|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Roman Empire is the phase of the ancient Roman civilisation characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and the Mediterranean. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC An autocracy is a Form of government in which the Political power is held by a single self-appointed ruler Usually, "Roman Empire" is the term used to describe the Roman state after the establishment of rule by emperors, but is sometimes in non-specialist contexts used more generally to refer to the expansionary Roman state both after and before the time of the first emperor, Augustus. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The 500-year-old Roman Republic (509 BC – 1st century BC), which precedes it conceptually, had been weakened by the civil wars of the Late Republic. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the List of Civil wars involving Rome. There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. Losing most of the territory it had acquired at its height between the 4th and 8th century, it continued through major changes until the end of the European Middle Ages, when in 1453 its capital fell to the Ottoman Turks. The history of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. [4] In its medieval form, it is usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire.
Several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including the date of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the victory of Caesar's heir Octavian at the Battle of Actium (September 2 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus. Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. An honorific is a word or expression that conveys esteem or respect when used in addressing or referring to a person Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman (January 16 27 BC). Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate. [5]
The Latin term Imperium Romanum (Roman Empire), probably the best-known Latin expression where the word imperium denotes a territory, indicates the part of the world under Roman rule. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power Roman expansion began in the days of the Republic, but reached its zenith under Emperor Trajan. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who At this territorial peak, the Roman Empire controlled approximately 5,900,000 km² (2,300,000 sq mi) of land surface. Because of the Empire's vast extent and long endurance, Roman influence upon the language, religion, architecture, philosophy, law and government of nations around the world lasts to this day.
Evolvement
Traditionally, historians make a distinction between the Principate, the period following Augustus until the Crisis of the Third Century, and the Dominate, the period from Diocletian until the end of the empire in the west. The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, Crisis of the Third Century (or "Military Anarchy" or "Imperial Crisis" was the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 The Dominate was the ' despotic ' latter phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire between its establishment in 27 BC and the formal date of the collapse Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate According to this distinction, during the Principate (from the Latin word princeps, meaning "first citizen") the realities of absolutism were formally concealed behind republican forms; while during the Dominate (from the word dominus, meaning "master" or "owner") imperial power was clearly shown, with golden crowns and ornate imperial ritual. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. More recently, historians have established that the situation was far more nuanced: certain historical forms continued until the Byzantine period, more than one thousand years after they were created, and displays of imperial majesty were common from the earliest days of the Empire. This section of writing is about Evolvement.
27 BCE–CE 14: Augustus
- Further information: Praetorian Guard, Roman triumph, Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, Arminius, and Publius Quinctilius Varus
The Battle of Actium resulted in the defeat and subsequent suicides of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt Octavian had also executed Cleopatra's young son and co-ruler, Caesarion. Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion (little Caesar Greek: Πτολεμαῖος ΙΕʹ Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ Καῖσαρ Caesarion may have been the (only) son of Julius Caesar. Therefore, by killing Caesarion, Octavian removed any possibility of a male rival emerging with closer blood ties to Julius Caesar. Octavian, now sole ruler of Rome, began a full-scale reformation of military, fiscal and political matters. These were intended to stabilise and pacify the Roman world and also to cement acceptance of the new regime.
Upon Octavian's accession as ruler of the Roman world, the Roman Senate gave Octavian the name Augustus. He had already adopted the title imperator, "commander-in-chief", as his first name. See Praenomen (Ancient Egypt for the pharaonic throne name In Roman naming conventions, the praenomen (literally forename It was a term that dated back to the days of the Republic and later evolved into emperor.
As adopted heir of Caesar, Augustus preferred to be called by this name. Caesar was a component of his family name. Julio-Claudian rule lasted for almost a century (from Julius Caesar in the mid-1st century BC to the emperor Nero in the mid-1st century AD). Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called By the time of the Flavian Dynasty, and the reign of Vespasian, and that of his two sons, Titus and Domitian, the term Caesar had evolved, almost de facto, from a family name into a formal title. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus ( December 30 39 &ndash September 13 81) was a Roman Emperor who Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death Derivatives of this title (such as czar and kaiser) endure to this day.
The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented number (around 50) because of the civil wars, were reduced to 28. Several legions, particularly those with members of doubtful loyalties, were simply disbanded. Other legions were amalgamated, a fact hinted by the title Gemina (Twin). [6] Augustus also created nine special cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the peace in Italy, keeping at least three of them stationed at Rome. A cohort (from the Latin cohors, plural cohortes) is a fairly large military unit generally consisting of one type of soldier These cohorts became known as the Praetorian Guard. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated
Octavian realised that autocracy and kingship were things that Romans had not experienced for centuries, and were wary of. Octavian did not want to be viewed as a tyrant and sought to retain the illusion of the constitutional republic. He attempted to make it seem as though the constitution of the Roman Republic was still functional. The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles Even Rome's past dictators, such as the brutal Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had only ruled Rome for short spans of time, never more than a year or two (with the exception of Julius Caesar). Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c In 27 BC, Octavian officially tried to relinquish all his extraordinary powers to the Roman Senate. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. In a carefully staged way, the senators, who by this time were mostly his partisans, refused and begged him to keep them for the sake of the republic and the people of Rome. Reportedly, the suggestion of Octavian stepping down as consul led to rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between the Senate and Octavian, known as the First Settlement. This agreement gave Augustus legitimacy as an autocrat of the people, and ensured that he would not be considered a tyrant, starting the long period that would be known as Pax Romana. Pax Romana ( Latin for " Roman Peace " was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force
Octavian split with the Senate the governorships of the provinces. The unruly provinces at the borders, where the vast majority of the legions were stationed, were administrated by imperial legates, chosen by the emperor himself. These provinces were classified as imperial provinces. An imperial province was a Roman province where the Emperor had the sole right to appoint governors The governors of the peaceful senatorial provinces were chosen by the Senate. A senatorial province was a Roman province where the Roman Senate had the right to appoint governors These provinces were usually peaceful and only a single legion was stationed in the senatorial province of Africa. The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War.
Before the Senate controlled the treasury, Augustus had mandated that the taxes of the Imperial provinces be destined to the Fiscus, which was administrated by persons chosen by, and answerable only to, Augustus. Augustus of Prima Porta is a 204m high marble statue of Augustus Caesar which was discovered on April 20, 1863 in the Villa of Livia at Fiscus was the name of the personal treasury of the emperors of Rome The revenue of the senatorial provinces continued to be sent to the Aerarium, under the supervision of the Senate. Aerarium (from Latin "aes" in its derived sense of "money" was the name (in full "aerarium stabulum" - treasure-house given in Ancient Rome This effectively made Augustus richer than the Senate, and more than able to pay the salarium (salary) of the legionaries, ensuring their continued loyalty. The Roman legionary was a professional soldier of the Roman army after the Marian reforms of 107 BC. This was ensured by the Imperial province of Roman Egypt, which was incredibly wealthy and also the most important grain supplier for the whole empire. Ægyptus redirects here See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire Senators were forbidden to even visit this province, as it was largely considered the personal fiefdom of the emperor himself.
Augustus renounced his consulship in 23 BC, but retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Augustus was granted the authority of a tribune (tribunicia potestas), though not the title, which allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and gave him the right to speak first at any meeting. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinise laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. No tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for consolidating the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his tribunician authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is still a matter of debate.
In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself; all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the praefects, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius (power over all proconsuls), the right to interfere in any province and override the decisions of any governor. With maius imperium, Augustus was the only individual able to grant a triumph to a successful general as he was ostensibly the leader of the entire Roman army. A Roman triumph ( la [[wikttriumphus triumphus]], Old Latin la triumpus, attested as the exclamation la TRIVMPE in the Carmen Arvale; via
All of these reforms were highly unusual in the eyes of Roman republican tradition, but the Senate was no longer composed of the republican patricians who had the courage to murder Caesar. Most of these senators had died in the Civil Wars, and the leaders of the conservative Republicans in the senate, such as Cato and Cicero, had long since died. Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC&ndash46 BC known as Cato the Younger ( Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather ( Cato the Elder Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Octavian had purged the Senate of any remaining suspect elements and planted the body with his own partisans. How free a hand the Senate had in all these transactions, and what backroom deals were made, remains unknown.
Attempting to secure the borders of the empire upon the rivers Danube and Elbe, Octavian ordered the invasions of Illyria, Moesia, and Pannonia (south of the Danube), and Germania (west of the Elbe). The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj The Elbe ( die Elbe Low German: de Ilv) is one of the major Rivers of Central Europe. The Roman province of Illyricum replaced the formerly independent kingdom of Illyria. Moesia (Μοισία Moisía; Мизия Miziya; Moesia Мезија Mezija) was an ancient region and Roman province situated in the Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, Germania was the Latin Exonym for At first everything went as planned, but then disaster struck. The Illyrian tribes revolted and had to be crushed, and three full legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus were ambushed and destroyed at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 by Germanic tribes led by Arminius. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place in the year 9 A Arminius, also known as Armin or Hermann (18 BC/17 BC - AD 21) was a chieftain of the Cherusci who defeated a Roman army in the Being cautious, Augustus secured all territories west of Rhine and contented himself with retaliatory raids. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge The rivers Rhine and Danube became the permanent borders of the Roman empire in the North.
Sources
The age of Augustus is far more poorly documented than the late Republican period that preceded it. While Livy wrote his magisterial history during Augustus's reign and his work covered all of Roman history through 9 BC, only epitomes survive of his coverage of the late Republican and Augustan periods. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome An epitome ( Greek epitemnein —to cut short is a summary or miniature form also used as a Synonym for embodiment Important primary sources for this period include:
- Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Augustus's highly partisan autobiography,
- Historiae Romanae by Velleius Paterculus, a disorganised work which remains the best annals of the Augustan period,
- Controversiae and Suasoriae of Seneca the Elder. Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ( Latin: "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus" is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus This article is about the Roman Historian; for the Rove beetle genus see Velleius Marcus Velleius Paterculus Annals ( Latin Annales, from annus, a year are a concise form of historical writing which record events chronologically year by year Lucius or Marcus Annaeus Seneca, known as Seneca the Elder and Seneca the Rhetorician (ca
Though primary accounts of this period are few, works of poetry, legislation and engineering from this period provide important insights into Roman life. Archaeology, including maritime archaeology, aerial surveys, epigraphic inscriptions on buildings, and Augustan coinage, has also provided valuable evidence about economic, social and military conditions. Maritime archaeology (also known as marine archaeology) is a discipline that studies human interaction with the Sea, lakes and rivers through the study of vessels Aerial survey is a Geomatics method of collecting information by utilising Aerial photography or from Remote sensing Imagery using other bands Epigraphy (ἐπιγραφολογία from Greek ἐπιγραφή — "inscription" is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs engraved The main Roman currency during most of the Roman Republic and the western half of the Roman Empire consisted of coins including the Aureus (gold the
Secondary sources on the Augustan Age include Tacitus, Dio Cassius, Plutarch and Lives of the Twelve Caesars by Suetonius. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Josephus's Jewish Antiquities is the important source for Judea in this period, which became a province during Augustus's reign. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus Antiquities of the Jews ( Antiquitates Judaicae in Latin) was a work published by the important Jewish historian Flavius Josephus about the Judea or Judæa ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard Yəhuda Tiberian Yəhûḏāh, "praised In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin provincia, pl provinciae) was the basic and until the Tetrarchy (circa
14–68: Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Augustus had three grandsons by his daughter Julia. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and None of the three lived long enough to succeed him. He therefore was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius, the son of his wife Livia from her first marriage. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Livia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Julia Augusta ( Classical Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA IVLIA•AVGVSTA (58 BC-29 AD was the wife of Augustus was a scion of the gens Julia (the Julian family), one of the most ancient patrician clans of Rome, while Tiberius was a scion of the gens Claudia, only slightly less ancient than the Julians. In Ancient Rome, a gens (pl gentes) was a Clan, Caste, or group of Families, that shared a common name (the Julius (fem Julia) is the Nomen of the gens Julia, an important Patrician family of Ancient Rome supposed to have descended from The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Gens Claudia was one of the oldest families in ancient Rome, and for centuries its members were regularly leaders of the city and empire Their three immediate successors were all descended both from the gens Claudia, through Tiberius's brother Nero Claudius Drusus, and from gens Julia, either through Julia the Elder, Augustus's daughter from his first marriage (Caligula and Nero), or through Augustus's sister Octavia Minor (Claudius). Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, born Decimus Claudius Drusus (the date of his name change is unknown and variously called Drusus, Drusus I, Nero Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Octavia Minor (69 - 11 BC also known as Octavia the Younger or simply Octavia, was the sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus (known also Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Historians thus refer to their dynasty as "Julasio-Claudide".
14–37: Tiberius
The early years of Tiberius's reign were peaceful and relatively benign. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Tiberius secured the overall power of Rome and enriched its treasury. However, Tiberius's reign soon became characterised by paranoia and slander. In 19, he was widely blamed for the death of his nephew, the popular Germanicus. Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) In 23 his own son Drusus died. More and more, Tiberius retreated into himself. He began a series of treason trials and executions. He left power in the hands of the commander of the guard, Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Lucius Aelius Seianus (20 BC &ndash October 18 31 AD commonly known as Sejanus, was an ambitious soldier friend and confidant of the Roman Emperor Tiberius Tiberius himself retired to live at his villa on the island of Capri in 26, leaving administration in the hands of Sejanus, who carried on the persecutions with relish. Capri ( Italian pronunciation Cápri usual English pronunciation Caprí is an Italian island off the Sorrentine Peninsula, on the south side Sejanus also began to consolidate his own power; in 31 he was named co-consul with Tiberius and married Livilla, the emperor's niece. At this point he was "hoisted by his own petard": the emperor's paranoia, which he had so ably exploited for his own gain, was turned against him. A petard was a small Bomb used to blow up gates and walls when breaching fortifications Sejanus was put to death, along with many of his associates, the same year. The persecutions continued until Tiberius's death in 37.
37–41: Caligula
At the time of Tiberius's death most of the people who might have succeeded him had been brutally murdered. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor The logical successor (and Tiberius's own choice) was his grandnephew, Germanicus's son Gaius (better known as "Caligula" or "little boots"). Caligula started out well, by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle's records. Unfortunately, he quickly lapsed into illness. The Caligula that emerged in late 37 demonstrated features of mental instability that led modern commentators to diagnose him with such illnesses as encephalitis, which can cause mental derangement, hyperthyroidism, or even a nervous breakdown (perhaps brought on by the stress of his position). Encephalitis is an acute Inflammation of the Brain, commonly caused by a viral Infection. Hyperthyroidism is the term for overactive tissue within the Thyroid gland resulting in overproduction and thus an excess of circulating free thyroid hormones Thyroxine Whatever the cause, there was an obvious shift in his reign from this point on, leading his biographers to think he was insane.
Most of what history remembers of Caligula comes from Suetonius, in his book Lives of the Twelve Caesars. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. According to Seutonius, Caligula once planned to appoint his favorite horse Incitatus to the Roman Senate. Incitatus was Roman emperor Caligula 's favored Horse. Its name is a Latin adjective meaning "swift" or "at full gallop" He ordered his soldiers to invade Britain to fight the Sea God Neptune, but changed his mind at the last minute and had them pick sea shells on the northern end of France instead. In Britain and Ireland the Iron Age lasted from about the 7th century BC until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century in non- Romanised Neptune (Neptūnus is the god of water and the sea in Roman mythology, a brother of Jupiter and Pluto. It is believed he carried on incestuous relations with his sisters. Incest refers to any sexual activity between closely related persons (often within the immediate family that is illegal or socially Taboo. He ordered a statue of himself to be erected in the Temple at Jerusalem, which would have undoubtedly led to revolt had he not been dissuaded from this plan by his friend king Herod. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the For other with this name see Agrippa (disambiguation. Agrippa I also called the Great (10 BC - 44 AD) King of the Jews, He ordered people to be secretly killed, and then called them to his palace. When they did not appear, he would jokingly remark that they must have committed suicide. In 41, Caligula was assassinated by the commander of the guard Cassius Chaerea. Cassius Chaerea (fl 1st century was a Centurion in the army of Germanicus and served in the Praetorian Guard under the emperor Caligula The only member of the imperial family left to take charge was his uncle, Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus.
41–54: Claudius
Claudius had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of his family. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to He was, however, neither paranoid like his uncle Tiberius, nor insane like his nephew Caligula, and was therefore able to administer the empire with reasonable ability. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor He improved the bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He also proceeded with the conquest and colonisation of Britain (in 43), and incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire. This page refers to the conquest begun in AD 43 For other Roman invasions see Caesar's invasions of Britain and Carausian Revolt. He ordered the construction of a winter port for Rome, at Ostia, thereby providing a place for grain from other parts of the Empire to be brought in inclement weather. The Megalopolis of ancient Rome could never be fed entirely from its own surrounding countryside especially as this region was increasingly used to produce fruit vegetables and other
In his own family life, Claudius was less successful. His wife Messalina cuckolded him; when he found out, he had her executed and married his niece, Agrippina the Younger. A cuckold is a married man whose wife has sex with other men In current usage it sometimes refers to non-married couples in committed relationships as well although the traditional meaning Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 She, along with several of his freedmen, held an inordinate amount of power over him, and although there are conflicting accounts about his death, she may very well have poisoned him in 54. Claudius was deified later that year. The death of Claudius paved the way for Agrippina's own son, the 17-year-old Lucius Domitius Nero.
54–68: Nero
Nero ruled from 54 to 68. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called During his rule, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63), the suppression of the Brython revolt (60–61) and improving cultural ties with Greece. Nero, though, is remembered as a tyrant and the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned" in 64. A military coup drove Nero into hiding. Facing execution at the hands of the Roman Senate, he reportedly committed suicide in 68. According to Cassius Dio, Nero's last words were "Jupiter, what an artist perishes in me!"[7]
Rebellions
In peacetime it was relatively easy to manage the empire from its capital city, Rome. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Rebellions were expected to occur from time to time: a general or a governor would gain the loyalty of his officers through a mixture of personal charisma, promises and simple bribes. A conquered tribe would rebel, or a conquered city would revolt. This would be a bad, but not a catastrophic, event. The Roman legions were spread around the borders, and the rebel leader would—in normal circumstances—have only one or two legions under his command. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Loyal legions would be detached from other points of the empire, and would eventually drown the rebellion in blood. This happened even more easily in cases of a small local native uprising, as the rebels would normally have no great military experience. Unless the emperor was weak, incompetent, hated, and/or universally despised, these rebellions would be a local and isolated event.
During real wartime however, which could develop from a rebellion or an uprising, like the massive Jewish rebellion, this was totally and dangerously different. In a full-blown military campaign, the legions under the command of the generals like Vespasian were of a much greater number. In the Military sciences a military campaign is a term applied to large scale, long duration significant Military strategy plan incorporating Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who Therefore a paranoid or wise emperor would hold some members of the general's family as hostages, to make certain of the latter's loyalty. A hostage is a person or entity which is held by a captor The original definition meant that this was handed over by one of two belligerent parties to the other or seized as security In effect, Nero held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis the governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and the brother-in-law of Vespasian. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death Quintus Petilius Cerialis Caesius Rufus (born ca 30 was a Roman general Ostia Antica was the Harbour of Ancient Rome and perhaps its first colonia. In normal circumstances this would be quite enough. In fact, the rule of Nero ended with the revolt of the Praetorian Guard who had been bribed in the name of Galba. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated Servius Sulpicius Galba ( December 24, 3 BC &ndash January 15, 69) also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar It became all too obvious that the Praetorian Guard was a sword of Damocles, whose loyalty was all too often bought and who became increasingly greedy. Following their example the legions at the borders would also increasingly participate in the civil wars. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state This was a dangerous development as this would weaken the whole Roman Army.
The main enemy in the West were, arguably, the "barbarian tribes" beyond the Rhine and the Danube. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Augustus had tried to conquer them, but ultimately failed and these "barbarians" were greatly feared. But by and large they were left in peace, in order to fight amongst themselves, and were simply too divided to pose a serious threat.
In the East lay the empire of Parthia (Persia). Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Crassus, a member of the First Triumvirate during the late republic, attempted an invasion in 53 BC, but was defeated by Persian forces led by Surena in the Battle of Carrhae. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca See also the First Triumvirate (Argentina which came to power in 1811 The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Surena may refer to either a noble family of Parthia also known as the House of Suren, or to a renowned 1st century BCE General Surena who was The Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC was a decisive victory for the Parthian Spahbod Surena over the Roman general Crassus near Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated, but the threat itself was ultimately impossible to destroy. Parthia would eventually become Rome's greatest rival and foremost enemy.
In the case of a Roman civil war these two enemies would seize the opportunity to invade Roman territory in order to raid and plunder. The two respective military frontiers became a matter of major political importance because of the high number of legions stationed there. All too often the local generals would rebel, starting a new civil war. To control the western border from Rome was easy, as it was relatively close. To control both frontiers, at the same time, during wartime, was somewhat more difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. It was no longer enough to be a good administrator; emperors were increasingly near the troops in order to control them and no single Emperor could be at the two frontiers at the same time. This problem would plague the ruling emperors time and time again and many future emperors would follow this path to power.
68–69: Year of the Four Emperors
The forced suicide of emperor Nero, in 68, was followed by a brief period of civil war (the first Roman civil war since Antony's death in 31 BC) known as the "year of the four emperors". The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69 in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called List of Civil wars involving Rome. There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Between June 68 and December 69, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the Flavian dynasty. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Servius Sulpicius Galba ( December 24, 3 BC &ndash January 15, 69) also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar For other uses see Otho (disambiguation. Marcus Salvius Otho ( April 25, 32 – April 16, 69) also called Marcus Aulus Vitellius Germanicus, born Aulus Vitellius and commonly known as Vitellius ( 24 September, 15 &ndash 22 December, 69 Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who The Flavian dynasty was a Roman imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96 AD encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69&ndash79 This period of civil war has become emblematic of the cyclic political disturbances in the history of the Roman Empire. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious implications, such as the outbreak of the Batavian rebellion. The Revolt of the Batavi took place in the Roman province of Germania Inferior (S
69–96: Flavian dynasty
The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor.
69–79: Vespasian
Vespasian was a remarkably successful Roman general who had been given rule over much of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who He had supported the imperial claims of Galba, after whose death Vespasian became a major contender for the throne. Servius Sulpicius Galba ( December 24, 3 BC &ndash January 15, 69) also called Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Following the suicide of Otho, Vespasian was able to take control of Rome's winter grain supply in Egypt, placing him in a good position to defeat his remaining rival, Vitellius. For other uses see Otho (disambiguation. Marcus Salvius Otho ( April 25, 32 – April 16, 69) also called Marcus The Megalopolis of ancient Rome could never be fed entirely from its own surrounding countryside especially as this region was increasingly used to produce fruit vegetables and other On December 20 69, some of Vespasian's partisans were able to occupy Rome. Vitellius was murdered by his own troops and, the next day, Vespasian, then sixty years old, was confirmed as Emperor by the Senate.
Although Vespasian was considered an autocrat by the senate, he mostly continued the weakening of that body that had been going since the reign of Tiberius. An autocracy is a Form of government in which the Political power is held by a single self-appointed ruler The degree of the Senate's subservience can be seen from the post-dating of his accession to power, by the Senate, to July 1, when his troops proclaimed him emperor, instead of December 21, when the Senate confirmed his appointment. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Events 69 - The end of the Year of the four emperors: Following Galba, Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian Another example was his assumption of the censorship in 73, giving him power over the make up the Senate. He used that power to expel dissident senators. At the same time, he increased the number of senators from 200, at that low level because of the actions of Nero and the year of crisis that followed, to 1,000; most of the new senators coming not from Rome but from Italy and the urban centers within the western provinces.
Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed upon it by Nero's excesses and the civil wars. To do this, he not only increased taxes, but created new forms of taxation. Also, through his power as censor, he was able to carefully examine the fiscal status of every city and province, many paying taxes based upon information and structures more than a century old. Through this sound fiscal policy, he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and embark on public works projects. It was he who first commissioned the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum); he also built a forum whose centerpiece was a temple to Peace. The Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre ( Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio This page refers to the main forum in the center of Rome See Imperial forums or Other forums in Rome (below for other forums in Rome and In addition, he allotted sizable subsidies to the arts, creating a chair of rhetoric at Rome.
Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces in his decades of office, having posts all across the empire, both east and west. In the west he gave considerable favoritism to Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) in which he granted Latin rights to over three hundred towns and cities, promoting a new era of urbanisation throughout the western (formerly barbarian) provinces. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Latin Right (Latin ius Latii or Latinitas or Latium) was a civic status given by the Romans intermediate between full Roman citizenship Through the additions he made to the Senate he allowed greater influence of the provinces in the Senate, helping to promote unity in the empire. He also extended the borders of the empire, mostly done to help strengthen the frontier defences, one of Vespasian's main goals. The crisis of 69 had wrought havoc on the army. One of the most marked problems had been the support lent by provincial legions to men who supposedly represented the best will of their province. This was mostly caused by the placement of native auxiliary units in the areas they were recruited in, a practice Vespasian stopped. He mixed auxiliary units with men from other areas of the empire or moved the units away from where they were recruited to help stop this. Also, to reduce further the chances of another military coup, he broke up the legions and, instead of placing them in singular concentrations, broke them up along the border. Perhaps the most important military reform he undertook was the extension of legion recruitment from exclusively Italy to Gaul and Hispania, in line with the Romanisation of those areas.
79–81: Titus
Titus, the eldest son of Vespasian, had been groomed to rule. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus ( December 30 39 &ndash September 13 81) was a Roman Emperor who Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Titus ( December 30 39 &ndash September 13 81) was a Roman Emperor who He had served as an effective general under his father, helping to secure the east and eventually taking over the command of Roman armies in Syria and Iudaea, quelling the significant Jewish revolt going on at the time. Syria was a Roman province, conquered in 64 BC by Pompey, as a consequence of his military presence after pursing victory in the Third Mithridatic Kingdom of Judea redirects here For the 10th-6th century BCE kingdom see Kingdom of Judah Iudaea ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard He shared the consul for several years with his father and received the best tutelage. Although there was some trepidation when he took office because of his known dealings with some of the less respectable elements of Roman society, he quickly proved his merit, even recalling many exiled by his father as a show of good faith.
However, his short reign was marked by disaster: in 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted in Pompeii, and in 80, a fire destroyed much of Rome. Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples Pompeii is a ruined and partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples and Caserta in the Italian region of Campania, in His generosity in rebuilding after these tragedies made him very popular. Titus was very proud of his work on the vast amphitheater begun by his father. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished edifice during the year 80, celebrating with a lavish show that featured 100 gladiators and lasted 100 days. Gladiators (gladiatores "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword" from la ''gladius'' "sword" were professional fighters in Ancient Rome who fought Titus died in 81, at the age of 41 of what is presumed to be illness; it was rumored that his brother Domitian murdered him in order to become his successor, although these claims have little merit. Whatever the case, he was greatly mourned and missed.
81–96: Domitian
All of the Flavians had rather poor relations with the Senate, because of their autocratic rule, however Domitian was the only one who encountered significant problems. Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death His continuous control as consul and censor throughout his rule; the former his father having shared in much the same way as his Julio-Claudian forerunners, the latter presenting difficulty even to obtain, were unheard of. In addition, he often appeared in full military regalia as an imperator, an affront to the idea of what the Principate-era emperor's power was based upon: the emperor as the princeps. The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. The Latin word Princeps (plural principes) means exactly 'a prime' His reputation in the Senate aside, he kept the people of Rome happy through various measures, including donations to every resident of Rome, wild spectacles in the newly finished Colosseum, and continuing the public works projects of his father and brother. He also apparently had the good fiscal sense of his father, because although he spent lavishly his successors came to power with a well-endowed treasury.
However, towards the end of his reign Domitian became extremely paranoid, which probably had its initial roots in the treatment he received by his father: although given significant responsibility, he was never trusted with anything important without supervision. This flowered into the severe and perhaps pathological repercussions following the short-lived rebellion in 89 of Antonius Saturninus, a governor and commander in Germany. Domitian's paranoia led to a large number of arrests, executions, and seizure of property (which might help explain his ability to spend so lavishly). Eventually it got to the point where even his closest advisers and family members lived in fear, leading them to his murder in 96 orchestrated by his enemies in the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased Julia Flavia), members of the Praetorian Guard and empress Domitia Longina. See other meanings of Flavia. Flavia Julia Titi ( 17 September 64 – 91 was daughter and only child to the Emperor Titus Domitia Longina (c 53 &ndash c 130 was an Empress and wife to the Roman Emperor Domitian.
96–180: Five Good Emperors
The next century came to be known as the period of the "Five Good Emperors", in which the succession was peaceful though not dynastic and the Empire was prosperous. The Five Good Emperors is a term that refers to five consecutive emperors of the Roman Empire who represented a line of virtuous and just rule — Nerva, Trajan A dynasty is a succession of rulers who belong to the same family for generations The emperors of this period were Nerva (96–98), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), each being adopted by his predecessor as his successor during the former's lifetime. Marcus Cocceius Nerva was also the name of a Roman emperor NERVA is an acronym for Nuclear Engine for Rocket Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor While their respective choices of successor were based upon the merits of the individual men they selected, it has been argued that the real reason for the lasting success of the adoptive scheme of succession lay more with the fact that none but the last had a natural heir.
The last 2 of the "Five Good Emperors" and Commodus are also called Antonines. This page is on the Roman imperial dynasty for Catholic clergy of the same name see Anthonians The Antonines most often referred to were two successive
96–98: Nerva
After his accession, Nerva set a new tone: he released those imprisoned for treason, banned future prosecutions for treason, restored much confiscated property, and involved the Roman Senate in his rule. Marcus Cocceius Nerva was also the name of a Roman emperor NERVA is an acronym for Nuclear Engine for Rocket He probably did so as a means to remain relatively popular (and therefore alive), but this did not completely aid him. Support for Domitian in the army remained strong, and in October 97 the Praetorian Guard laid siege to the Imperial Palace on the Palatine Hill and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Nerva then adopted Trajan, a commander of the armies on the German frontier, as his successor shortly thereafter in order to bolster his own rule. Casperius Aelianus, the Guard Prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, was later executed under Trajan. Casperius Aelianus, who served as Praetorian Prefect under the emperors Domitian and Nerva, was a Praetorian Prefect loyal to the Roman
98–117: Trajan
In 112, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of Armenia, a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier, Trajan marched first on Armenia. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani He deposed the king and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthia itself, taking the cities of Babylon, Seleucia and finally the capital of Ctesiphon in 116. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq For the Syrian seaport of the same name that figures in the travels of Saint Paul see Seleucia Pieria. For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, whence he declared Mesopotamia a new province of the empire and lamented that he was too old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' But he did not stop there. Later in 116, he captured the great city of Susa. Susa ( Biblical שושן ( Shushan) also Greek: Σοῦσα Transliterated as Sousa; Latin Susa) He deposed the Parthian King Osroes I and put his own puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne. Osroes I of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire c 109–129 He succeeded his brother Pacorus II. Parthamaspates, Roman Client king of Parthia and later of Osroene, was the son of the Parthian emperor Osroes I. Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east. During his rule, the Roman Empire was to its largest extent; it was quite possible for a Roman to travel from Britain all the way to East Asia without leaving Roman territory. Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410
117–138: Hadrian
Despite his own excellence as a military administrator, Hadrian's reign was marked by a general lack of major military conflicts but to defend the vast territories the empire had. He surrendered Trajan's conquests in Mesopotamia, considering them to be indefencible. There was almost a war with Parthia around 121, but the threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace. Hadrian's army crushed a massive Jewish uprising in Judea (132–135) led by Simon Bar Kokhba. Background After the failed Great Jewish Revolt in the year 70 the Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province Simon bar Kokhba ( Hebrew: שמעון בר כוכבא, also transliterated as Bar Kokhva or Bar Kochba) was the Jewish leader who led what
Hadrian was the first emperor to extensively tour the provinces, donating money for local construction projects as he went. In Britain, he ordered the construction of a wall, the famous Hadrian's Wall as well as various other such defences in Germany and Northern Africa. Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. His domestic policy was one of relative peace and prosperity.
138–161: Antoninus Pius
Antoninus Pius's reign was comparatively peaceful; there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in Mauretania, Judaea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britain, but none of them are considered serious. Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius The unrest in Britain is believed to have led to the construction of the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, although it was soon abandoned. The Antonine Wall is a stone and turf Fortification, built by the Romans across what is now the Central belt of Scotland
161–180: Marcus Aurelius
Germanic tribes and other people launched many raids along the long north European border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube—Germans, in turn, may have been under attack from more warlike tribes farther east. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor His campaigns against them are commemorated on the column of Marcus Aurelius. In Asia, a revitalised Parthian Empire renewed its assault. Marcus Aurelius sent his joint emperor Verus to command the legions in the East to face it. Verus may refer to Verus (senator (died 219 Roman centurion and senator Verus (gladiator, famous Roman gladiator He was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops, but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow Marcus. The plan succeeded—Verus remained loyal until his death on campaign in 169.
180–192: Commodus
The period of the "Five Good Emperors" was brought to an end by the reign of Commodus from 180 to 192. Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius, making him the first direct successor in a century, breaking the scheme of adoptive successors that had turned out so well. He was co-emperor with his father from 177. When he became sole emperor upon the death of his father in 180, it was at first seen as a hopeful sign by the people of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, as generous and magnanimous as his father was, Commodus turned out to be just the opposite. In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, it is noted that Commodus at first ruled the empire well. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (known popularly as The History) was written by English Historian Edward Gibbon ( April 27, 1737 January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. However, after an assassination attempt, involving a conspiracy by certain members of his family, Commodus became paranoid and slipped into insanity. The Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace", ended with the reign of Commodus. Pax Romana ( Latin for " Roman Peace " was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force One could argue that the assassination attempt began the long decline of the Roman Empire.
193–235: Severan dynasty
The Severan Dynasty includes the increasingly troubled reigns of Septimius Severus (193–211), Caracalla (211–217), Macrinus (217–218), Elagabalus (218–222), and Alexander Severus (222–235). The Severan dynasty was a Roman imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 193 and 235. The Severan dynasty was a Roman imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 193 and 235. Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor Caracalla ( April 4 188 &ndash April 8, 217) born Lucius Septimius Bassianus and later Marcus Opellius Macrinus (ca 165 - June 218 was Roman emperor for fourteen months in 217 and 218 Elagabalus (c 203 &ndash March 11 222) also known as Heliogabalus or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, was a Roman Emperor of the Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, commonly called Alexander Severus, (October 1 208 &ndash March 18, 235) was the last Roman emperor The founder of the dynasty, Lucius Septimius Severus, belonged to a leading native family of Leptis Magna in Africa who allied himself with a prominent Syrian family by his marriage to Julia Domna. Leptis Magna,(لبدة also known as Lectis Magna (or Lepcis Magna as it is sometimes spelled also called Lpqy or Neapolis, was a prominent city Julia Domna (170-217 was a member of the Severan dynasty of the Roman Empire. Their provincial background and cosmopolitan alliance, eventually giving rise to imperial rulers of Syrian background, Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, testifies to the broad political franchise and economic development of the Roman empire that had been achieved under the Antonines. This page is on the Roman imperial dynasty for Catholic clergy of the same name see Anthonians The Antonines most often referred to were two successive A generally successful ruler, Septimius Severus cultivated the army's support with substantial remuneration in return for total loyalty to the emperor and substituted equestrian officers for senators in key administrative positions. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military In this way, he successfully broadened the power base of the imperial administration throughout the empire, also by abolishing the regular standing jury courts of Republican times. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the
Septimius Severus's son, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus—nicknamed "Caracalla"—removed all legal and political distinction between Italians and provincials, enacting the Constitutio Antoniniana in 212 which extended full Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor Caracalla ( April 4 188 &ndash April 8, 217) born Lucius Septimius Bassianus and later The Constitutio Antoniniana ( Latin: "Constitution Edict of Antoninus" (aka Edict of Caracalla was an edict issued in 212, by the Roman Emperor Caracalla was also responsible for erecting the famous Baths of Caracalla in Rome, their design serving as an architectural model for many subsequent monumental public buildings. The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths or Thermae, built in Rome between AD 212 and 216 during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Increasingly unstable and autocratic, Caracalla was assassinated by the praetorian prefect Macrinus in 217, who succeeded him briefly as the first emperor not of senatorial rank. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated Marcus Opellius Macrinus (ca 165 - June 218 was Roman emperor for fourteen months in 217 and 218 The imperial court, however, was dominated by formidable women who arranged the succession of Elagabalus in 218, and Alexander Severus, the last of the dynasty, in 222. Elagabalus (c 203 &ndash March 11 222) also known as Heliogabalus or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, was a Roman Emperor of the Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, commonly called Alexander Severus, (October 1 208 &ndash March 18, 235) was the last Roman emperor In the last phase of the Severan principate, the power of the Senate was somewhat revived and a number of fiscal reforms were enacted. Despite early successes against the Sassanian Empire in the East, Alexander Severus's increasing inability to control the army led eventually to its mutiny and his assassination in 235. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The death of Alexander Severus ushered in a subsequent period of soldier-emperors and almost a half-century of civil war and strife. Thus the Pax Romana, which had started at the death of Octavian, ended after about 200 years.
235–284: Crisis of the Third Century
The Crisis of the Third Century is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284. Crisis of the Third Century (or "Military Anarchy" or "Imperial Crisis" was the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 It is also called the period of the "military anarchy".
After Augustus declared an end to the Civil Wars of the 1st century BC, the Empire had enjoyed a period of limited external invasion, internal peace and economic prosperity (the Pax Romana). Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Pax Romana ( Latin for " Roman Peace " was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force In the 3rd century, however, the Empire underwent military, political and economic crises and began to collapse. There was constant barbarian invasion, civil war, and hyperinflation. Certain figures in this article use Scientific notation for readability Part of the problem had its origins in the nature of the Augustan settlement. Augustus, intending to downplay his position, had not established rules for the succession of emperors.
Already in the 1st and 2nd century, disputes about the succession had led to short civil wars, but in the 3rd century these civil wars became a constant factor, as no single candidate succeeded in quickly overcoming his opponents or holding on to the Imperial position for very long. Palmyra ( Arabic: تدمر Tadmor) was in ancient times an important city of central Syria, located in an Oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Between 235 and 284 no fewer than 25 different emperors ruled Rome (the Soldier-Emperors). All but two of these emperors were either murdered or killed in battle. The organisation of the Roman military, concentrated on the borders, could provide no remedy against foreign invasions once the invaders had broken through. A decline in citizens' participation in local administration forced the Emperors to step in, gradually increasing the central government's responsibility.
This period ended with the accession of Diocletian. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Diocletian, either by skill or sheer luck, solved many of the acute problems experienced during this crisis. However, the core problems would remain and cause the eventual destruction of the western empire. The transitions of this period mark the beginnings of Late Antiquity and the end of Classical Antiquity. Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in
284–301: Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
The transition from a single united empire to the later divided Western and Eastern empires was a gradual transformation. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals In July 285, Diocletian defeated rival Emperor Carinus and briefly became sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Marcus Aurelius Carinus (died 285 was Roman Emperor (283 &ndash July 285 and elder son of the Emperor Carus, on whose accession he was appointed governor
Diocletian saw that the vast Roman Empire was ungovernable by a single emperor in the face of internal pressures and military threats on two fronts. Porphyry is a variety of Igneous rock consisting of large-grained Crystals such as Feldspar or Quartz, dispersed in a fine-grained Byzantine architecture is the Architecture of the Byzantine Empire. "Saint Mark" redirects here For other uses see Saint Mark (disambiguation. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the He therefore split the Empire in half along a northwest axis just east of Italy, and created two equal Emperors to rule under the title of Augustus. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Diocletian himself was the Augustus of the eastern half, and he made his long-time friend Maximian Augustus of the western half. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c 250 &ndash c In doing so, he effectively created what would become the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire.
In 293 authority was further divided, as each Augustus took a junior Emperor called a Caesar to aid him in administrative matters, and to provide a line of succession; Galerius became Caesar under Diocletian and Constantius Chlorus Caesar under Maximian. Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 This constituted what is called the Tetrarchy (in Greek: "leadership of four") by modern scholars. Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly After Rome had been plagued by bloody disputes about the supreme authority, this finally formalised a peaceful succession of the emperor: in each half a Caesar would rise up to replace the Augustus and select a new Caesar. On May 1, 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in favor of their Caesars. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office Galerius named the two new Caesars: his nephew Maximinus for himself, and Flavius Valerius Severus for Constantius. This article deals with 4th century Roman Emperor For other uses of the name see Maximin. Flavius Valerius Severus (or rarely Severus II) (died 16 September, 307) was a Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 307 The arrangement worked well under Diocletian and Maximian and shortly thereafter. The internal tensions within the Roman government were less acute than they had been. In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon notes that this arrangement worked well because of the affinity the four rulers had for each other. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (known popularly as The History) was written by English Historian Edward Gibbon ( April 27, 1737 January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. Gibbon says that this arrangement has been compared to a "chorus of music". With the withdrawal of Diocletian and Maximian, this harmony disappeared.
After an initial period of tolerance, Diocletian, who was a fervent pagan and was worried about the ever-increasing numbers of Christians in the Empire, persecuted them with zeal unknown since the time of Nero; this was to be one of the greatest persecutions the Christians endured in history. The Diocletianic Persecution was the last and most severe episode of Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire.
305–363: Constantinian dynasty
Constantine and his sons
.jpg/180px-Map_of_Imperial_Rome_by_William_R_Shepherd_(died_1934).jpg)
The Tetrarchy would effectively collapse with the death of Constantius Chlorus on July 25, 306. The Constantinian dynasty is an informal name for the ruling family of the Roman Empire from Constantius Chlorus († 305) to the death of Julian Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Events By Place Roman Empire July 25 — Constantine I is proclaimed Emperor by his troops Constantius's troops in Eboracum immediately proclaimed his son Constantine the Great as Augustus. Eboracum was a fort and City in Roman Britain. Today it is known as York, located in North Yorkshire, England. Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine In August 306, Galerius promoted Severus to the position of Augustus. A revolt in Rome supported another claimant to the same title: Maxentius, son of Maximian, who was proclaimed Augustus on October 28, 306. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c 278 - 28 October 312) was Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 312 Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Events By Place Roman Empire July 25 — Constantine I is proclaimed Emperor by his troops His election was supported by the Praetorian Guard. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated This left the Empire with five rulers: four Augusti (Galerius, Constantine, Severus and Maxentius) and one Caesar (Maximinus).
The year 307 saw the return of Maximian to the rank of Augustus alongside his son Maxentius, creating a total of six rulers of the Empire. Galerius and Severus campaigned against them in Italy. Severus was killed under command of Maxentius on September 16, 307. Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers Events Roman Empire March 31 — After divorcing his wife Minervina Constantine marries Fausta the daughter of the retired Emperor The two Augusti of Italy also managed to ally themselves with Constantine by having Constantine marry Fausta, the daughter of Maximian and sister of Maxentius. Fausta Flavia Maxima, Roman Empress (289-326AD She was the daughter of the Roman Emperor Maximianus. At the end of 307, the Empire had four Augusti (Maximian, Galerius, Constantine and Maxentius) and a sole Caesar.
In 311 Galerius officially put an end to the persecution of Christians, and Constantine legalised Christianity definitively in 313 as evidenced in the so-called Edict of Milan. The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by emperors Constantine and Licinius, that proclaimed Religious toleration in the Roman Empire.
The Empire was parted again among his three surviving sons. The Western Roman Empire was divided among the eldest son Constantine II and the youngest son Constans. The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Flavius Claudius Constantinus, known in English as Constantine II, (316 – 340 was Roman Emperor from 337 to 340 Flavius Julius Constans (320-350 was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 337 to 350 The Eastern Roman Empire along with Constantinople were the share of middle son Constantius II. Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II ( 7 August, 317 - November 3, 361) was a Roman Emperor
Constantine II was killed in conflict with his youngest brother in 340. Constans was himself killed in conflict with the army-proclaimed Augustus Magnentius on January 18, 350. Flavius Magnus Magnentius (303– August 11, 353) was a Roman usurper ( January 18, 350 – August 11, 353 Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor Events By Place Roman Empire January 18 — Magnentius is proclaimed emperor by the army in Autun. Magnentius was at first opposed in the city of Rome by self-proclaimed Augustus Nepotianus, a paternal first cousin of Constans. Nepotianus was killed alongside his mother Eutropia. Eutropia (d after 325 the wife of Emperor Maximian. She was of Syrian origin His other first cousin Constantia convinced Vetriano to proclaim himself Caesar in opposition to Magnentius. Vetranio (d c 360 born in the province of Moesia in a part of the region located in modern Serbia, is sometimes but apparently incorrectly referred to as Vetriano served a brief term from March 1 to December 25, 350. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Events 274 - Roman Emperor Aurelian Events By Place Roman Empire January 18 — Magnentius is proclaimed emperor by the army in Autun. He was then forced to abdicate by the legitimate Augustus Constantius. The usurper Magnentius would continue to rule the Western Roman Empire until 353 while in conflict with Constantius. The following is an attempted list of usurpers in the Roman Empire. His eventual defeat and suicide left Constantius as sole Emperor.
Constantius's rule would however be opposed again in 360. He had named his paternal half-cousin and brother-in-law Julian as his Caesar of the Western Roman Empire in 355. Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331 or 332 to 26 June 363) was Roman Emperor (Caesar During the following five years, Julian had a series of victories against invading Germanic tribes, including the Alamanni. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany This allowed him to secure the Rhine frontier. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge His victorious Gallic troops thus ceased campaigning. Constantius sent orders for the troops to be transferred to the east as reinforcements for his own currently unsuccessful campaign against Shapur II of Persia. Shapur II was the ninth King of the Sassanid Empire from 309 to 379 This order led the Gallic troops to an insurrection. An insurgency is a violent internal uprising against a sovereign government that lacks the organization of a revolution They proclaimed their commanding officer Julian to be an Augustus. Both Augusti were not ready to lead their troops to another Roman Civil War. List of Civil wars involving Rome. There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. Constantius's timely demise on November 3, 361 prevented this war from ever occurring. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina. Events By Place Roman Empire Julian the Apostate becomes Roman Emperor, and tries to restore paganism in the empire
361–364: Julian and Jovian
Julian would serve as the sole Emperor for two years. Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331 or 332 to 26 June 363) was Roman Emperor (Caesar For other meanings see Jovian (disambiguation. Flavius Iovianus, Anglicized to Jovian, ( 331 - 17 February Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331 or 332 to 26 June 363) was Roman Emperor (Caesar He had received his baptism as a Christian years before, but no longer considered himself one. In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth His reign would see the ending of restriction and persecution of paganism introduced by his uncle and father-in-law Constantine I and his cousins and brothers-in-law Constantine II, Constans and Constantius II. He instead placed similar restrictions and unofficial persecution of Christianity. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings His edict of toleration in 362 ordered the reopening of pagan temples and the reinstitution of alienated temple properties, and, more problematically for the Christian Church, the recalling of previously exiled Christian bishops. An edict is an announcement of a Law, often associated with monarchism. Fanum At the temples Romans prayed and made Ritual Worship Offerings of a small gift or Animal sacrifices to their Roman Church (disambiguation Christian Church and the word church are used to denote both a Christian association of people and a Place of worship A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight Returning Orthodox and Arian bishops resumed their conflicts, thus further weakening the Church as a whole. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea.
Julian himself was not a traditional pagan. His personal beliefs were largely influenced by Neoplatonism and Theurgy; he reputedly believed he was the reincarnation of Alexander the Great. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by Theurgy (from Greek θεουργία) describes the practice of Rituals sometimes seen as magical in nature performed with the intention of Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' He produced works of philosophy arguing his beliefs. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language His brief renaissance of paganism would, however, end with his death. Julian eventually resumed the war against Shapur II of Persia. Shapur II was the ninth King of the Sassanid Empire from 309 to 379 He received a mortal wound in battle and died on June 26, 363. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian is killed during the retreat from the Sassanid Empire. Events By Place Roman Empire March 5 — Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 against the According to Gibbon in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, upon being mortally wounded by a dart, he was carried back to his camp. He gave a farewell speech, in which he refused to name a successor. He then proceeded to debate the philosophical nature of the soul with his generals. He then requested a glass of water, and shortly after drinking it, died. He was considered a hero by pagan sources of his time and a villain by Christian ones. Gibbon wrote quite favorably about Julian. Contemporary historians have treated him as a controversial figure.
Julian died childless and with no designated successor. The officers of his army elected the rather obscure officer Jovian emperor. For other meanings see Jovian (disambiguation. Flavius Iovianus, Anglicized to Jovian, ( 331 - 17 February He is remembered for signing an unfavorable peace treaty with Persia, ceding terrorities won from the Persians, dating back to Trajan. A peace treaty is an agreement between two hostile parties usually countries or governments that formally ends an armed conflict The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who He restored the privileges of Christianity. He is considered a Christian himself, though little is known of his beliefs. Jovian himself died on February 17, 364. Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori Events By Place Roman Empire Jovian surrenders Mesopotamia to the Persians.
364–392: Valentinian dynasty
Valentinian and Valens
The role of choosing a new Augustus fell again to army officers. The Valentinian Dynasty, consisting of four emperors ruled the Western Roman Empire from 364 to 392 and the Eastern Roman Empire from 364 to 378 On February 28, 364, Pannonian officer Valentinian I was elected Augustus in Nicaea, Bithynia. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule Events By Place Roman Empire Jovian surrenders Mesopotamia to the Persians. Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, Flavius Valentinianus, known in English as Valentinian I, ( 321 - November 17, 375) was Roman Emperor from 364 until his death Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius However, the army had been left leaderless twice in less than a year, and the officers demanded Valentinian choose a co-ruler. On March 28 Valentinian chose his own younger brother Valens and the two new Augusti parted the Empire in the pattern established by Diocletian: Valentinian would administer the Western Roman Empire, while Valens took control over the Eastern Roman Empire. Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. This article is about the Roman Emperor For other people called Valens see Valens Flavius Julius Valens ( Latin: DOMINVS
Valens's election would soon be disputed. Procopius, a Cilician maternal cousin of Julian, had been considered a likely heir to his cousin but was never designated as such. Procopius ( 326 - May 27, 366) was a Roman usurper against Valentinian I, and member of the Constantinian dynasty. Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria He had been in hiding since the election of Jovian. In 365, while Valentinian was at Paris and then at Rheims to direct the operations of his generals against the Alamanni, Procopius managed to bribe two legions assigned to Constantinople and take control of the Eastern Roman capital. The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany Bribery, a form of pecuniary corruption is an act usually implying money or gift given that alters the behaviour of the recipient in ways not consistent with the duties of that person For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS He was proclaimed Augustus on September 28 and soon extended his control to both Thrace and Bithynia. Events 48 BC - Pompey the Great is assassinated on orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt after landing in Egypt. Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe War between the two rival Eastern Roman Emperors continued until Procopius was defeated. Valens had him executed on May 27, 366. Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed Events By Place Roman Empire January 2 — The Alamanni cross the frozen Rhine in large numbers invading the Roman
On August 4, 367, a third Augustus was proclaimed by the other two. Events 70 - The Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. Events By Place Roman Empire Great Conspiracy: A general assault of Saxons, Irish, and Attacotti, combined His father Valentinian and uncle Valens chose the eight-year-old Gratian as a nominal co-ruler, obviously as a means to secure succession. For other figures with this name see Gratian (disambiguation.
In April 375 Valentinian I led his army in a campaign against the Quadi, a Germanic tribe which had invaded his native province of Pannonia. Quadi were a smaller Germanic tribe, about which little definitive information is known The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic During an audience with an embassy from the Quadi at Brigetio on the Danube, a town now part of modern-day Komárno, Slovak republic, Valentinian suffered a burst blood vessel in the skull while angrily yelling at the people gathered. A diplomatic mission is a group of people from one State or an international Inter-governmental organization (such as the United Nations) present in The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Komárno ( Komárom colloquially Révkomárom, Komorn Serbian: Коморан or Komoran) is a town in Slovakia at the Slovakia (long form Slovak Republic; Slovak:, long form, is a Landlocked country in Central Europe with a population of over five million This injury resulted in his death on November 17, 375. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers Events By Place Roman Empire Valentinian I leaves Trier to repress the rebellious Quadi in Slovakia.
Succession did not go as planned. Gratian was then a 16-year-old and arguably ready to act as Emperor, but the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant half-brother emperor under the title Valentinian II. Flavius Valentinianus Junior (371 – 15 May 392) known usually by his Anglicised name Valentinian II, was a Roman Emperor
Gratian acquiesced in their choice and administered the Gallic part of the Western Roman Empire. Italy, Illyria and Africa were officially administrated by his brother and his stepmother Justina. Illyria ( Albanian Iliria ( Ancient Greek; Latin Illyria; see also Illyricum) was in Classical antiquity a region in the For other uses of the name see Justina Justina (died 388 was the second wife of the Roman Emperor Valentinian I However the division was merely nominal as the actual authority still rested with Gratian.
378: Battle of Adrianople
Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its own problems with Germanic tribes. The Thervingi, an East Germanic tribe, fled their former lands following an invasion by the Huns. The Thervingi, Tervingi, or Teruingi (sometimes pluralised "Tervings" or "Thervings" were a Gothic people of the Danubian plains west The Germanic tribes referred to as East Germanic constitute a wave of Migrants who may have moved from Scandinavia into the area between the Oder The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy Their leaders Alavivus and Fritigern led them to seek refuge in the Eastern Roman Empire. Fritigern, or Fritigernus (died ca 380 was a Gothic war-leader whose military victories in the Gothic War (376-382 extracted favourable terms for the Valens indeed let them settle as foederati on the southern bank of the Danube in 376. Foederatus (pl foederati) is a Latin term whose definition and usage drifted in the time between the early Roman Republic and the However, the newcomers faced problems from allegedly corrupted provincial commanders and a series of hardships. Political corruption is the use of governmental powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain Their dissatisfaction led them to revolt against their Roman hosts.
For the following two years conflicts continued. Valens personally led a campaign against them in 378. Gratian provided his uncle with reinforcements from the Western Roman army. However this campaign proved disastrous for the Romans. The two armies approached each other near Adrianople. Edirne (anc Hadrianopolis; Greek Adrianople; Slavic/Bulgarian Одрин, see also its other names) is a city in Thrace, the westernmost Valens was apparently overconfident of the numerical superiority of his own forces over the Goths. Some of his officers advised caution and to await the arrival of Gratian, others urged an immediate attack and eventually prevailed over Valens, who, eager to have all of the glory for himself, rushed into battle. On August 9, 378, the Battle of Adrianople resulted in the crushing defeat of the Romans and the death of Valens. Events 48 BC - Caesar's civil war: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus Events By Place Roman Empire Mid- February - The Lentienses cross the frozen Rhine invading the Roman Empire. The second Battle of Adrianople ( August 9 378) sometimes known as the Battle of Hadrianopolis, was fought between a Roman army led by the Contemporary historian Ammianus Marcellinus estimated that two thirds of the Roman army were lost in the battle. Amiricanus Gambilinus (325/330-after 391 was a fourth-century Roman historian. The last third managed to retreat.
The battle had far-reaching consequences. Veteran soldiers and valuable administrators were among the heavy casualties. There were few available replacements at the time, leaving the Empire with the problems of finding suitable leadership. The Roman army would also start facing recruiting problems. In the following century much of the Roman army would consist of Germanic mercenaries.
For the moment however there was another concern. The death of Valens left Gratian and Valentinian II as the sole two Augusti. Gratian was now effectively responsible for the whole of the Empire. He sought however a replacement Augustus for the Eastern Roman Empire. His choice was Theodosius I, son of formerly distinguished general Count Theodosius. Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄ Flavius Theodosius was a senior military officer serving in the Western Roman Empire. The elder Theodosius had been executed in early 375 for unclear reasons. The younger one was named Augustus of the Eastern Roman Empire on January 19, 379. Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy. Events By Place Roman Empire January 19 — Theodosius I is elevated as Roman Emperor at Sirmium. His appointment would prove a deciding moment in the division of the Empire.
379–457: Theodosian dynasty
383: Disturbed peace in the West
Gratian governed the Western Roman Empire with energy and success for some years, but he gradually sank into indolence. The Theodosian dynasty was a Roman family that rose to eminence in the waning days of the Roman Empire. He is considered to have become a figurehead while Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose of Milan jointly acted as the power behind the throne. In politics a figurehead, by Metaphor with the carved figurehead at the prow of a sailing ship is a person who holds an important title or office yet executes little The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Saint Ambrose (c 338 &ndash 4 April 397) was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the fourth century Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. The phrase power behind the throne refers to a person or group that informally exercises the real power of an office Gratian lost favor with factions of the Roman Senate by prohibiting traditional paganism at Rome and relinquishing his title of Pontifex Maximus. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. The senior Augustus also became unpopular with his own Roman troops because of his close association with so-called barbarians. "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived He reportedly recruited Alans to his personal service and adopted the guise of a Scythian warrior for public appearances. The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th According to the Random House Dictionary, the term warrior has two meanings
Meanwhile Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius were joined by a fourth Augustus. Theodosius proclaimed his oldest son Arcadius an Augustus in January 383 in an obvious attempt to secure succession. Flavius Arcadius (377/378&ndash May 1, 408) was Byzantine Emperor in the Eastern half of the Roman Empire from 395 until his death The boy was still only five or six years old and held no actual authority. Nevertheless he was recognised as a co-ruler by all three Augusti.
The increasing unpopularity of Gratian would cause the four Augusti problems later that same year. Spanish Celt general Magnus Maximus, stationed in Roman Britain, was proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 383 and rebelling against Gratian he invaded Gaul. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Magnus Maximus (ca 335&ndash August 28, 388) also known as Maximianus, was an Hispanic usurper of the Western Roman Empire Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Gratian fled from Lutetia (Paris) to Lugdunum (Lyon), where he was assassinated on August 25, 383 at the age of 25. History of Paris Lutetia (sometimes Lutetia Parisiorum or Lucotecia, in French Lutèce) was a town in pre-Roman and Roman Gaul Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city This article is about the city in Gaul for other uses of Lugdunum see Lugdunum (disambiguation Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum (modern ||-||} Lyon, also known as Lyons in English is a city in east-central France. Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Events By Place The British Isles Niall of the Nine Hostages becomes the first High King of Ireland Roman
Maximus was a firm believer of the Nicene Creed and introduced state persecution on charges of heresy, which brought him into conflict with Pope Siricius who argued that the Augustus had no authority over church matters. The Nicene Creed (ˈnaɪsiːn is an ecumenical Christian statement of faith accepted in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Assyrian Church of Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Pope But he was an Emperor with popular support, as is attested in Romano-British tradition, where he gained a place in the Mabinogion, compiled about a thousand years after his death. Romano-British culture is that of the Romanized Britons under the Roman Empire and later the Western Roman Empire, and of those exposed to Roman culture in the years
Following Gratian's death, Maximus had to deal with Valentinian II, at the time only twelve years old, as the senior Augustus. The first few years the Alps would serve as the borders between the respective territories of the two rival Western Roman Emperors. Maximus controlled Britain, Gaul, Hispania and Africa. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar He chose Augusta Treverorum (Trier) as his capital. Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River.
Maximus soon entered negotiations with Valentinian II and Theodosius, attempting to gain their official recognition. By 384, negotiations were unfruitful and Maximus tried to press the matter by settling succession as only a legitimate Emperor could do: proclaiming his own infant son Flavius Victor an Augustus. Flavius Victor was the infant son of Magnus Maximus by his wife Elen, allegedly the daughter of Octavius. The end of the year found the Empire having five Augusti (Valentinian II, Theodosius I, Arcadius, Magnus Maximus and Flavius Victor) with relations between them yet to be determined.
Theodosius was left a widower in 385, following the sudden death of Aelia Flaccilla, his Augusta. Aelia Flavia Flaccilla (died 385 first wife of the Roman Emperor Theodosius I. He was remarried, to the sister of Valentinean II, Galla, and the marriage secured closer relations between the two legitimate Augusti.
In 386 Maximus and Victor finally received official recognition by Theodosius but not by Valentinian. In 387, Maximus apparently decided to rid himself of his Italian rival. He crossed the Alps into the valley of the Po and threatened Milan. The Po ( Latin: Padus, Po Ligurian: Bo, Greek: Eridanus) is a river that flows 652 km(405 miles (682 km by considering Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Valentinian and his mother fled to Thessaloniki from where they sought the support of Theodosius. Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia Theodosius indeed campaigned west in 388 and was victorious against Maximus. Maximus himself was captured and executed in Aquileia on July 28, 388. Aquileia (also called Aquilegia, Friulian Acuilee/Aquilee, Slovene Oglej) is an ancient Roman city in what is Events 1540 - Thomas Cromwell is executed at the order of Henry VIII of England on charges of Treason. Events By Place Roman Empire The rebellion of Magnus Maximus is put down at the Battle of the Save, and Valentinian II Magister militum Arbogast was sent to Trier with orders to also kill Flavius Victor. Magister militum ( Latin for "Master of the Soldiers" was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Flavius Arbogastes (died September 6 394) or Arbogast was a Frankish general in the Roman Empire. Theodosius restored Valentinian to power and through his influence had him converted to Orthodox Catholicism. Theodosius continued supporting Valentinian and protecting him from a variety of usurpations.
Final partition of the Empire
In 392 Valentinian II was murdered in Vienne. Flavius Valentinianus Junior (371 – 15 May 392) known usually by his Anglicised name Valentinian II, was a Roman Emperor This article is about the French department Do not confuse with the Austrian capital Vienna. Arbogast arranged for the appointment of Eugenius as emperor. Flavius Eugenius (died 6 September 394 was a Roman usurper (392-394 against Emperor Theodosius I. However, the eastern emperor Theodosius refused to recognise Eugenius as emperor and invaded the West, defeating and killing Arbogast and Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus. Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄ The Battle of the Frigidus, also called the Battle of the Frigid River, was fought between September 5&ndash6 394 between the army of the Eastern Emperor He thus reunited the entire Roman Empire under his rule.
Theodosius had two sons and a daughter, Pulcheria, from his first wife, Aelia Flacilla. Aelia Flavia Flaccilla (died 385 first wife of the Roman Emperor Theodosius I. His daughter and wife died in 385. By his second wife, Galla, he had a daughter, Galla Placidia, the mother of Valentinian III, who would be Emperor of the West. Aelia Galla Placidia (392 – November 27, 450) was the Empress consort of Constantius III, Western Roman Emperor. Flavius Placidius Valentinianus ( July 2, 419 &ndash March 16, 455) known in English as Valentinian III, was among the last
Theodosius was the last Emperor who ruled over the whole Empire. After his death in 395, he gave the two halves of the Empire to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius; Arcadius became ruler in the East, with his capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler in the West, with his capital in Milan and later Ravenna. Flavius Arcadius (377/378&ndash May 1, 408) was Byzantine Emperor in the Eastern half of the Roman Empire from 395 until his death Flavius Honorius ( September 9, 384 &ndash August 15, 423) was Roman Emperor (393- 395 and then Western Roman Emperor Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Ravenna is a City and Comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. The Roman state would continue to have two different emperors with different seats of power throughout the 5th century, though the Eastern Romans considered themselves Roman in full. Latin was used in official writings as much as, if not more than, Greek. The two halves were nominally, culturally and historically, if not politically, the same state.
395–476: Decline of the Western Roman Empire
.PNG/250px-628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD(3).PNG)
After 395, the emperors in the Western Roman Empire were usually figureheads. The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. The Migration Period, also called Barbarian Invasions, or sometimes Völkerwanderung ( German for "wandering of peoples" is the English name The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern For most of the time, the actual rulers were military strongmen who took the title of magister militum, patrician or both—Stilicho from 395 to 408, Constantius from about 411 to 421, Aëtius from 433 to 454 and Ricimer from about 457 to 472. Magister militum ( Latin for "Master of the Soldiers" was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and Flavius Stilicho (occasionally written as Stilico) (ca 359 &ndash August 22, 408) was a high-ranking general ( Magister militum Flavius Constantius (died 2 September 421) whose name is traditionally Anglicized as Constantius III, was a late Roman general politician Aëtius is also the name of several other persons Flavius Aëtius or simply Aëtius, (c Ricimer (c 405 &ndash August 18, 472) (ˈrikimer was a Germanic general who was master of the Western Roman Empire during part of the fifth century The year 476 is generally accepted as the formal end of the Western Roman Empire. That year, Orestes refused the request of Germanic mercenaries in his service for lands in Italy. The dissatisfied mercenaries, including the Heruli, revolted. The Heruli (spelled variously in Latin and Greek) were a nomadic Germanic people, who were subjugated by the Ostrogoths Huns and The revolt was led by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer. Odoacer (435–493 also known as Odovacar (from the Germanic Audawakrs, meaning "watchful of wealth" was a Roman general and the Odoacer and his men captured and executed Orestes. Within weeks, Ravenna was captured and Romulus Augustus was deposed, the event that has been traditionally considered the fall of the Roman Empire, at least in the West. Odoacer quickly conquered the remaining provinces of Italy.
Odoacer then sent the Imperial Regalia back to the emperor Zeno. Zeno soon received two deputations. One was from Odoacer requesting that his control of Italy be formally recognised by the Empire, in which case he would acknowledge Zeno's supremacy. The other deputation was from Nepos, asking for support to regain the throne. Zeno granted Odoacer the title Patrician. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and Zeno told Odoacer and the Roman Senate to take Nepos back; however, Nepos never returned from Dalmatia, even though Odoacer issued coins in his name. Upon Nepos's death in 480, Zeno claimed Dalmatia for the East; J. B. Bury considers this the real end of the Western Roman Empire. John Bagnell Bury ( 16 October 1861 &ndash 1 June 1927) known as J Odoacer attacked Dalmatia, and the ensuing war ended with Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, conquering Italy under Zeno's authority. Theodoric the Great (454 – August 30, 526) known to the Romans as Flavius Theodoricus, was king of the Ostrogoths (471-526 ruler of The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late
395–1453: Survival in the East: from Roman to Byzantine Empire
As the Western Roman Empire declined during the 5th century, the richer Eastern Roman Empire would be relieved of much destruction, and in the mid 6th century the Eastern Roman Empire (known also as the Byzantine Empire) under the emperor Justinian I reconquered Italy and parts of Illyria from the Ostrogoths, North Africa from the Vandals, and southern Hispania from the Visigoths. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Illyria ( Albanian Iliria ( Ancient Greek; Latin Illyria; see also Illyricum) was in Classical antiquity a region in the The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The reconquest of southern Hispania was somewhat ephemeral, but North Africa served the Byzantines for another century, Italy for another 5 centuries, and Illyria almost a millennium.
Of the many accepted dates for the end of the classical Roman state, the latest is 610. This is when the Emperor Heraclius made sweeping reforms, forever changing the face of the empire. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East Greek was readopted as the language of government and Latin influence waned. By 610, the Eastern Roman Empire had come under Greek influence and became what many modern historians now call the Byzantine Empire, although the Empire was never called thus by its inhabitants (rather it was called Romania, Basileia Romaion or Pragmata Romaion, meaning "Land of the Romans", "Kingdom of the Romans"), who still saw themselves as Romans, and their state as the rightful successor to the ancient empire of Rome. The sack of Constantinople at the hands of the Fourth Crusade in 1204 is sometimes used to date the end of Eastern Roman Empire: the destruction of Constantinople and most of its ancient treasures, total discontinuity of leadership, and the division of its lands into rival states with a Catholic-controlled "Emperor" in Constantinople itself (see Latin Empire) was a blow from which the Empire never fully recovered. The Fourth Crusade (1202&ndash1204 was originally designed to conquer Muslim Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. The Latin Empire or Latin Empire of Constantinople (original Latin name Imperium Romaniae, " Empire of Romania " is the Nevertheless, the Byzantines continued to call themselves Romans until their fall to Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish That year the eastern part of the Roman Empire was ultimately ended by the Fall of Constantinople. The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar Even though Mehmed II, the conqueror of Constantinople, declared himself the Emperor of the Roman Empire (Caesar of Rome / Kayser-i Rum) in 1453, Constantine XI is usually considered the last Roman Emperor. Constantine XI Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( Greek: Κωνσταντίνος ΙΑ' Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος Kōnstantinos XI Dragasēs Palaiologos The Greek ethnic self-descriptive name Roman survives to this day.
800–1806: Revival in the West: the Holy Roman Empire
On the Christmas Day of year 800 Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish monarch Charlemagne "Emperor of the Romans" and Imperator Augustus, a direct challenge to the Roman throne in Constantinople. Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Pope Leo III (died June 12, 816) was Pope from 795 to 816 Protected by Charlemagne from his enemies in Rome he subsequently strengthened Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. Irene Serantapechaina, known as Irene of Athens or Irene the Athenian ( Greek: Ειρήνη η Αθηναία Eirēnē) (c Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS This led to a conscious attempt to replace the Byzantine Empire, with papal authority, as the legitimate Roman state. Although land divisions due to inheritance and rivalry between Charlemagne's successors soon fragmented this medieval state, which historians call the Carolingian Empire, it did have considerable cultural influence. The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival occurring in the late eighth and ninth centuries with the peak of the activities
More than 150 years later the title of Emperor of the Romans passed to the German monarch Otto I, who founded the Holy Roman Empire, consisting of some of the territories of Charlemagne's ancient empire, along with all of modern-day Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and some of modern-day Poland. East ( ern) Francia ( Regnum Francorum orientalium) known variously as Francia Orientalis or the Kingdom of the East Franks, was the Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Although most of the emperors were Germanic, the Holy Roman Emperors thought of themselves as being successors to those of the Roman Empire and called themselves Augusti.
The Empire was formally dissolved on August 6, 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II abdicated, following a military defeat by the French under Napoleon, thus removing the last claim to the Roman throne in western Europe. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1806 ( MDCCCVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe.
Language
The language of Rome before its expansion was Latin and this became the Empire's official language. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. By the time of the imperial period Latin could be thought of as at least two languages: the written Classical Latin and the spoken Vulgar Latin. Classical Latin is the form of the Latin language used by the ancient Romans in what is usually regarded as "classical" Latin literature. Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin While Classical Latin remained relatively stable, even through the Middle Ages, Vulgar Latin as with any spoken language was fluid and evolving. Vulgar Latin became the lingua franca in the western provinces later evolving into the modern Romance languages: Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, etc. A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal. Romanian or Daco-Romanian ( dated: Rumanian or Roumanian; self designation limba română, ˈlimba roˈmɨnə is a Romance
Although Latin remained the official and most widely spoken language through to the fall of Rome and for some centuries after in the East, the Greek language was the lingua franca in the eastern provinces. The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely [8] With the exception of Carthage, the Romans generally did not attempt to supplant local cultures and languages. It is to their credit that they generally left established customs in place and only gradually supplemented with the typical Roman-style improvements. [9] Greek was already widely spoken in many cities in the east, and as such, the Romans were quite content to retain it as an administrative language there rather than disrupt tax collection efficiency. As such, it is interesting to note that in the eastern provinces public notices were typically posted in three languages; Latin, Greek, and the local tongue. Moreover, the process of hellenisation continued more extensively, well beyond city boundaries, during the Roman period, for the Romans perpetuated "Greek" culture,[10] but with all the trappings of Roman improvements. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation [11] This further spreading of Hellenistic culture was largely due to the extensive infrastructure (in the form of entertainment, health, and education amenities, and extensive transportation networks, etc. ) put in place by the Romans and their tolerance, and inclusion, of other cultures, a characteristic which set them apart from the xenophobic nature of the Greeks preceding them. [12]
During the 7th century AD Greek became the most widely spoken language in the Empire due to the contraction of the imperial borders to the eastern regions where the Greek language was most dominant; the administrative language was actually changed to Greek during the reign of Heraclius (610-641AD). Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East [13] Since the Roman annexation of Greece in 146BC the Greek language gradually obtained a unique place in the Roman world, owing initially to the large number of Greeks slaves in Roman households. [14] It was also viewed as the language of high culture. In the city of Rome itself Greek gradually became the second language of the educated and the elite. [15] Greek became the common language in early the Church (as it's major centers in the early Christian period were in the East), and the language of scholarship and the arts. Church (disambiguation Christian Church and the word church are used to denote both a Christian association of people and a Place of worship However, due to the presence of other widely spoken languages in the densily populated east, such as Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, Aramaic and Phoenician (which was also extensively spoken in North Africa), Greek never became as imbedded as Latin eventually did in the west. Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language The Armenian language (hy հայերեն լեզու hajɛɹɛn lɛzu —, conventional short form) is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenian Aramaic is a Semitic language with Phoenician was a language originally spoken in the coastal region then called Pūt in Ancient Egyptian Canaan in Phoenician, Hebrew, and This is directly evident in the extent to which the derivative languages are spoken today. Like Latin, the language gained a dual nature with the literary language, an Attic Greek variant, existing alongside spoken language, Koine Greek, which evolved into Medieval or Byzantine Greek (Romaic). In Linguistics, diglossia is a situation where in a given society there are two (often closely-related languages one of high prestige, which is generally used Attic Greek is the Prestige dialect of Ancient Greece that was spoken in Attica, which includes Athens. Koine Greek (Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική, "common Greek" or, ciˈni ðiˈale̞kto̞s "the common dialect" is the popular form of Greek which emerged in Medieval Greek (Μεσαιωνική Ελληνική is a linguistic term that describes the fourth period in the history of the Greek language. [16]
By the 4th century AD Greek no longer held such dominance over Latin in the Church, Arts and Sciences as it had previously, resulting to a great extent from the growth of the western provinces (reflected in the publication in the early 5th century AD of the Vulgate Bible, the first officially accepted Latin Bible; before this only Greek translations were accepted). The Vulgate is an early Fifth Century version of the Bible in Latin, and largely the result of the labours of Jerome, who was commissioned by Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin As the Western Empire declined, the number of people who spoke both Greek and Latin declined as well, contributing greatly to the future East–West / Orthodox–Catholic cultural divide in Europe. The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Important as both languages were, today the descendants of Latin are widely spoken in many parts of the world, while the Greek dialects are limited mostly to Greece, Cyprus, and small enclaves in Turkey and southern Italy. The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest To some degree this can be attributed to the fact that the western provinces fell mainly to "Latinised", Christian tribes, whereas the eastern provinces fell to Muslim Arabs and Turks for whom Greek held less cultural significance. The Germanic peoples underwent gradual Christianization in the course of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation.
As alluded to earlier, many other languages existed in the multi-ethnic Empire as well, and some of these were given limited official status in their provinces at various times. These languages were well established before the arrival of Greek, and Latin relatively shortly thereafter, a position they firmly maintained within their respective geographic regions. Notably, by the beginning of the Middle Ages, Syriac and Aramaic had become more widely used by the educated classes in the far eastern provinces, in addition to Greek and Latin. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language Aramaic is a Semitic language with [17] Similarly Coptic and Armenian became significant among the educated in Egypt and Armenia, respectively. Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt The Armenian language (hy հայերեն լեզու hajɛɹɛn lɛzu —, conventional short form) is an Indo-European language spoken by the Armenian In Greek mythology, Αἴγυπτος/Aígyptos, usually Latinized as Aegyptus, in Greek ("supine goat" descendant of the Heifer see History of Armenia (Moses of Chorene for the historiographical work
Legacy
The influence of Roman civilisation (itself influenced by a variety of peoples) the world exhibits today has been aptly (though with some exaggeration) summarised in a National Geographic article entitled The World According to Rome:
The enduring Roman influence is reflected pervasively in contemporary language, literature, legal codes, government, architecture, engineering, medicine, sports, arts, etc. Much of it is so deeply inbedded that we barely notice our debt to ancient Rome. Consider language, for example. Fewer and fewer people today claim to know Latin - and yet, go back to the first sentence in this paragraph. If we removed all the words drawn directly from Latin, that sentence would read; "The. "[18]
Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire's successors after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern The Holy Roman Empire, an attempt to resurrect the Empire in the West, was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalised for some decades. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Pope Leo III (died June 12, 816) was Pope from 795 to 816 Protected by Charlemagne from his enemies in Rome he subsequently strengthened The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC After the fall of Constantinople, the Russian Tsardom, as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire's Orthodox Christian tradition, counted itself the third Rome (with Constantinople having been the second). Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world And when the Ottomans, who based their state on the Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire, and he even went so far as to launch an invasion of Italy with the purpose of "re-uniting the Empire", although Papal and Neapolitan armies stopped his march on Rome at Otranto in 1480. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa Otranto is a town and commune in the Province of Lecce ( Apulia, Italy) in a fertile region once famous for its breed of horses Constantinople was not officially renamed Istanbul until March 28, 1930. Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Excluding these states claiming its heritage, if the traditional date for the founding of Rome is accepted as fact, the Roman state can be said to have lasted in some form from 753 BC to the fall in 1461 of the Empire of Trebizond (a successor state and fragment of the Byzantine Empire which escaped conquest by the Ottomans in 1453), for a total of 2,214 years. The Empire of Trebizond ( was a Byzantine Greek successor state of the Byzantine Empire founded in 1204 as a result of the capture of Constantinople The Roman impact on Western and Eastern civilisations lives on. In time most of the Roman achievements were duplicated by later civilisations. For example, the technology for cement was rediscovered 1755–1759 by John Smeaton. In the most general sense of the word a cement is a binder a substance which sets and hardens independently and can bind other materials together This article is about the 18th century civil engineer For the baggage handler involved in the 2007 Glasgow International Airport attack, see John Smeaton (baggage
The Empire contributed many things to the world, such as a calendar with leap years, the institutions of Christianity and aspects of modern neo-classicistic and Byzantine architecture. A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing one or more extra days (or in the case of Lunisolar calendars an extra month in order to keep the Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Neoclassical architecture was an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century both as a reaction against the Rococo Byzantine architecture is the Architecture of the Byzantine Empire. The extensive system of roads that was constructed by the Roman Army lasts to this day. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military Because of this network of roads, the time necessary to travel between destinations in Europe did not decrease until the 19th century, when steam power was invented. Even modern Astrology comes to us directly from the Romans.
The Roman Empire also contributed its form of government, which influences various constitutions including those of most European countries and many former European colonies. In the United States, for example, the framers of the Constitution remarked, in creating the Presidency, that they wanted to inaugurate an "Augustan Age". The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. The word presidency is often used to describe the administration or the executive, the collective administrative and governmental entity that exists around an office The modern world also inherited legal thinking from Roman law, fully codified in Late Antiquity. Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in Governing a vast territory, the Romans developed the science of public administration to an extent never before conceived or necessary, creating an extensive civil service and formalised methods of tax collection. Public administration can be broadly described as the development implementation and study of branches of government Policy.
While in the West the term Roman acquired a new meaning in connection with the church and the Pope of Rome the Greek form Romaioi remained attached to the Greek-speaking Christian population of the Eastern Roman Empire (a name still used, at times, by modern Greeks in addition to their common appellation). History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Since the time of Homer, some Greeks have called themselves Hellenes ( in Homer "Hellas" (Eλλάς and "Hellenes" were names of The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions [19]
The Roman Empire's territorial legacy of controlling the Italian peninsula would serve as an influence to Italian nationalism and the unification (Risorgimento) of Italy in 1861. Italian Unification ( Italian: il Risorgimento, or "The Resurgence" was the political and social movement that unified different states of the Italian
See also
- Category:Roman Empire
- Ancient Rome
Notes
- ^ Other possibilities are Imperium Romanum and Romania. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Roman Kingdom ( Latin: Regnum Romanum) was the monarchical Government of the city of Rome The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Res publica, as a term denoting the Roman "commonwealth" in general, can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial era, while Imperium Romanum is used to denote the territorial extent of Roman authority. The later term Romania, which was eventually carried over to Byzantium, appears in Greek and Latin sources from the fourth century onward. (See Wolff, R. L. "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople". In: Speculum, 23 (1948), pp. 1-34 (pp. 2-3). )
- ^ a b c d Taagepera, Rein (1979). Rein Taagepera (born 28 February 1933) is an Estonian American political scientist Rein Taagepera (born 28 February 1933) is an Estonian American political scientist "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History 3 (3/4): 125. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ John D. Durand, Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation, 1977, pp. 253-296.
- ^ During the struggles of the Late Republic hundreds of senators were killed or died, and the Roman Senate had been refilled with loyalists of the First Triumvirate and later those of the Second Triumvirate. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. See also the First Triumvirate (Argentina which came to power in 1811 See also the Second Triumvirate (Argentina which held power in 1812
- ^ Octavian/Augustus officially proclaimed that he had saved the Roman Republic and carefully disguised his power under republican forms; consuls continued to be elected, tribunes of the plebeians continued to offer legislation, and senators still debated in the Roman Curia. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the A Curia in early Roman times was a subdivision of the people i However, it was Octavian, and every effective emperor thereafter, who influenced everything and controlled the final decisions, and in final analysis, had the legions to back him up, if it ever became necessary. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription,"
- ^ Birley, E. B. . "A Note on the Title 'Gemina'". Journal of Roman Studies (18): pp. 56–60.
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.29
- ^ Fergus Millar, A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). Sather Classical Lectures, Vol. 64. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Pp. 279. ISBN 0-520-24703-5; Warren Treadgold "A Concise History of Byzantium" (New York: St Martin's Press, 2001); Warren Treadgold "A History of the Byzantine State and Society" (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)
- ^ Charles Freeman "The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World" (New York: Penguin, 1999)
- ^ This is somewhat simplistic as the Romans did not simply adopt/copy Greek or other cultures. See, for example, 'Freeman, C. "The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World" (New York: Penguin, 1999)' for a more detailed description of how the Romans interacted with Greek (and other) cultures.
- ^ http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jdtabor/overview-roman-world.html; http://www.jstor.org/pss/3155063; http://www.scriptureinhistory.org.au/Articles/Syria%20article.htm
- ^ Charles Freeman "The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World" (New York: Penguin, 1999)
- ^ Warren Treadgold "A Concise History of Byzantium" (New York: St Martin's Press, 2001); Warren Treadgold "A History of the Byzantine State and Society" (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)
- ^ Charles Freeman "The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World" (New York: Penguin, 1999)
- ^ McDonnell/MacDonnell, Roman Manliness: Virtus and the Roman Republic; Charles Freeman "The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World" (New York: Penguin, 1999)
- ^ Greek Language, Encyclopedia Britannica
- ^ Versteegh, Cornelis H. M. , Greek Elements in Arabic Linguistic Thinking, E. J. Brill, 1977, Chapter 1.
- ^ T. R. Reid "The World According to Rome" National Geographic Vol. 2 No. 2 1997 p. 54. The final statement is not entirely accurate (in terms of the linguistic etymology): many words with Latin roots, such as engineering and sports, were borrowed from French[1][2] and were thus derived indirectly, while the main verb and the preposition in the first sentence are native English forms.
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica,History of Europe, The Romans, 2008, O. Ed.
References
- John Bagnell Bury, A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius, 1913
- J. John Bagnell Bury ( 16 October 1861 &ndash 1 June 1927) known as J Year 1913 ( MCMXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common A. Crook, Law and Life of Rome, 90 BC–AD 212, 1967, ISBN 0-8014-9273-4
- Suzanne Dixon, The Roman Family, 1992, ISBN 0-8018-4200-X
- Donald R. Year 1967 ( MCMLXVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the 1967 Gregorian calendar. Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) Dudley, The Civilization of Rome, 2nd ed. , 1985, ISBN 0-452-01016-0
- Charles Freeman, The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World, 1999, ISBN 0-670-88515-0
- Anne Millard, Encyclopedia of World History, 2003, ISBN 0-7460-5361-4
- Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1776–1788
- Adrian Goldsworthy, Roman Warfare, 2000 ISBN 0-304-35265-9
- Peter Heather The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, 2005, ISBN 0-330-49136-9
- A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284–602, 1964, ISBN 0-8018-3285-3
- Andrew Lintott, Imperium Romanum: Politics and administration, 1993, ISBN 0-415-09375-9
- Ramsay Macmullen, Roman Social Relations, 50 BC to AD 284, 1981, ISBN 0-300-02702-8
- Michael Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire 2nd ed. Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar) Charles Freeman is the name of Charles E Freeman (b 1933 American jurist Charles W Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Edward Gibbon ( April 27, 1737 January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969 is a British Historian and military writer. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Peter Heather is an historian of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Arnold Hugh Martin ( AHM) Jones ( 9 March 1904 - 9 April 1970) was a prominent 20th century British historian of Year 1964 ( MCMLXIV) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the 1964 Gregorian calendar. Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) Year 1981 ( MCMLXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays the 1981 Mikhail Ivanovich Rostovtzeff, or Rostovtsev (Михаи́л Ива́нович Росто́вцев ( Zhitomir, Ukraine &ndash October 20, , 1957
- Santo Mazzarino. Year 1957 ( MCMLVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar) Santo Mazzarino (1916–1987 was an Italian Historian, considered a leading 20th-century historian of Ancient Rome. The end of the ancient world. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1966, (West Hanover : Halliday Lithograph corp. Alfred A Knopf Inc is a New York publishing house founded by Alfred A Year 1966 ( MCMLXVI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. ) English translation by George Holmes
- Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution, 1939, ISBN 0-19-280320-4
- Colin Wells, The Roman Empire, 2nd ed. George Arthur Holmes is Chichele Professor of Medieval History Emeritus at the University of Oxford. Sir Ronald Syme OM ( 11 March, 1903 &ndash 4 September, 1989) New Zealand -born Historian, was an eminent Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Colin Wells may refer to Colin Wells (actor (born 1963 English actor in Titus Colin Wells (cricketer (born 1960 English , 1992, ISBN 0-00-686252-7
- Fergus Millar, A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) Fergus Millar FBA (born 5 July 1935) is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus, Oxford University Sather Classical Lectures, Vol. 64. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Pp. 279. ISBN 0-520-24703-5
- McDonnell/MacDonnell, Roman Manliness: Virtus and the Roman Republic
- Warren Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, 1997 ISBN-10: 0-804-72421-0
- Warren Treadgold, A Concise History of Byzantium, 2001 ISBN 0-333-71829-1
External links
- Detailed history of the Roman Empire
- The Celts and Romans
- Roman Numismatic Gallery
- Classics Unveiled
- The Roman Empire
- Worlds of Late Antiquity website: links, bibliographies: Augustine, Boethius, Cassiodorus etc. Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480&ndash524 or 525 was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c 485 - c 585 commonly known as Cassiodorus, was a Roman statesman and great writer serving in the administration
- Complete map of the Roman Empire in year 100
- The Roman Empire in the First Century from PBS. Resources about Emperors, poets, philosophers, civic life, and an "Emperor of Rome" game
- Historical Atlas (Swedish)
- Timeline of the Roman Empire and its split on WikiTimeScale. WikiTimeScale is a Wiki displaying historic persons historic events and other historic matters graphically and interactive on a Timeline. org
- BBC Romans for Children
- UNRV Roman History
- The Roman Empire System
Dictionary
Roman Empire
-proper noun
- An empire that used to exist between 85 BC and AD 476; it encompassed territories stretching from Britain and Germany to North Africa and the Persian Gulf;
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic