura. [44] This law required the election of at least one plebeian consul each year. In 443 BC, the censorship was created[45], and in 366 BC, the praetorship was created. The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles Also in 366 BC, the curule aedileship was created. [45] Shortly after the founding of the republic, the Comitia Centuriata became the principle legislative assembly. In the Comitia Centuriata, magistrates were elected, and laws were passed. During the fourth century BC, a series of reforms were passed. The result of these reforms was that any law passed by the Concilium Plebis (the Plebeian Tribal Assembly) would have the full force of law. This gave the tribunes (who presided over the Concilium Plebis) a positive character for the first time. Before these laws were passed, tribunes could only interpose the sacrosanctity of their person (intercessio) to veto acts of the senate, assemblies or magistrates.
The Conflict of the Orders (367-287 BC)
After the plebeian aedileship had been created, the patricians created the curule aedileship. [46] At first the curule aedileship was only open to patricians, but the office was eventually opened to plebeians. After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians, the plebeians acquired a de facto right to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship (since only former consuls could hold either office). The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles In 337 BC, the first plebeian praetor was elected. [47] In 342 BC, two significant laws were passed. One of these two laws made it illegal to hold more than one office at any given point in time. The other law required an interval of ten years to pass before any magistrate could seek reelection to any office. [48] During these years, the tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close. [49] The senate realized the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals. [49] To win over the tribunes, the senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power. Ultimately, the tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate. As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families. [50] In time, the tribunate would become a stepping stone to higher office. [50]
Around the middle of the fourth century BC, the Concilium Plebis enacted the plebiscitum Ovinium. [51] During the early republic, the consuls would appoint new senators. The Ovinian law, however, gave this power to the censors. It also required the censor to appoint any newly-elected magistrate to the senate. [51] By this point, plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices. Thus, the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly. [52] Under the new system, magistrates would be awarded with automatic membership in the senate. However, it remained difficult even for a plebeian to enter the senate, if he wasn't from a political family. [52] Ultimately, a new patricio-plebeian aristocracy (nobilitas) emerged. [52] The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office. Now, however, the new nobility existed due to the organization of society. As such, only a revolution could overthrow this new nobility. [53]
By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around wide-spread indebtedness. [54] The plebeians demanded relief, but the senators refused to address their situation. The result was the final plebeian secession. The plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill. Janiculum ( Gianicolo in Italian) is a hill in western Rome. Although the second-tallest hill (after Monte Mario) in the contemporary city of To end the secession, a dictator was appointed. The dictator passed a law (the lex Hortensia), which ended the requirement that an auctoritas patrum ("authority of the patrician senators") be passed before any bill could be considered by either the Concilium Plebis or the Comitia Tributa. [54] The lex Hortensia was not the first law to require that an act of the Concilium Plebis have the full force of law. [55] The Concilium Plebis acquired this power during a modification to the original Valerian law in 449 BC. [55] The ultimate significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians. The result was that the ultimate control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of the democracy, but onto the shoulders of the new patricio-plebeian nobility. [56]
The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians. [53] However, the plight of the average plebeian had not changed. Now, a small number of plebeian families had achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had. As such, these new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been. [53]
The supremacy of the new nobility (287-133 BC)
The great accomplishment of the lex Hortensia was in that it deprived the patricians of their last weapon over the plebeians. Thus, the last great political question of the earlier era had been resolved. As such, no important political changes would occur between 287 BC and 133 BC. [57] This entire era was dominated by foreign wars. When the lex Hortensia was enacted into law, Rome theoretically became a democracy. In reality, however, Rome remained an oligarchy. The critical laws were still enacted by the senate. [58] In effect, democracy was satisfied with the possession of power, but did not care to use it. The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by questions of foreign policy. [59]
The final decades of this era saw a worsening economic situation for many plebeians. [60] The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms. Their farms would then fall into a state of disrepair. This situation was made worse during the Second Punic War, when Hannibal fought the Romans throughout Italy. The Second Punic War (referred to as "The War Against Hannibal" by the Romans lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices. The result was a rapid decline in commodity prices. As these prices fell, many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit. [60] The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers. Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome, and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies. Their economic state usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered the most for them. A new culture of dependency was emerging, which would look to any populist leader for relief. [61]
From the Gracchi to Caesar: (133-49 BC)
The prior era saw great military successes, and great economic failures. The patriotism of the plebeians had kept them from seeking any new reforms. Now, the military situation had stabilized, and fewer soldiers were needed. This, in conjunction with the new slaves that were being imported from abroad, inflamed the unemployment situation further. The flood of unemployed citizens to Rome had made the assemblies quite populist. The ultimate result was an increasingly aggressive democracy.
The Gracchi tribunates
Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. The Gracchi brothers were a pair of tribunes in 2nd century BC who attempted to pass Land reform legislation in Ancient Rome that would redistribute the major patrician He attempted to reenact a clause of the old Licinian law, which had never been enforced. This would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. The aristocrats, who stood to lose an enormous amount of money, were bitterly opposed to this proposal. Tiberius submitted this law to the Concilium Plebis, but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius. Marcus Octavius (flourished 2nd century BC) was a Roman Tribune and a major rival of Tiberius Gracchus. Tiberius used the Concilium Plebis to impeach Octavian. Impeachment is the first of two stages in a specific process for a legislative body to forcibly remove a Government official The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was repugnant to the genius of Roman constitutional theory. [62] If carried to its logical end, this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will, and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority. [62] His law would be enacted, but Tiberius would be murdered when he stood for reelection to the tribunate.
Tiberius' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 BC. Gaius Gracchus' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces. The Gracchi brothers were a pair of tribunes in 2nd century BC who attempted to pass Land reform legislation in Ancient Rome that would redistribute the major patrician [63] In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles Both devices would allow the senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had. [64] Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions, and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional. Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome's Italian allies. By this point, however, the selfish democracy of Rome deserted him. [64] He stood for election to a third term in 121 BC, but was defeated and then murdered. The democracy, however, had finally realized how weak the senate had become. [64]
The populare party and the optimate party
In 118 BC, the king of the north-African city of Numidia died. Numidia (202 BC – 46 BC was an ancient Berber kingdom in present-day Algeria and part of Tunisia ( North Africa) that later alternated The king, Micipsa, was survived by his two natural sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and by his adopted son, Jugurtha. Micipsa (c - c 118 BC) was the eldest legitimate son of Masinissa, king of Numidia. Adherbal, son of Micipsa and grandson of Masinissa, was a king of Numidia between 118 BC and 112 BC Jugurtha (ca 160 &ndash 104 BC was a Libyan King of Numidia, born in Cirta. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons. Jugurtha, however, had both a ruthless personality and an open purse. It was both Jurgurtha's open purse, as well as the venality and incapacity of the Roman senate, that brought disgrace to the Roman name and defeat to the Roman arms. [65] Jugurtha defeated several Roman armies. He also bribed several Roman commanders, and at least two tribunes. Ultimate, a young legate named Gaius Marius was elected consul in 107 BC over the objections of the senate. This article is about the Roman statesman who reorganized the army and was seven times Consul Marius was of a politically unknown family, and brought the war to a quick end. The incompetence of the senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had also been put on full display. [66] The popular party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius.
Several years later, a new power had emerged in Asia. In 88 BC, a Roman army was sent to put down that power, king Mithridates of Pontus. Mithridates or Mithradates (in Greek, Mιθριδάτης or Mιθράδάτης) is the Hellenistic form of an Iranian Theophoric Geography The Black Sea region loosely called Pontus by various scholars has a steep rocky coast with rivers that cascade through the gorges of the coastal ranges The army, however, was defeated. One of Marius' old quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had been elected consul for the year. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c Sulla was then ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates. Marius, a member of the democratic ("populare") party, had a tribune revoke Sulla's command of the war against Mithridates. Populares ("favoring the people" singular popularis) were Aristocratic leaders in the late Roman Republic who tended to use the Sulla, a member of the aristocratic ("optimate") party, brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Optimates (singular optimas, The Best of Men, Italian: ottimati; also known as the priests or boni, the Sulla had become so angry at Marius' tribune that he passed a law that was intended to permanently weaken the tribunate. [67] He then returned to his war against Mithridates. With Sulla gone, the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city. Lucius Cornelius Cinna (d 84 BC was a four-time Consul of the Roman Republic, serving consecutive terms from 87 to 84 BC and a member of the ancient Roman
The populare record was not one to be proud of. [67] They had first elected Marius consul before he was even twenty years old, and then reelected him several times without observing the required ten year interval. They also transgressed democracy by advancing un-elected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation. [68] Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83 BC, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and captured the city again. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, who had observed the violent results of radical populare reforms was naturally conservative. [68] As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the senate. [68] Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senate approval before any bill could be submitted to the Concilium Plebis, and which had also restored the old Servian organization to the Comitia Centuriata. [67] Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office. [69] He then reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for ten years before being reelected to any office. He also established definitively the cursus honorum. The cursus honorum ( Latin: "course of honors" or "honors race" was the sequential order of Public offices held by aspiring [69] The cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office, had never before been codified. Sulla died in 78 BC.
Pompey, Crassus, and the Catilinarian Conspiracy
In 77 BC, the senate sent one of Sulla's former lieutenants, Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, to put down an uprising in Spain. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation By 71 BC, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. Around the same time, another of Sulla's former lieutenants, Marcus Licinius Crassus, had just put down a slave revolt in Italy. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca Upon their return, Pompey and Crassus found the populare party fiercely attacking Sulla's constitution. [70] They attempted to forge an agreement with the populare party. If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70 BC, they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla's constitution. [71] The two were soon elected, and quickly dismantled most of Sulla's constitution. [71]
Around 66 BC, a movement to use constitutional, or at least peaceful, means to address the plight of various classes began. [72] After several failures, the movement's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals. The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catiline. Lucius Sergius Catilina (108 BC–62 BC known in English as Catiline, was a Roman Politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the The movement was based in the town of Faesulae, which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation. [73] The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome,[74] and be aided by an uprising within the city. After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators, Catiline would be free to enact his reforms. The conspiracy was set in motion in 63 BC. The consul, Marcus Tullius Cicero, intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman The result of this was that the top conspirators in Rome were executed upon the authorization of the senate, and the planned uprising was disrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which cut Catiline's forces to pieces.
The most important result of the Catilinarian conspiracy was that the populare party became discredited. [74] The prior 70 years had witnessed a gradual erosion in senatorial powers. The violent nature of the conspiracy, in conjunction with the senate's skill in disrupting it, did a great deal to repair the senate's image. [74]
The First Triumvirate
In 62 BC, Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The senate, elated by its successes against Catiline,[75], refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made. Pompey, in effect, became powerless. Thus, when Julius Caesar returned from his governorship in Spain in 61 BC, he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey. [75] Caesar and Pompey, along with Crassus, established a private agreement, known as the First Triumvirate. See also the First Triumvirate (Argentina which came to power in 1811 Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BC, and then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus would be promised a future consulship. [75]
Caesar became consul in 59 BC. His colleague, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was an extreme aristocrat. Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus (d 48 BC was a politician of the late Roman Republic. [75] Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies. Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws, and so Caesar used violent means to ensure the passage of these laws. [75] Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. Caesar did not wish to leave the senate in the hands of such unskillful politicians as Pompey and Crassus before he had crushed the spirit of the senate and deprived it of its two most dangerous leaders, Cato and Cicero. Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC&ndash46 BC known as Cato the Younger ( Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather ( Cato the Elder [76] Therefore, he sent Cato on a mission to Cyprus, which was likely to ruin his reputation. [76] He then facilitated the election of the former patrician Clodius to the tribunate for 58 BC. Clodius is the Roman Nomen Claudius altered to a spelling that would have sounded Plebeian to Roman ears Clodius was a dangerous demagogue, and a bitter opponent of Cicero. [76]
The end of the First Triumvirate
Pompey and Crassus proved themselves to be as incompetent as Caesar had hoped. [76] Clodius terrorized the city with his armed gangs. Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55 BC, and Caesar's term as governor was extended for five years. Caesar's daughter, and Pompey's wife, Julia, would then die in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining bound between Pompey and Caesar.
Beginning in the summer of 54 BC, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome. [77] This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC, when Clodius was murdered in a gang war. On January 1 of 49 BC, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The ultimatum was rejected, and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the republic. [78] On January 7 of 49 BC, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers. Pompey's army, however, was composed largely of untested conscripts. Caesar then crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army, and marched towards Rome. Rubicon ( Rubicō, Italian: Rubicone) is a 29 km long River in northern Italy. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. Caesar then entered the city unopposed.
The period of transition (49-29 BC)
The era that began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, and ended when Octavian returned to Rome after Actium in 29 BC, can be divided into two distinct units. The dividing line between these two units is the assassination of Caesar in March of 44 BC. However, from a constitutional standpoint, there was no clear dividing line between these two periods. [79] The constitutional evolution of the prior century accelerated through this era at a rapid pace. By 29 BC, Rome had completed its transition from being a city-state with a network of dependencies, to being the capital of a world empire. [79]
With Pompey defeated, and order restored, Caesar wanted to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed. [80] The powers which he would give himself would ultimately be used by his imperial successors. [80] He would assume these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions.
Caesar would hold both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternate between the consulship and the proconsulship. [80] In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers. [81] This made his person sacrosanct. It also allowed him to veto the senate, and to dominate the Concilium Plebis. In 46 BC, Caesar created and held the title of praefectura morum. This title was new only in name. In effect, the functions of this office were identical to those of the censorship. [81] Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks that the ordinary censors were subject to. He used this power to fill the senate with his own partisans. Caesar then raised the membership of the senate to 900. [82] This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made it increasingly subservient to him. [83] While the assemblies continued to meet, he submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election, and all bills to the assemblies for enactment. Thus, the assemblies became powerless, and were thus unable to oppose him. [83]
Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC, and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC. [82] This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people, to being representatives of the dictator. [82]
Caesar's assassination and the Second Triumvirate
Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC. The motives of the conspirators were both personal, as well as political. [84] Most of the conspirators were senators, and many of them were angry about the fact that he had deprived the senate of much of its power and prestige. [84] The grievances that they held against him were vague. [84] As such, their plan against him was vague. The fact that their motives were vague, and that they had no idea of what to do after his assassination, both were plainly obvious by the subsequent course of events. [84]
After his assassination, Mark Antony would form an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, Gaius Octavian. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Along with Marcus Lepidus, they would form an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate. See also the Second Triumvirate (Argentina which held power in 1812 They would hold powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar had been assassinated. The conspirators would be defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. The Battle of Philippi was the final battle in the Wars of the Second Triumvirate between the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian (the Second Triumvirate Eventually, however, Antony and Octavian would fight against each other in one last battle. Antony would be defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony In 30 BC, Antony would commit suicide. In 29 BC, Octavian would return to Rome, as the unchallenged master of the state.
Culture of the Roman Republic
Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome, and its famed seven hills. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The Seven Hills of Rome east of the river Tiber form the geographical heart of Rome, within the walls of the ancient city The city also had several theaters, gymnasiums, and many taverns, baths and brothels. The Roman theatre is a theatre building built by the Romans for watching theatrical performances. The gymnasium in Ancient Greece functioned as a training facility for competitors in public Games It was also a place for socializing and engaging in intellectual A tavern or pot-house is loosely a place of Business where people gather to drink Alcoholic beverages and more than likely also be served Food This page is on buildings used for Roman bathing For the activity in general see Ancient Roman bathing. For the 2008 film of this name see The Brothel. For the television series of this name see Cathouse The Series. Throughout the territory under Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, to the residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word "palace" is derived. Within a urban area there is a tendency for land uses to Aggregate. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation House generally refers to a Shelter or Building that is a Dwelling or place for Habitation by Human beings. A Roman villa is a Villa that was built or lived in during the Roman republic and the Roman Empire. House generally refers to a Shelter or Building that is a Dwelling or place for Habitation by Human beings. The Palatine Hill ( Latin: Collis Palatium or Mons Palatinus) is the centermost of the Seven Hills of Rome The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into insulae (apartment blocks).
The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic at night. The chariot is the earliest and simplest type of Carriage, used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples Historical estimates indicate that around 20 percent of the population under Roman jurisdiction lived in innumerable urban centers, a very high rate of urbanization by preindustrial standards. The most urbanized part of the republic was Italy. Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples and same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome. This page refers to the main forum in the center of Rome See Imperial forums or Other forums in Rome (below for other forums in Rome and The large urban population required an endless supply of food which was a complex logistical task. Logistics is the management of the flow of Goods, Information and other resources including Energy and people between the point of origin and the point Aqueducts were built to bring water to urban centers and wine and oil were imported from abroad. The ancient Romans constructed numerous aqueducts ( Latin aquaeductūs, sing Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Ancient Rome played a pivotal role in the history of Wine. The earliest influences of Viticulture on the Italian peninsula Cooking oil is purified Fat of Plant or Animal origin which is liquid at room temperature
There was a very large amount of commerce between the provinces since its transportation technology was very efficient. The average costs of transport and the technology were comparable with 18th century Europe. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. The plight of rural slaves was generally worse than their counterparts working in urban aristocratic households. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations The household is the basic unit of analysis in many Social, Microeconomic and Government models To stimulate a higher labor productivity most landlords freed a large numbers of slaves and many received wages. Some
Starting in the middle of the second century BC, in every aspect of the private culture of the upper classes, Greek culture was increasingly in ascendancy, in spite of tirades against the "softening" effects of Hellenized culture. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls); chefs, decorators, secretaries, doctors, and hairdressers—all came from the Greek East. Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas, or were imitated in Roman sculpture yards by Greek slaves. A Roman villa is a Villa that was built or lived in during the Roman republic and the Roman Empire. The Roman cuisine preserved in the cookery books ascribed to Apicius is essentially Greek. Roman writers disdained Latin for a cultured Greek style. Only in law and governance was the Italic nature of Rome's accretive culture supreme.
Social history and structure
Many aspects of Roman culture were taken from the ancient Greeks. Social class in Ancient Rome played a major role in the lives of Romans The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca In architecture and sculpture, the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, and the dome it made possible. An arch is a structure that spans a space while supporting weight (e A dome is a common structural element of Architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a Sphere. While much Roman sculpture was derivative of Greek models, and all deeply indebted to Greek techniques, the Roman character made portraiture the strongest and most original aspect of Roman sculpture. A portrait is a painting, photograph, Sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person in which the face and its expression is predominant Rome has also had a tremendous impact on Western cultures following it. Its significance is perhaps best reflected in its endurance and influence, as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of works of Virgil and Ovid. Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or Publius Ovidius Naso ( March 20, 43 BC – 17 AD was a Roman poet known to the English -speaking world as Ovid who wrote on many topics including Latin, the Rome's primary language, remains used in religion, science, and law. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society
The center of the early social structure, dating from the time of the agricultural tribal city state, was the family, which was not only marked by blood relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas. The Pater familias was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife, his children, the wives of his sons, the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen, disposing of them and of their goods at will, even putting them to death. " Pater Familias " or " Pater Families " is the third Season finale of Ghost Whisperer, it originally aired on May Roman law recognized only patrician families as legal entities.
Slavery and slaves were part of the social order. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another There were slave markets where they could be bought and sold. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history Many slaves were freed by the masters for fine services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation although, outrageous cruelty continued. Mutilation or maiming is an act or physical injury that degrades the appearance or function of the (human body usually without causing death Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries Apart from these families and the slaves, there were Plebeians that did not exist from a legal perspective. Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. They had no legal capacity and were not able to make contracts.
Life in the cities revolved around the Forum, the central business district, where most of the Romans would go for marketing shopping, trading banking, and for participating in festivities and ceremonies. The Forum was the public space in the middle of a Roman city It had a great social importance and was often the scene of diverse activities including political discussions A central business district ( CBD) is the commercial and often geographic heart of a city In popular usage "marketing" is the promotion of products especially Advertising and Branding However in professional usage the term has a wider meaning of Shopping is the examining of Goods or services from Retailers with intent to purchase at that time Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. A banker or bank is a Financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money The Forum was also a place where orators would express themselves to mould public opinion, and elicit support for any particular issue of interest to him or others. That the manufacture of consent is capable of great refinements no one I think denies Before sunrise, children would go to schools or tutoring them at home would commence. Sunrise is the instant at which the upper edge of the Sun appears above the Horizon in the East. Life in the countryside was slow but lively, with numerous local festivals and social events. A festival is an event usually and ordinarily staged by a local community which centers on some unique aspect of that community Farms were run by the farm managers, but estate owners would sometimes take a retreat to the countryside for rest, enjoying the splendor of the nature and the sunshine, including activities like fishing, hunting, and riding. The average farm owners were better off, spending evenings in economic and social interactions at the village markets. Sao Paulo Stock Exchangejpg|thumb| Virtual market arena where buyer and seller are not present and trade via intemediates and electronical information The day ended with a meal, generally left over from the noon time preparations.
Clothing and dining
The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. Roman cuisine changed over the long duration (over a thousand years of their ancient civilization. This article is about the aviation term for the Roman garment see Toga. The tunic worn by plebeians (common people) like shepherds and slaves was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. A tunic is any of several types of Clothing for the body with or without Sleeves and of various lengths reaching from the hips to the ankles The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and A magistrate would wear the tunic augusticlavi; senators wore a tunic with broad strips, called tunica laticlavi. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. The many types of togas were also named. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the toga praetexta, which was a toga with a crimson or purple border. The toga virilis, (or toga pura) or mans toga was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The toga pulla was worn when in mourning.
Even footwear indicated a person’s social status. Footwear consists of Garments worn on the feet, for protection against the environment and Adornment. Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Sandals are an open type of Footwear, consisting of a sole held to the wearer's foot by straps or thongs passing over the instep and around the ankle Women wore closed shoes of colors like white, yellow or green. The bulla was a locket-like amulet worn by children. Bulla, an Amulet and worn like a locket was given to children at the time of birth in Ancient Rome. A locket is a Pendant that opens to reveal a space used for storing a Photograph or other small item such as a curl of hair When about to marry, the woman would donate her bulla to the household gods, along with her toys to signify maturity and womanhood. Men typically wore a toga, and women a stola. This article is about the aviation term for the Roman garment see Toga. The stola was the traditional garment of Roman women corresponding to the Toga that was worn by men The woman's stola looked different than a toga, and was usually bright colored. A fibula (or brooch) would be used as ornamentation or to hold the stola in place. A palla, or shawl also accessorized a Roman woman.
Romans had very simple food habits. Staple food was simple, generally consumed at around 11 o’clock, and consisted of bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. Bread is a Staple food prepared by Baking a Dough of Flour and Water. Salad is a mixture of cold foods usually including vegetables and/or fruits often with a dressing occasionally nuts or Croutons, and sometimes with the addition of The Olive ( Olea europaea) is a Species of small Tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the coastal areas of the eastern Cheese is a Food made from Milk, usually the milk of cows, Buffalo, Goats or sheep, by coagulation. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Nut is a general term for the large dry oily Seeds or Fruit of some Plants. Breakfast was called ientaculum, lunch was prandium, and dinner was called cena. Appetizers were called gustatio, and desert was called secunda mensa Usually, a nap or rest followed this. The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. A table is a form of Furniture composed of a surface supported by a base usually four legs Later on, a separate dining room with dining couches was designed, called a triclinium. Fingers were used to take foods which was prepared to be handled with fingers beforehand and spoons were used for soups. A spoon is a Utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl at the end of a handle used primarily for serving and eating Liquid, or semi-liquid foods and solid foods
Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed, as well. Mulsum was honeyed wine, mustum was grape juice, mulsa was honeyed water. Even the notoriously strict Cato the Elder recommended distributing a daily ration of wine among the slaves forced to work on farms. Drinking nonwatered wine (called mulsum) or on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were known to the Romans. Alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was a favorite and damaging way to discredit political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics include Mark Antony, and Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor). Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor ( Minor Latin for ‘the younger’) or Cicero the Younger (born 65 BC) was the second child and only son Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker. Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC&ndash46 BC known as Cato the Younger ( Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather ( Cato the Elder
Education and language
Before regular schooling systems evolved in ancient Rome, home was the learning center, where children were taught Roman law, customs, and physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army. The Roman school is the education system of the Ancient Rome. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A school (from Greek σχολεῖον - scholeion) is an Institution designed to allow and encourage Students (or "pupils" Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting A convention is a set of agreed, stipulated or generally accepted Standards norms social norms or criteria, often taking the form of Recruitment refers to the process of sourcing screening and selecting people for a job at an Organization or firm or for a vacancy in a volunteer-based organization An army (from Latin Armata "act of arming" via Old French armée) in the broadest sense is the land-based Armed forces Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving ,and sewing. Spinning is an ancient textile art in which plant, animal or synthetic Fibers are twisted together to form Yarn (or thread This article describes textile weaving For other senses of this word see Weaving (disambiguation. Sewing or stitching is the fastening of Cloth, Leather, Furs Bark, or other flexible materials using needle and
Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Events By place Seleucid Empire Antiochus III's forces continue their invasion of Coele Syria and Palestine. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. Counting is the mathematical action of repeatedly adding (or subtracting one usually to find out how many objects there are or to set aside a desired number of objects (starting By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured deliberate manner intended to inform influence or entertain the listeners Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt and good orators commanded respect; to become an effective orator was one of the objectives of education and learning. Oratory is the art of (public speaking In ancient Greece and Rome, oratory was studied as a component of Rhetoric (that is composition and delivery Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans Poor children could not afford education. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education.
The native language of the Romans was Latin. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. An inflectional and synthetic language, Latin relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. In Grammar, inflection or inflexion is the way language handles grammatical relations and relational categories such as tense, mood, voice A synthetic language, in Linguistic typology, is a Language with a high Morpheme -per- word ratio The grammar of Latin, like that of other ancient Indo-European languages, is highly inflected, which allows for a large degree of flexibility when choosing word order An affix is a Morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word In Linguistics, a stem (sometimes also theme) is the part of a word that is common to all its inflected variants Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, is based on the Old Italic alphabet, which is in turn derived from the Greek alphabet. Old Italic refers to several now extinct Alphabet systems used on the Italian Peninsula in ancient times for various Indo-European (predominantly Italic The Greek alphabet (Ελληνικό αλφάβητο is a set of twenty-four letters that has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language remains an enduring legacy of the culture of Ancient Rome. Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. A literary language is a register of a Language that is used in Literary Writing. The 1st century BC started the first day of 100 BC and ended the last day of 1 BC. Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly
Rome's expansion spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages. A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος dialektos) is a variety of a Language that is characteristic of a particular group of The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all Many of these languages, including French, Italian, and Spanish, flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. Although English is Germanic rather than Romanic in origin, English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE Language family.
The arts
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language remains an enduring legacy of the culture of Ancient Rome. Roman art includes the visual arts produced in Ancient Rome, and in the territories of the Roman empire. The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture for their own purposes which were so different from Greek buildings as to create a new Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or His Aeneid was produced at the request of Maecenas and tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. For the group of nine Ancient Egyptian deities see Ennead. The Aeneid (əˈniːɪd in Caius Cilnius Maecenas (70 &ndash 8 BC was a confidant and political advisor to Octavian (who was to become the first Emperor of Rome as Caesar Augustus) as well Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. Titus Lucretius Carus (ca 99 BC- ca 55 BC was a Roman Poet and Philosopher. On the Nature of Things (Latin De rerum natura) is a first century BC Poem by the Roman Poet and Philosopher Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Some of his science seems remarkably modern, but other ideas, especially his theory of light, are no longer accepted. Catullus and the associated group of neoteric poets produced poetry following the Alexandrian model, which experimented with poetic forms challenging tradition. For persons with a Cognomen "Catulus" see Lutatius Gaius Valerius Catullus (ca Catullus was also the first Roman poet to produce love poetry, seemingly autobiographical, which depicts an affair with a woman called Lesbia.
The genre of satire was traditionally regarded as a Roman innovation, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal and Persius. The Persius, in full Aulus Persius Flaccus ( Volterra, 34-62 was a Roman Poet and Satirist of Etruscan origin Some of the most popular plays of the early Republic were comedies, especially those of Terence, a freed Roman slave captured during the First Punic War. Publius Terentius Afer (195/185&ndash159 BC better known as Terence, was a Playwright of the Roman Republic. The First Punic War ( 264 to 241 BC) was the first of three major wars fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic. A great deal of the literary work produced by Roman authors in the early Republic was political or satirical in nature. The rhetorical works of Cicero, in particular, were popular. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman In addition, Cicero's personal letters are considered to be one of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity.
Most early Roman painting styles show Etruscan influences, particularly in the practice of political painting. Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. An early Roman style of note was "Incrustation", in which the interior walls of houses were painted to resemble colored marble. Another style consisted of painting interiors as open landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals, and buildings. Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories.
Music was a major part of everyday life. Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and maneouvres. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use would not be familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier.
In initial stages, the ancient Roman architecture reflected elements of architectural styles of the Etruscans and the Greeks. Over a period of time, the style was modified in tune with their urban requirements, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built In Architecture, Construction, Engineering and real estate development the word building may refer to one of the following Any man-made In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt The Roman concrete has remained a riddle, and even after more than 2000 years some of ancient Roman structures still stand magnificently. Concrete is a construction material composed of Cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as Fly ash and Slag The architectural style of the capital city of ancient Rome was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained. Palaces, private dwellings and villas, were elaborately designed and town planning was comprehensive with provisions for different activities by the urban resident population, and for countless migratory population of travelers, traders and visitors passing through their cities. A palace is a grand residence especially the home of a Head of state or some other high-ranking Public figure. "Habitation" redirects here For Habitation at Port-Royal see Habitation at Port-Royal. A villa was originally an Upper-class Country house, though since its origins in Roman times the idea and function of a villa has evolved considerably Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a 1st century BC Roman architect’s treatise “De architectura”, with various sections, dealing with urban planning, building materials, temple construction, public and private buildings, and hydraulics, remained a classic text until the Renaissance. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum The 1st century BC started the first day of 100 BC and ended the last day of 1 BC. De architectura ( Latin: "On architecture" is a treatise on Architecture written by the Roman Architect Vitruvius For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere
Sports and entertainment
The ancient city of Rome had a place called Campus, a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers, which was located near the Tiber river. The Tiber ( Latin Tiberis, Italian Tevere) is the third-longest River in Italy, rising in the Apennine mountains Later, the Campus became Rome’s track and field playground, which even Julius Caesar and Augustus were said to have frequented. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Imitating the Campus in Rome, similar grounds were developed in several other urban centers and military settlements. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Jumping or leaping is an ability that most Humans and many Animals share to some degree Wrestling is the act of physical engagement between two people in which each wrestler strives to get an advantage over or control of the opponent Boxing (sometimes also known as English boxing or pugilism) is a Combat sport in which two participants generally of similar weight, Types of racing Unassisted human racing Using only the Human body 's own Muscles Running: Cross country Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. For the Roman class see Equestrian (Roman Equestrianism refers to the skill of riding or driving Horses This broad description Swimming is the movement by humans or animals through Water, usually without artificial assistance In the countryside, pastime also included fishing and hunting. A hobby is a spare-time Recreational pursuit Etymology A Hobby horse is a wooden or Wickerwork toy made to be For the computer security term see Phishing. Fishing is the activity of catching Fish. Hunting is the practice of pursuing Animals for Food, Recreation, or Trade. Females did not participate in these activities. Ball playing was a popular sport and ancient Romans had several ball games, which included Handball, field hockey, catch, and some form of Soccer. A ball game is a Game played with a Ball. Someone who plays a ball game is known as a ballplayer.
Board games played in ancient Rome included Dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon. A board game is a Game in which counters or pieces that are placed on removed from or moved across a "board" (a premarked surface usually specific to that game For other uses see either Die or Dice (disambiguation. Dice (the Plural of Die, from Old French The Venus Throw was the highest roll in the Ancient Roman gambling game of tali, or Knucklebones. Ludus latrunculorum, latrunculi, or simply latrones (“the game of brigands” from latrunculus, Diminutive of latro, Mercenary Draughts drɑːfts ( British English) or checkers ( American English) is a group of Abstract strategy Board games between two players Ludus duodecim scriptorum, or XII scripta, was a tables game popular during the time of the Roman Empire. Tabula was a board game in the tables family and is generally thought to be the direct ancestor of modern Backgammon. There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,
Religion
Roman religious beliefs date back to the founding of Rome, around 800 BC, but the Roman religion commonly associated with the republic did not start forming until around 500 BC when Romans came in contact with Greek culture and adopted many of the Greek’s religious beliefs including the representation of Greek gods in the form of humans. Ancient Roman religion encompasses the collection of Beliefs and Rituals practised in Ancient Rome in the form of Cult practices Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Private and personal worship was an important aspect of religious practices. In a sense, each household was a temple to the gods. The household is the basic unit of analysis in many Social, Microeconomic and Government models A temple (from the Latin word Templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities such as prayer and sacrifice or analogous rites Roman mythology, or more appropriately Latin mythology, refers to the mythological beliefs of the Italic people inhabiting the region of Latium and its Each household had an altar (lararium), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform rites, and interact with the household gods. Lares Familiares ("Family Guardians" in Latin) were Mythological Spirits of ancient Rome. A rite is an established ceremonious usually Religious act or Process art. Many of the gods that Romans worshiped came from the Proto-Indo-European pantheon, others were based on Greek gods. The existence of similarities among the deities and religious practices of the Indo-European (IE peoples allows glimpses of a common Proto-Indo-European A listing of Greek mythological beings Many of the gods and goddesses had Roman and Etruscan equivalents. The three central deities were Jupiter (who was the god of rain, thunder, and lightning), Mars (the god of war), and Quirinus (who watched over the senate house). In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. Mars was the Roman Warrior god, the son of Juno and Jupiter, husband of Bellona, and the lover of Venus. In Roman mythology, Quirinus was an early god of the Roman state
With its cultural influence spreading over most of the Mediterranean, Romans began accepting foreign gods into their own culture, as well as other philosophical traditions such as Cynicism and Stoicism. The Cynics (Κυνικοί Cynici were an influential group of Philosophers from the ancient school of Cynicism Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC There were even attempts by many Roman and Greek philosophers to accept other gods that countered their religion, such as the Jewish deity Yahweh by stating that the Jews merely worshiped Jupiter but just under a different name and therefore there should be an acceptance of the Jewish culture. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ For information about Yahweh see God in Abrahamic religions, which provides useful links PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder.
Structural history of the Roman Republican military
The structural history of the Roman military describes the major chronological transformations in the organization and constitution of ancient Rome's armed forces, "the most effective and long-lived military institution known to history". The structural history of the Roman military describes the major chronological transformations in the organization and constitution of Ancient Rome 's armed forces, Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC [85] At the highest level of structure, Rome's forces were split into the Roman army and the Roman navy, although these two branches were less distinct than in a modern national defence force. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military The Roman Navy ( Latin: Classis, lit "fleet" comprised the naval forces of the Roman state Within the top-level branches of army and navy, structural changes occurred both as a result of positive military reform and through organic structural evolution.
Manipular legion (509–107 BC)
During this period, an army formation of around 5,000 men was known as a legion (Latin: legio). However, in contrast to later legionary formations of exclusively heavy infantry, the legions of the early and middle Republic consisted of both light and heavy infantry. The manipular army was based upon social class, age and military experience. The manipular army got its name from the manner in which its heavy infantry was deployed. Maniples were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class. The maniples were typically deployed into three discreet lines based on the three heavy infantry types of hastati, principes and triarii. Hastati (Singular Hastatus) were a class of infantry in the armies of the early Roman Republic who originally fought as Spearmen, and later as Swordsmen Principes (Singular Princeps) were Spearmen, and later Swordsmen, in the armies of the early Roman Republic. Triarii (Singular Triarius) were Spearmen in the armies of the early Roman Republic.
The first type, the hastati, typically formed the first rank in battle formation. Each hastati maniple was formed 40 men across by 3 men deep. They were leather-armoured infantry soldiers who wore a brass cuirass and brass helmet adorned with 3 feathers approximately 30 cm (12 in) in height and carried an iron-clad wooden shield, 120 cm (4 ft) tall and a convex rectangle in shape. Cuirass ( French cuirasse, Latin coriaceus, made of leather from corium, the original breastplate being of Leather) the A centimetre ( American spelling: centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one hundredth Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. They were armed with a sword known as a gladius and two throwing spears known as pila: one the heavy pilum of popular imagination and one a slender javelin. Gladius is a Latin word for Sword. Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those used by the Greeks The pilum (plural pila) was a heavy javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times [86] The second type, the principes, typically formed the second rank of soldiers back from the front of a battle line. They were heavy infantry soldiers armed and armoured as per the hastati, except that they wore a lighter coat of mail rather than a solid cuirass. [86] Each principes maniple was formed 12 men across by 10 men deep. The triarii, who typically formed the third rank when the army was arrayed for battle, were the last remnant of hoplite-style troops in the Roman army. They were armed and armoured as per the principes, with the exception that they carried a pike rather than two pila. A pike is a Pole weapon, a very long thrusting Spear used two-handed and used extensively by Infantry both for attacks on enemy foot soldiers and as [86] A triarii maniple was divided into two formations each 6 men across by 10 men deep.
A manipular legion typically contained 1200 hastati, 1200 principes and 600 triarii. [87] The three classes of unit may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society, but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class. Young, unproven men would serve as hastati, older men with some military experience as principes, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience as triarii.
The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion. The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. There was an additional class of troops (Latin: accensi) who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the triarii. Accensi (Singular Triarius) were light infantry in the armies of the early Roman Republic. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples. The light infantry of 1200 velites consisted of unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and buckler, as well as several light javelins, each with a wooden shaft the diameter of a finger. A buckler (French bouclier 'shield' from old French bocle boucle 'boss' is a small Shield, 15 to 45 cm in diameter gripped in the fist The Roman levy of 403 BC was the first to be requested to campaign for longer than a single season, and from this point on such a practice became gradually more common, if still not typical.
A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after the Second Samnite War, but it was massively upgraded during this period. The First, Second, and Third Samnite wars, between the early Roman Republic and the tribes of Samnium, extended over half a century involving After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian pattern. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle. The navy thereafter declined in size.
The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient [88] In 217 BC, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. During the second century BC, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population,[89] partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, since many of the soldiers who made up its lower classes were now impoverished proletarii in all but name, and were too poor to afford their own equipment. [89]
The distinction between the heavy infantry types of hastati, principes and triarii began to blur, perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard-issue equipment. In addition, the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon its allies (socii) for the provision of allied troops. [90] Eventually, the Romans were forced to begin hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions. [91]
The legion after the reforms of Gaius Marius (107 BC – 27 BC)
In a process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military. The Marian reforms of 107 BC were a group of military reforms initiated by Gaius Marius, a statesman and general of the Roman republic. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire This article is about the Roman statesman who reorganized the army and was seven times Consul [92] In 107 BC, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service. [93] The distinction between hastati, principes and triarii, which had already become blurred, was officially removed, and the legionary infantry of popular imagination was created. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Legionary infantry formed a homogeneous force of heavy infantry. Heavy infantry refers to heavily armed and armoured ground troops as opposed to medium or Light infantry, in which the warriors are relatively lightly-armoured These legionaries were drawn from citizen stock; by this time, Roman or Latin citizenship had been regionally expanded over much of ancient Italy and Cisalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Cisalpina). Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later [94] Lighter citizen infantry were replaced by non-citizen auxilia that could consist of foreign mercenaries. Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = "supports" formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC&ndash284 AD A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by [95] As a tactical necessity, legions were almost always accompanied by an equal or greater number of lighter auxiliary troops,[96] which were drawn from the non-citizens of the Empire's territories.
After Marius, the legions were drawn largely from volunteer citizens rather than citizens conscripted for duty. [97] Volunteers came forward and were accepted not from citizens of the city of Rome itself but from the surrounding countryside and smaller towns falling under Roman control. [98] The legions of the late Republic remained predominantly Roman in origin. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy. [98]
Unlike earlier in the Republic, legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land. η[›] Instead, they received standard pay, and were employed by the state on a fixed-term basis. As a consequence, military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society, to whom a salaried pay was attractive. [99] A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat "acquired a stronger and more elevated position"[99] within the state.
The legions of the late Republic were, structurally, almost entirely heavy infantry. The legion's main sub-unit was called a cohort and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen. A cohort (from the Latin cohors, plural cohortes) is a fairly large military unit generally consisting of one type of soldier [100] The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier maniple sub-unit, and was divided into six centuriae of 80 men each. Centuria ( Latin plural centuriae) is a Latin substantive from the stem centum (a hundred denoting units consisting of (originally only approximately [100] Each centuria was separated further into 10 "tent groups" (Latin: contubernia) of 8 men each. The contubernium was the smallest organized unit of Soldiers in the Roman Army and was comprised of eight legionaries comparable to the modern Squad, known Legions additionally consisted of a small body, typically 120 men, of Roman legionary cavalry. The equites were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry. [101] Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men, who would operate devices such as ballistae. The ballista ( Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα - ballistra, from - βάλλω ballō, "to throw" plural ballistae [100] Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) auxiliae troops. [102] Auxiliae could be armed with bows, slings, throwing spears, long swords, or thrusting spears.
However, "the most obvious deficiency" of the Roman army remained its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry;[103] even auxiliary troops were predominantly infantry. As Rome's borders expanded and its adversaries changed from largely infantry-based to largely cavalry-based troops, the infantry-based Roman army began to find itself at a tactical disadvantage, particularly in the East.
After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean, the Roman navy underwent short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Under Caesar, an invasion fleet was assembled in the English Channel to allow the invasion of Britannia; under Pompey, a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of Cilician pirates. Britannia was the term originally used by the Romans to refer first to the British Isles, and later to the island of Great Britain. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.
By the time of Julius Caesar in 54 BC, regular legionary units were supplemented by exploratores, a body of scouts, and speculatores, spies who infiltrated enemy camps. Speculatores and Exploratores were the scouts and Reconnaissance element of the Roman army. Speculatores and Exploratores were the scouts and Reconnaissance element of the Roman army. [104]
Campaign history of the Roman Republican military
This article is part of the series on: Military of ancient Rome (portal) |
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| Structural history | |||
| Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals) |
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| Roman navy (fleets, admirals) | |||
| Campaign history | |||
| Lists of wars and battles | |||
| Decorations and punishments | |||
| Technological history | |||
| Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads) |
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| Personal equipment | |||
| Political history | |||
| Strategy and tactics | |||
| Infantry tactics | |||
| Frontiers and fortifications (limes, Hadrian's Wall) |
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The core of the campaign history of the Roman Republican military is the account of the Roman military's land battles. From its origin as a city-state in Italy in 9th century BC the rise as an empire covering much of Eurasia and North Commonwealth English! -->The military of ancient Rome relates to the combined military forces of Ancient Rome from the founding of the city The structural history of the Roman military describes the major chronological transformations in the organization and constitution of Ancient Rome 's armed forces, The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military This is a list of both unit types and ranks of the Roman army from the Roman Republic to the fall of This is a list of Roman legions, including key facts about each legion primarily focusing on Principate (early Empire 30BC - 284AD legions for which there exists Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = "supports" formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC&ndash284 AD A Manius Acilius Glabrio -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 191 BC -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 91 -- Titus The Roman Navy ( Latin: Classis, lit "fleet" comprised the naval forces of the Roman state The Roman Navy ( Latin: Classis, lit "fleet" comprised the naval forces of the Roman state From its origin as a city-state in Italy in 9th century BC the rise as an empire covering much of Eurasia and North The following is a List of Roman wars fought by the ancient Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, organized by date The following is a list of Roman Battles fought by the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire, and sometimes the Byzantine Empire As with most other military forces the Roman military adopted a "carrot and stick" approach to military with an extensive list of decorations for military gallantry The technology history of the Roman military covers the development of and application of technologies for use in the armies and navies of Rome from the Roman Republic to the fall The military engineering of Ancient Rome 's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries The Latin word castra, with its singular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to mean buildings or plots of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military Roman Siege engines were for the most part adapted from Hellenistic Siege Technology. List of ancient Roman Triumphal arches (By modern country France Carpentras Triumphal Arch The Roman Roads were essential for the growth of the Roman Empire, by enabling the Romans to move armies and trade goods and to communicate news Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns and used in an established way Rome's military was always tightly keyed to its political system The strategy of the Roman Military encompasses its Grand strategy (the arrangements made by the state to implement its political goals through a selection of military goals Roman infantry tactics refers to the theoretical and historical deployment formation and maneuvers of the Roman infantry from the start of the Roman Republic to the fall Roman military borders and fortifications were part of a Grand strategy of territorial defense in the Roman Empire. A limes (or the Limes Romanus) was a Border defense or delimiting system of Ancient Rome. Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman Commonwealth English! -->The military of ancient Rome relates to the combined military forces of Ancient Rome from the founding of the city Despite the encompassing of lands around the periphery of the Mediterranean sea, naval battles were typically less significant than land battles to the military history of Rome.
As with most ancient civilisations, Rome's military served the triple purposes of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order. From the outset, Rome's military typified this pattern and the majority of Rome's campaigns were characterised by one of two types. The first is the territorial expansionist campaign, normally begun as a counter-offensive,[105] in which each victory brought subjugation of large areas of territory. In general expansionism consists of expansionist policies While some have linked the term to promoting Economic growth (in contrast to no growth / Sustainable policies The second is the civil war of which examples plagued the Roman Republic right from its foundation to its eventual demise. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state
Roman armies were not invincible, despite their formidable reputation and host of victories over the centuries the Romans "produced their share of incompetents"[106] who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of even the greatest of Rome's enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal,[107] to win the battle but lose the war. Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash The history of Rome's campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.
Early Roman Republic (458 BC - 274 BC)
Early Italian campaigns (458-396 BC)
The first non-apocryphal Roman wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region. [108] Initially, Rome's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages[109] on a similar tribal system to Rome itself, or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. Latin is the name of various peoples or ethnicities related to the Latium region in the Italian Peninsula, to the Latin language, or to its descendants [110] One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities that were either under Etruscan control or else Latin towns that had cast off their Etruscan rulers, as had Rome. [110] Rome defeated the Lavinii and Tusculi in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC,[111][112][109] the Sabines in an Unknown Battle in 449 BC,[111] the Aequi in the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC and the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC[113]), the Volsci[114] in the Battle of Corbione[115] in 446 BC and the Capture of Antium in 377 BC[116]), the Aurunci in the Battle of Aricia,[117] and the Veientes in the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC,[118][119] the Capture of Fidenae in 435 BC[120][119] and the Siege of Veii in 396 BC. Lavinium was a Latin port city of Latium 30 km south of Rome already fortified in the seventh century BCE and a flourishing in the sixth For other uses of Tusculum see Tusculum (disambiguation. Tusculum is the classical Roman name of a major ancient Alban Hills city in The Battle of Lake Regillus was a legendary early Roman victory won over either the Etruscans or the Latin League. The Sabines ( Latin Sabini, Singular Sabinus) were an Italic tribe that lived in ancient Italy, inhabiting The Aequi were an ancient people of north-east Latium, in central Italy, whose name occurs constantly in Livy 's first decade as hostile to Rome The Battle of Mons Algidus was fought in 458 BC (or 457 BC) between the Roman Republic and the Aequi near Algidus Mons, The Battle of Corbione took place in 446 BC. General Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus and Legatus Spurius Postumius Albus Regillensis The Volsci were an ancient Italic people, well known in the history of the first century of the Roman Republic. The Battle of Corbione took place in 446 BC. General Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus and Legatus Spurius Postumius Albus Regillensis The Aurunci were an Italic population which lived in southern Italy from around the 1st millennium BC. Veii (pron WAY-ee or VAY-ee also Veius) was in ancient times an important Etrurian city 16 km NNW of Rome, Italy; its site lies in the modern The Battle of the Cremera was fought between Roman Republic and the Etruscan city of Veii, in 477 BC (276 AUC Ancient Rome defeated the Veii in the Capture of Fidenae in 435 BC. The Battle of Veii, also known as the Siege of Veii is a battle of Ancient Rome, approximately dated at 396 BC. [115][120][119][121] After defeating the Veientes, the Romans had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan neighbours,[122] as well as secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the tribespeople of the Apennine hills.
Celtic invasion of Italia (390-387 BC)
By 390 BC, several Gallic tribes had begun invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe. Most of this was unknown to the Romans at this time, who still had purely local security concerns, but the Romans were alerted when a particularly warlike tribe,Florus, The Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 13</ref> the Senones, invaded the Etruscan province of Siena from the north and attacked the town of Clusium, not far from Rome's sphere of influence. The Senones were a Gallic people of Gallia Celtica, who in the time of Julius Caesar inhabited the district which now includes the departments of Clusium was an ancient city in Italy, one of several found at the site The Clusians, overwhelmed by the size of the enemy in numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. Perhaps unintentionally the Romans found themselves not just in conflict with the Senones, but their primary target. The Romans met them in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390-387 BC. The Battle of the Allia was a battle of the first Gallic invasion of Italy The Gauls, under their chieftain Brennus, defeated the Roman army of around 15,000 troops and proceeded to pursue the fleeing Romans back to Rome itself and partially sacked the town[123][124] before being either driven off or bought off. Brennus (or Brennos) was a chieftain of the Senones, a Gallic tribe originating from the modern areas of France known as Seine-et-Marne Now that the Romans and Gauls had blooded one another, intermittent warfare was to continue between the two in Italy for more than two centuries. The Celtic problem would not be resolved for Rome until the final subjugation of all Gaul following the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC. The Battle of Alesia or Siege of Alesia took place in September 52 BC around the Gallic Oppidum of Alesia, a major town centre and
Roman expansion into Italia (343-282 BC)
After recovering surprisingly swiftly from the sack of Rome,[125] the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. The First Samnite War of between 343 BC and 341 BC was a relatively short affair: the Romans beat the Samnites in both the Battle of Mount Gaurus in 342 BC and the Battle of Suessola in 341 BC but were forced to withdraw from the war before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War. The First, Second, and Third Samnite wars, between the early Roman Republic and the tribes of Samnium, extended over half a century involving The Battle of Mount Gaurus, a Battle between the ancient Romans and the Samnites, was fought in 342 BC. The Battle of Suessula was an episode in 341 BC in the Samnite Wars between the Samnite peoples living in the hills around Samnium The Latin War (340–338 BC was a conflict between the Roman Republic and its neighbors the Latin peoples of ancient Italy. [126][127] Rome bested the Latins in the Battle of Vesuvius and again in the Battle of Trifanum,[127] after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule. The Battle of Vesuvius in 340 BC saw the the Roman army under Publius Decius Mus and Titus Manlius Torquatus defeat the Latins near The Battle of Trifanum was fought in 339 BC between the Roman Republic and the Latins. [128][129]
The Second Samnite War, from 327 BC to 304 BC, was a much longer and more serious affair for both the Romans and Samnites,[130]. The First, Second, and Third Samnite wars, between the early Roman Republic and the tribes of Samnium, extended over half a century involving The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course. The Romans then proved victorious at the Battle of Bovianum and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards, leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms. The Battle of Bovianum was fought in 305 BC between the Romans and the Samnites. By 304 BC the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory, founding several colonies.
Seven years after their defeat, with Roman dominance of the area looking assured, the Samnites rose again and defeated the Romans at the Battle of Camerinum in 298 BC, to open the Third Samnite War. The Battle of Camerinum in 298 BC was the first battle of the Third Samnite War. The First, Second, and Third Samnite wars, between the early Roman Republic and the tribes of Samnium, extended over half a century involving With this success in hand they managed to bring together a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome at the Battle of Sentinum. The Battle of Sentinum was the decisive battle of the Third Samnite War, fought in 295 BC near Sentinum (next to Sassoferrato In the Battle of Populonia in 282 BC Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region. The Battle of Populonia was fought in 282 BC between Rome and the Etruscans.
Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC)
By the beginning of the third century, Rome had established itself as a major power on the Italian Peninsula, but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean at the time: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms. Th Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula (Penisola italiana or Penisola appenninica) is one of the three Peninsulas of Southern Europe The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca
When a diplomatic dispute between Rome and the Greek colony of Tarentum[131] erupted into open warfare in the naval Battle of Thurii, Tarentum appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus, ruler of Epirus. Not to be confused with Toronto. Taranto ( Ancient Greek: Tarās; Modern Greek: Tarantas) is a coastal city in The naval Battle of Thurii was fought between Ancient Rome and the Greek colony of Tarentum Following the battle Tarentum appealed for aid to Pyrrhus, ruler Pyrrhus (318-272 BC ( Greek: Πύρρος Aιακιδης Pyrros Aiakides was one of the most successful ancient Greek generals of the Hellenistic Epirus (from Ionic Greek Ήπειρος - Ēpeiros, Doric Greek: Ἅπειρος - Apeiros, in Albanian Motivated by his diplomatic obligations to Tarentum, and a personal desire for military accomplishment, Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25,000 men on Italian soil in 280 BC.
Despite early victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy. [132] Furthermore, Rome entered into a treaty of support with Carthage. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Facing unacceptably heavy losses with each encounter with the Roman army, Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula.
When his Sicilian campaign was also ultimately a failure, and at the request of his Italian allies, Pyrrhus returned to Italy to face Rome once more. In 275 BC, Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum. The Battle of Beneventum (275 BC was the last battle fought between the forces of Pyrrhus of Epirus (without Samnite allies and the Romans, led by consul While Beneventum was indecisive, Pyrrhus realised that his army had been exhausted and reduced by years of foreign campaigns, and seeing little hope for further gains, he withdrew completely from Italy.
The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome, however. Rome had shown that it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean, and further showed that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. Rome quickly moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing Magna Grecia. [133] Effectively dominating the Italian peninsula,[134] and with a proven international military reputation,[135]
Mid-Roman Republic (274 BC - 148 BC)
Punic Wars (264-146 BC)
The First Punic War began in 264 BC when settlements on Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay - Rome and Carthage - in order to solve internal conflicts. The First Punic War ( 264 to 241 BC) was the first of three major wars fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic. The war saw land battles in Sicily early on such as the Battle of Agrigentum but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa. The battle of Agrigentum ( Sicily, 261 BC) was the first pitched battle of the First Punic War and the first large-scale military confrontation between Before the First Punic War there was no Roman navy to speak of. The First Punic War ( 264 to 241 BC) was the first of three major wars fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic. The new war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power,[136] forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers [137]
The first few naval battles of the First Punic War such as the Battle of the Lipari Islands were catastrophic disasters for Rome. The First Punic War ( 264 to 241 BC) was the first of three major wars fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic. The Battle of the Lipari Islands or Lipara ( Lipara harbour 260 BC) was the first encounter between the fleets of Carthage and Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 However, after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine known as a Corvus,[138] a Roman naval force under C. A corvus (meaning "crow" or "raven" in Latin) or harpago (probably the correct ancient name) was a Roman military Duillius was able to roundly defeat a Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of Mylae. The Battle of Mylae took place in 260 BC during the First Punic War and was the first real naval battle between Carthage and the Roman Republic Further naval victories followed at the Battle of Tyndaris and Battle of Cape Ecnomus. The Battle of Tyndaris was a naval battle of the First Punic War, which took place off Tyndaris (modern Tindari) in 257 BC. The battle of Cape Ecnomus ( 256 BC) was a Naval battle, fought off Cape Ecnomus (modern day Poggio di Sant'Angelo Licata, Sicily [139] After having won control of the seas, a Roman force landed on the African coast under Regulus, who was at first victorious, winning the Battle of Adys[140]. This is about the Roman general and consul for other Romans of that name see Marcus Atilius Regulus (disambiguation. The Battle of Adys (or Adis was fought in 255 BC between Carthage and a Roman army led by Marcus Atilius Regulus. The Carthaginians then hired Xanthippus to reorganise and lead their army. Xanthippus ( Gr) was a wealthy Athenian politician and general during the early part of the fifth century BC [141] Xanthippus managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy. With their newfound naval abilities, the Romans roundly beat the Carthaginians in naval battle again at the Battle of the Aegates Islands and leaving Carthage without a fleet or sufficient coin to raise one. The Battle of the Aegates Islands or Aegusa ( Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of the island of Sicily, 10 March 241 BC) was For a maritime power the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically, and the Carthaginians again sued for peace.
Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War when Hannibal Barca attacked Saguntum,[142][143] a city with diplomatic ties to Rome. The Second Punic War (referred to as "The War Against Hannibal" by the Romans lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash Sagunto ( Valencian Sagunt; Latin Saguntum) formerly Murviedro (Valencian Morvedre) is an ancient city in Eastern [144] Hannibal then crossed the Italian Alps to invade Italy. [145][146] In the first battle on Italian soil at Ticinus in 218 BC Hannibal defeated the Romans under Scipio the Elder. The Battle of Ticinus was a battle of the Second Punic War fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and the Romans under Publius Publius Cornelius Scipio (died 211 BC was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic. Hannibal's success continued with victories in the Battle of the Trebia,[147] the Battle of Lake Trasimene,where he ambushed an unsuspecting Roman army,[148][149] and the Battle of Cannae. The Battle of the Trebia (or Trebbia) was the first major battle of the Second Punic War, fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal The Battle of Lake Trasimene ( June 24, 217 BC, April on the Julian calendar) was a Roman defeat in the Second Punic War between the Carthaginians For the 11th century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018.
In the three battles of Nola, Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus managed to hold off Hannibal but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies. Marcus Claudius Marcellus (ca 268 BC-208 BC was a Roman general one of the commanders of the Roman Army during the Second Punic War and the conqueror of Syracuse By this time Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal Barca sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army. Hasdrubal son of Hamilcar Barca, (d 207 BC short form Hasdrubal) was Hamilcar's second son and a Carthaginian general in the Second Punic War Despite being defeated in Iberia, Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively on the Metaurus River. The Battle of the Metaurus was a pivotal battle in the Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage, fought in 207 BC near the Metaurus River [145] Unable to defeat Hannibal himself on Italian soil, the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa with the intention of threatening the Carthaginian capital. Hannibal was recalled to Africa, and defeated at the Battle of Zama. The Battle of Zama, fought around October 19 of 202 BC, marked the final and decisive end of the Second Punic War.
Carthage never managed to recover after the Second Punic War[150] and the Third Punic War that followed is in reality a simple punitive mission to raze the city of Carthage to the ground. The Third Punic War ( 149 BC to 146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage [151] Carthage was almost defenceless and when besieged offered immediate surrender, conceding to a string of outrageous Roman demands. [152] The Romans refused the surrender, and the city was stormed after a short siege and completely destroyed.
Rome's conflict with the Carthaginians in the Punic Wars led them into expansion in the Iberian peninsula (modern-day Spain). Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. [153] The Punic empire of the Carthaginian Barcid family consisted of territories in Iberia, many of which Rome gained control of during the Punic Wars. The Barcid family was a notable family in the ancient city of Carthage; many of its members were fierce enemies of the Roman Republic. Over the years Rome had gradually expanded along the southern Iberian coast until in 211 BC it captured the city of Saguntum, and the peninsula became a Roman province known as Hispania. Sagunto ( Valencian Sagunt; Latin Saguntum) formerly Murviedro (Valencian Morvedre) is an ancient city in Eastern Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar
Macedon, the Greek poleis, and Illyria (215-148 BC)
Rome's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedon in northern Greece, to attempt to extend his power westward. Philip V ( Greek Φίλιππος Ε΄) (238 BC - 179 BC was King of Macedon from 221 BC to 179 BC Macedon or Macedonia ( Greek grc Μακεδονία grc-Latn Makedonía) was the name of a kingdom centered in the northern-most Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal's camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome. [154][155] However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip's emissaries, along with emissaries from Hannibal, were captured by a Roman fleet. [154] The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations and when the Aetolians sued for peace with Philip once more Rome's small expeditionary force, with no more allies in Greece, but having achieved their objective of pre-occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal, was ready to make peace. The First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against
Macedon began to encroach on territory claimed by several other Greek city states in 200 BC and these states pleaded for help from their newfound ally Rome. [156] Rome gave Philip an ultimatum that he must submit Macedonia to being essentially a Roman province. Philip refused, and Rome declared war against Philip in the Second Macedonian War. The Second Macedonian War ( 200 &ndash 197 BC) was fought between Macedon, led by Philip V of Macedon, and Rome, allied with Pergamon [156] In the Battle of the Aous Roman forces under Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeated the Macedonians,[157] and in a second larger battle under the same opposing commanders in 197 BC, in the Battle of Cynoscephalae,[158] Flamininus again beat the Macedonians decisively. The Battle of the Aous was fought in 198 BC between Rome and Macedon at or near modern Tepelenë in Albania. Titus Quinctius Flamininus (c 228 BC &ndash 174 BC was a Roman politician and general instrumental in the Roman conquest of Greece. For the earlier battle fought here see Battle of Cynoscephalae (364 BC. [157][159] Macedonia was forced to sign the Treaty of Tempea, in which it lost all claim to territory in Greece and Asia. The Treaty of Tempea ended the Second Macedonian War ( 200 BC – 196 BC) between the Roman Republic and Philip V of Macedon.
Rome now turned its attentions to Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire to the east. Antiochus III the Great, ( Greek; ca 241&ndash187 BC ruled 222&ndash187 BC younger son of Seleucus II Callinicus The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i A Roman force under Manius Acilius Glabrio defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Thermopylae[159] and forced him to evacuate Greece:[160] the Romans then pursued the Seleucids beyond Greece, beating them in the decisive engagement of the Battle of Magnesia. Manius Acilius Glabrio was a Roman Consul, general and member of a Plebeian family The Battle of Thermopylae was fought in 191 BC between a Roman army led by consul Manius Acilius Glabrio and a Seleucid force led by King The Battle of Magnesia was fought in 190 BC near Magnesia ad Sipylum, on the plains of Lydia (modern Turkey) between the Romans [160][161]
In 179 BC Philip died[162] and his talented and ambitious son, Perseus, took his throne and showed a renewed interest in Greece. [163] Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the Third Macedonian War. The Third Macedonian War ( 171 BC - 168 BC) was a war fought between Rome and King Perseus of Macedon. Perseus initially had greater military success against the Romans than his father. However, as with all such ventures in this period, Rome responded by simply sending another army. The second consular army duly defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC[164][162] and the Macedonians duly capitulated, ending the Third Macedonian War. The Battle of Pydna in 168 BC between Rome and the Macedonian Antigonid dynasty represents the ascendancy of Rome in the Hellenic / The Third Macedonian War ( 171 BC - 168 BC) was a war fought between Rome and King Perseus of Macedon. [165]
The Fourth Macedonian War, fought from 150 BC to 148 BC, was the final war between Rome and Macedon and began when Andriscus usurped the Macedonian throne. Andriscus, also spelt Andriskos and often called the "pseudo-Philip" was ruler of Adramyttium in Aeolis, part of western Anatoliawho claimed The Romans swiftly defeated Andriscus at the Second battle of Pydna. The Battle of Pydna was fought in 148 BC between Rome and the forces of the Macedonian leader Andriscus. Under Lucius Mummius Corinth was destroyed, following a siege in 146 BC, leading to the surrender and thus conquest of the Achaean League (see Battle of Corinth). Lucius Mummius (2nd century BC was a Roman statesman and general Corinth, or Korinth ( Greek Κόρινθος ( is a city in Greece. The Achaean League (Ἀχαϊκὴ Συμμαχία or (Ἀχαϊκὴ Συμπολιτεία was a Confederation of Greek city states in Achaea The Battle of Corinth was a battle fought between the Roman Republic and the Greek state of Corinth and its allies in the
Late Roman Republic (147 BC - 30 BC)
Jugurthine War (111-104 BC)
The Jugurthine War of 111-104 BC was fought between Rome and Jugurtha of Numidia and constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa,[166] after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. Jugurtha (ca 160 &ndash 104 BC was a Libyan King of Numidia, born in Cirta. Numidia (202 BC – 46 BC was an ancient Berber kingdom in present-day Algeria and part of Tunisia ( North Africa) that later alternated Following Jugurtha's usurpation of the Numidian throne,[167] a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars,[168] Rome felt compelled to intervene. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation. Following further aggression and further bribery attempts, the Romans sent an army to tackle him. The Romans finally defeated Jugurtha at the Battle of Cirta(104 BC). [169] Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery.
The Celtic threat (121 BC) and the new Germanic threat (113-101 BC)
In 121 BC, Rome came into contact with the Celtic tribes of the Allobroges and the Arverni, both of which they defeated with apparent in ease in the First Battle of Avignon near the Rhone river and the Second Battle of Avignon, the same year. The Allobroges were a warlike Celtic tribe in Gaul located between the Rhône River and the Lake of Geneva in what later became Savoy The Arverni were a Gallic tribe that inhabited the present-day region of Clermont-Ferrand, France. [170]
The Cimbrian War (113-101 BC) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC. The Cimbrian War ( 113 - 101 BC) was fought between the Roman Republic and the Proto-Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri[171] and the Teutons or Teutones[171] migrated from northern Europe into Rome's northern territories,[172] and clashed with Rome and her allies. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Cimbri were a Celtic or Germanic tribe who together with the Teutones and the Ambrones threatened the Roman Republic in the late The Teutons or Teutones (from Proto-Germanic * Þeudanōz) were mentioned as a Germanic tribe by Greek and Roman authors [173] The Battle of Noreia in 112 BC, was the opening action of the Cimbrian War fought between the Roman Republic and the migrating Proto-Germanic tribes. The Battle of Noreia in 112 BC, was the opening action of the Cimbrian War fought between the Roman Republic and the migrating Proto-Germanic It ended in defeat for the Romans. However, at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae both tribes were virtually annihalated, ending the threat. The Battle of Aquae Sextiae ( Aix-en-Provence) took place in 102 BC. The Battle of Vercellae, or Battle of the Raudine Plain, in 101 BC was the Roman victory of Consul Gaius Marius over the Germanic
Internal unrest (135-71 BC)
The extensive campaigning abroad by Roman generals, and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder on these campaigns, led to a general trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their generals rather than to the state. Rome was also plagued by several slave uprisings during this period, in part because in the past century vast tracts of land had been given over to slave farming in which the slaves greatly outnumbered their Roman masters. In the last century before the common era at least twelve civil wars and rebellions occurred. List of Civil wars involving Rome. There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. This pattern did not break until Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) ended it by becoming a successful challenger to the Senate's authority, and was made princeps (emperor). Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The Latin word Princeps (plural principes) means exactly 'a prime'
Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three "Servile Wars" involving slave uprisings against the Roman state, the third and final uprising the most serious. The Third Servile War, also called the Gladiator War and The War of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last of a series of unrelated and unsuccessful slave Additionally, in 91 BC the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies (Socii) in Italy over dissent among the allies that they shared the risk of Rome's military campaigns, but not its rewards. This article is about the conflict between Rome and her Italian allies between 91 and 88 BC For the Athenian conflict with its allies between 357 and 355 BC see Although they lost militarily, the Socii achieved their objectives with the legal proclamations of the Lex Julia and Lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians. Lex Julia (or Lex Iulia, plural Leges Juliae / Leges Iuliae) are ancient Roman laws introduced by any member of the Julian family The Lex Plautia Papiria (de Civitate Sociis Danda was a Roman Plebiscite enacted amidst the Social War in 89 BCE
The internal unrest reached its most serious, however, in the two civil wars or marches upon Rome of the consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla at the beginning of 82 BC. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c In the Battle of the Colline Gate at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Roman senate. The battle of the Colline Gate, fought in November of 82 BC, was the final battle by which Sulla secured control of Rome following the civil war against his rivals Whatever the rights and wrongs of his grievances against those in power of the state, his actions marked a watershed of the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars of the triumvirate, the overthrowing of the Senate as the de facto head of the Roman state, and the eventual endemic usurpation of the later Empire. The term triumvirate (from Latin, "of three men" is commonly used to describe a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals Usurpers are individuals or groups of individuals who obtain and maintain the power or rights of another by force and without legal authority
Conflicts with Mithridates (89-63 BC) and the Cilician pirates (67 BC)
Mithridates the Great was the ruler of Pontus,[174] a large kingdom in Asia Minor, from 120 to 63 BC. See Mithridates for people and concepts with the same name Mithridates VI (Μιθριδάτης 132&ndash63 BC also known as Mithridates Geography The Black Sea region loosely called Pontus by various scholars has a steep rocky coast with rivers that cascade through the gorges of the coastal ranges Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black He is remembered as one of Rome's most formidable and successful enemies. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom,[175] and Rome for her part seemed equally keen for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring. [176][174] After conquering western Anatolia (modern Turkey) in 88 BC, Mithridates ordered the killing of the majority of the 80,000 Romans living there. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black [177] The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the First Mithridatic War. The First Mithridatic War ( 90 &ndash 85 BC) was a conflict fought between the Kingdom of Pontus and revolting Greek cities -Athens being the most prominent- The Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece proper, but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival Marius. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull.
The Second Mithridatic War began when Rome tried to annex Bithnyia as a province. The Second Mithridatic War ( 83 - 82 BC) was one of three Mithridatic Wars fought between Pontus and the Roman Republic. In the Third Mithridatic War, first Lucius Licinius Lucullus and then Pompey the Great were sent against Mithridates. The Third Mithridatic War ( 75 - 65 BC) was one of three Mithridatic Wars fought between Mithridates VI of Pontus and the Roman Republic This article is on the Consul of 151 BC - for the descendent (this man's grandson see Lucullus, and for others of this name see Licinius (gens. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation [178] Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night-time Battle of the Lycus. The Battle of the Lycus was fought in 66 BC between the Roman Republic army of Pompey and the forces of Mithridates VI of Pontus. [179]
The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of pirates,[179] largely from Cilicia. Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria [180] The pirates not only strangled shipping lanes but also plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia. Pompey was nominated as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against the pirates. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation [179][178] It took Pompey supposedly just forty days to clear the western portion of the sea of pirates and restore communication between Iberia, Africa, and Italy.
Caesar's early campaigns (59-50 BC)
During a term as praetor in Iberia Pompey's contemporary Julius Caesar defeated the Calaici and Lusitani in battle. The Gallaeci, Callaeci, or Callaici were a Pre- Roman Celtic single or various tribes living in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula The Lusitanians (or Lusitani in Latin) were an Indo-European people living in the western Iberian Peninsula long before it became the Roman [181] Following a consular term, he was then appointed to a five year term as Proconsular Governor of Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (the coast of Dalmatia). [182][181] Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul, which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. When the Helvetii and Tigurini tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 BC and 49 BC. The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe and the main occupants of the Swiss plateau in the 1st century BC The Gallic Wars were a series of Military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes, lasting from
Caesar defeated the Helvetii in 58 BC, the Belgic confederacy (at the Battle of the Axona) and the Nervii in 57 BC. The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe and the main occupants of the Swiss plateau in the 1st century BC The Battle of the Axona was fought in 57 BC, between the Roman army of Gaius Julius Caeser and the Belgae. He also defeated the Aquitani, Treviri, Tencteri, Aedui and Eburones in unknown battles. In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions to Britain. This page refers to the conquest begun in AD 43 For other Roman invasions see Caesar's invasions of Britain and Carausian Revolt. Caesar then defeated a union of Gauls led by Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia,[183][184] completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. Vercingetorix (werkiŋˈɡetoriks in Latin) born around 82 BC died 46 BC was chieftain of the Arverni, originating from the Arvernian city of The Battle of Alesia or Siege of Alesia took place in September 52 BC around the Gallic Oppidum of Alesia, a major town centre and By 50 BC, the entirety of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Gaul never regained its Celtic identity, never attempted another nationalist rebellion, and remained loyal to Rome until the fall of the Western Empire in 476.
Triumvirates, Caesarian ascension, and revolt (53-30 BC)
By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the First Triumvirate was formed between Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus to share power and influence. See also the First Triumvirate (Argentina which came to power in 1811 Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation [185] In 53 BC, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire. After initial successes,[186] he marched his army deep into the desert;[187] but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of Carrhae in which Crassus himself perished. The Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC was a decisive victory for the Parthian Spahbod Surena over the Roman general Crassus near The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. While Caesar was fighting against Vercingetorix in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar[188] and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar's political enemies. In 51 BC, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar would not be permitted to stand for Consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, and the same demands were made of Pompey by other factions. Relinquishing his army would leave Caesar defenceless before his enemies. Caesar chose Civil War over laying down his command and facing trial.
By the spring of 49 BC, when Caesar crossed the Rubicon river with his invading forces and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome, Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome. Caesar first directed his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Iberia[189] but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece. [190][191] Pompey initially defeated Caesar at the Battle of Dyrrachium in 48 BC[192] but failing to follow up on the victory, Pompey was decisively defeated in the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC[193][194] despite outnumbering Caesar's forces two to one. The Battle of Dyrrachium (or Dyrrhachium on 10 July 48 BC, was a battle of Caesar's civil war in modern Albania. The Battle of Pharsalus was a decisive battle of Caesar's Civil War. [195] Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered.
Pompey's death did not see the end of the civil wars since initially Caesar's enemies were manifold and Pompey's supporters continued to fight on after his death. In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army at the Battle of Ruspina. The Battle of Ruspina was fought on January 4, 46 BC between competing political factions of the late Roman Republic, the Optimates and However, after this low point Caesar came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus, after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Iberia. The Caecilii Metelli were one of the most important and wealthiest families in the Roman Republic. The Battle of Thapsus took place on April 6 46 BC near Thapsus (modern Ras Dimas, Tunisia) Caesar defeated the combined forces of Titus Labienus and Gnaeus Pompey the Younger at the Battle of Munda. For the World War II battle see Battle of Munda Point. The Battle of Munda took place on March 17, 45 BC in
Despite his military success, or probably because of it, fear spread of Caesar, now the primary figure of the Roman state, becoming an autocratic ruler and ending the Roman Republic. This fear drove a group of senators to assassinate him in March of 44 BC. [196] Further civil war followed between those loyal to Caesar and those who supported the actions of the assassins. Caesar's supporter Mark Antony condemned Caesar's assassins and war broke out between the two factions. Antony was denounced as a public enemy, and Octavian was entrusted with the command of the war against him. . At the Battle of Mutina Antony was defeated in battle by the consul Hirtius, who was killed. The Battle of Mutina was fought on April 21, 43 BC between the forces of Marc Antony and the forces of Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and
Octavian betrayed his party, and came to terms with Caesarians Antony and Lepidus in 43 BC when the Second Triumvirate was formed. See also the Second Triumvirate (Argentina which held power in 1812 In 42 BC Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fought the Battle of Philippi with Caesar's assassins Marcus Brutus and Cassius. The term triumvirate (from Latin, "of three men" is commonly used to describe a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The Battle of Philippi was the final battle in the Wars of the Second Triumvirate between the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian (the Second Triumvirate Marcus Junius Brutus (85&ndash42 BC or Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. For the Roman consul see Gaius Cassius Longinus (consul 171 BC. Although Brutus defeated Octavian, Antony defeated Cassius, who committed suicide. Brutus also committed suicide shortly afterwards.
However, civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony failed. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark The ambitious Octavian built a power base and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony. [196] At the Battle of Actium,[197] Octavian decisively defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval battle near Greece, using fire to destroy the enemy fleet. The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt Octavian went on to become Emperor under the name Augustus[197] and, in the absence of political assassins or usurpers, was able to greatly expand the borders of the Empire.
Figures of the Republic
Latin literature of the Republic
- Julius Caesar
- Catullus
- Cicero
- Ennius
- Fabius Pictor
- Livius Andronicus
- Lucretius
- Naevius
- Plautus
- Terence
- Livy
See also
- Crisis of the Roman Republic
- Constitution of the Roman Republic
- List of topics related to ancient Rome
References
- Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). Lucretia is a legendary figure in the history of the Roman Republic. Lucius Junius Brutus (or Lucius Iunius Brutus) was the founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first Consuls in 509 BC Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (519 BC &ndash 430 BC? was an ancient Roman political figure serving as Consul in 460 BC and Roman dictator in 458 BC and Appius Claudius Caecus ("the blind" ca 340 BCE - 273 BCE) was a Roman politician from a wealthy Patrician family The First, Second, and Third Samnite wars, between the early Roman Republic and the tribes of Samnium, extended over half a century involving The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage between 264 and 146 BC and were probably the largest wars yet of the ancient Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major ( Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS ¹) (236&ndash183 Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Numantinus (185 - 129 BC also known as Scipio Aemilianus or Scipio Africanus the Younger, was a leading general and Marcus Porcius Cato ( Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO (234 BC Tusculum &ndash149 BC was a Roman statesman surnamed the Censor The Macedonian and Seleucid wars were a series of conflicts fought by Rome during and after the Second Punic war, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Adriatic Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus ( Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS (168 BC-133 BC was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC and brother Gaius Sempronius Gracchus ( Latin: C·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS (154 BC-121 BC was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC This article is about the Roman statesman who reorganized the army and was seven times Consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c Spartacus (c 109 BC-71 BC according to Roman historians was a Slave who became the leader (or possibly one of several leaders in the unsuccessful slave Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC&ndash46 BC known as Cato the Younger ( Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather ( Cato the Elder For the Roman consul see Gaius Cassius Longinus (consul 171 BC. Marcus Junius Brutus (85&ndash42 BC or Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark For persons with a Cognomen "Catulus" see Lutatius Gaius Valerius Catullus (ca Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Quintus Ennius (239 - 169 BC was a writer during the period of the Roman Republic, and is often considered the father of Roman Poetry. Quintus Fabius Pictor (c 254 BC -? was one of the earliest Roman Historians and considered the first of the Annalists. Lucius Livius Andronicus (280/260 BC?&ndash200 BC? not to be confused with the later historian Livy, was a Greco-Roman Dramatist and epic poet Titus Lucretius Carus (ca 99 BC- ca 55 BC was a Roman Poet and Philosopher. Titus Maccius Plautus (c 254–184 BCE commonly known as Plautus, was a Roman Playwright. Publius Terentius Afer (195/185&ndash159 BC better known as Terence, was a Playwright of the Roman Republic. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome The Crisis of the Roman Republic refers to an extended period of political instability and social unrest that culminated in the demise of the Roman Republic and the The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles This is a list of topics related to ancient Rome that aims to include aspects of both the ancient Roman Republic and Roman Empire. A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0).
- Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U. S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23.
- Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1.
- Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (hardcover, ISBN 0-631-22957-4; paperback, ISBN 0-631-22958-2).
- Francis Owen, "The Germanic people; their Origin Expansion & Culture", 1993 Barnes & Noble Books ISBN 0880295791
- Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19-926108-3).
- Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By Mr. Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2.
- Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press (ISBN 0-472-08125-X).
- "The conquest of Gaul" by Julius Caesar ISBN 0-14-044433-5
- Harriet I. Flower (ed. ): The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge 2004.
- "The Cambridge Ancient History", vols. 7–9, Cambridge 1990ff.
- "The Enemies of Rome" by Philip Matyszak edited by Thames & Hudson ISBN 0-500-25124-X
- "Rubicon : the last years of the Roman Republic" by Tom Holland edited by Doubleday ISBN 0-385-50313-X
- "The Complete Roman Army" by Adrian Goldsworthy edited by Thames & Hudson ISBN 0-500-05124-0
- "Scipio Africanus — Greater than Napoleon" by B. H. Liddell Hart published by DA CAPO Press ISBN 0-306-81363-7
- "The Roman Army" by Peter Connolly
Notes
- ^ a b c d e Taagepera, Rein (1979). Philip Matyszak is a British non-fiction author primarily of historical works relating to Ancient Rome. Tom Holland may refer to Tom Holland (director, American film director Tom Holland (author, British author Tom Holland Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969 is a British Historian and military writer. Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart ( 31 October 1895 &ndash 29 January 1970) usually known before his knighthood as Peter Connolly (born 1935 is a renowned British scholar of the ancient world Greek and Roman military equipment historian reconstructional Archaeologist Rein Taagepera (born 28 February 1933) is an Estonian American political scientist Rein Taagepera (born 28 February 1933) is an Estonian American political scientist "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History 3 (3/4): 125. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Polybius, 132
- ^ a b c d Polybius, 133
- ^ Lintott, 65
- ^ Byrd, 96
- ^ Cicero, 239
- ^ Byrd, 44
- ^ a b c Polybius, 134
- ^ Polybius, 135
- ^ Lintott, 40
- ^ Lintott, 42
- ^ a b Abbott, 251
- ^ a b Cicero, 226
- ^ Taylor, 85
- ^ a b Abbott, 257
- ^ Cicero, 241
- ^ Taylor, 3, 4
- ^ Abbott, 259
- ^ Lintott, 51
- ^ Taylor, 77
- ^ Taylor, 7
- ^ a b Abbott, 151
- ^ Abbott, 196
- ^ Polybius, 136
- ^ a b Abbott, 154
- ^ Abbott, 155
- ^ Lintott, 95
- ^ Lintott, 97
- ^ Cicero, 235
- ^ Lintott, 101-102
- ^ Lintott, 113
- ^ Byrd, 20
- ^ Cicero, 236
- ^ a b Byrd, 179
- ^ Byrd, 32
- ^ Byrd, 26
- ^ Byrd, 31
- ^ a b Byrd, 23
- ^ Byrd, 24
- ^ Cicero, 237
- ^ a b Abbott, 25
- ^ Abbott, 26
- ^ a b Abbott, 28
- ^ Abbott, 36, 41
- ^ a b Abbott, 37
- ^ Abbott, 42-43
- ^ Abbott, 42
- ^ Abbott, 43
- ^ a b Abbott, 44
- ^ a b Abbott, 45
- ^ a b Abbott, 46
- ^ a b c Abbott, 47
- ^ a b c Abbott, 48
- ^ a b Abbott, 52
- ^ a b Abbott, 51
- ^ Abbott, 53
- ^ Abbott, 63
- ^ Abbott, 65
- ^ Abbott, 66
- ^ a b Abbott, 77
- ^ Abbott, 80
- ^ a b Abbott, 96
- ^ Abbott, 97
- ^ a b c Abbott, 98
- ^ Abbott, 101
- ^ Abbott, 100
- ^ a b c Abbott, 103
- ^ a b c Abbott, 104
- ^ a b Abbott, 105
- ^ Abbott, 108
- ^ a b Abbott, 109
- ^ Abbott, 109-110
- ^ Abbott, 110
- ^ a b c Abbott, 111
- ^ a b c d e Abbott, 112
- ^ a b c d Abbott, 113
- ^ Abbott, 114
- ^ Abbott, 115
- ^ a b Abbott, 129
- ^ a b c Abbott, 134
- ^ a b Abbott, 135
- ^ a b c Abbott, 137
- ^ a b Abbott, 138
- ^ a b c d Abbott, 133
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica, Eleventh Edition (1911), The Roman Army
- ^ a b c Polybius, History, Book 6
- ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 40
- ^ Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p. 2
- ^ a b Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 9
- ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 11
- ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 143
- ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 10
- ^ Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army And the Allies, p. 1
- ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 27
- ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 16
- ^ Tacitus, Annals, IV, 5
- ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 16
- ^ a b Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 29
- ^ a b Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 25
- ^ a b c Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 14
- ^ Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 116
- ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 15
- ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 43
- ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 67
- ^ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 38
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 15
- ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 312
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 33
- ^ a b Florus, The Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 11
- ^ a b Grant, The History of Rome, p. 38
- ^ a b Grant, The History of Rome, p. 37
- ^ Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 89
- ^ Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 17
- ^ Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 16
- ^ a b The Enemies of Rome, p. 13
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 39
- ^ Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 96
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 41
- ^ a b c Florus, The Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 12
- ^ a b Grant, The History of Rome, p. 42
- ^ Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 20
- ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. II
- ^ Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 329
- ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 283
- ^ Pennell, Ancient Rme, Ch. IX, para. 4
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 48
- ^ a b Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. IX, para. 13
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 49
- ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. IX, para. 14
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 52
- ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 294
- ^ Cassius Dio, The Roman history, Vol. 1, VIII, 3
- ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 307
- ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XI, para. 1
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 80
- ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XII, para. 14
- ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 309
- ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 113
- ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 84
- ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 86
- ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 88
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 29
- ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 25
- ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XIII, para. 15
- ^ a b Cantor, Antiquity, p. 153
- ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 27
- ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 31
- ^ Polybius, The Histories, 243
- ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 34
- ^ Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XV, para. 24
- ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 338
- ^ Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 339
- ^ Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 2, ch. 17
- ^ a b Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 47
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 115
- ^ a b Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 49
- ^ a b Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 73
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 117
- ^ a b Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 325
- ^ a b Grant, The History of Rome, p. 119
- ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 326
- ^ a b Grant, The History of Rome, p. 120
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 75
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 92
- ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 53
- ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 29
- ^ Sallust, The Jugurthine War, XII
- ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 64
- ^ Sallust, The Jugurthine War, CI
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 152
- ^ a b Appian, History of Rome, §6
- ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 75
- ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 6
- ^ a b Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 3, ch. 5
- ^ Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 3, ch. 5
- ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 76
- ^ Grant, The History of Rome, p. 158
- ^ a b Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 363
- ^ a b c Plutarch, Lives, Pompey
- ^ Florus, The Epitome of Roman history, Book 3, ch. 6
- ^ a b Plutarch, Lives, Caesar
- ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 58
- ^ Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 62
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 212
- ^ Cantor, Antiquity, p. 168
- ^ Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 133
- ^ Plutarch, Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, p. 266
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 214
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 217
- ^ Julius Caesar, The Civil War, 81–92
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 218
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 220
- ^ Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 227
- ^ Lane Fox, The Classical World, p. 403
- ^ Holland, Rubicon, p. 312
- ^ a b Cantor, Antiquity, p. 170
- ^ a b Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 7
External links
- The Roman Republic by Horace Moule (London: Bradbury & Evans, 1860)
- The fall of the Roman Republic by Charles Merivale (London: Longman Brown Green and Longmans, 1853)
- www.roman-empire.net, about the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire
- The Late Roman Republic: The decline and fall of trust, An essay on the loss of trust in societies both ancient and modern
- The Roman Republic from In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)
- Nova Roma - Educational Organization a working historical reconstruction of the Roman Republic
- http://www.unrv.com Roman Empire History
- Polish Portal of Ancient Rome
In Our Time is a discussion programme hosted by Melvyn Bragg on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom.
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