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By chronology Prehistoric Britain Bronze Age Britain Iron Age Prehistoric Scotland Prehistoric Wales Early Ireland Roman Roman Wales Sub-Roman Britain Early-Christian Ireland Early-Medieval Ireland Ireland 1691–1801 Medieval Britain Scotland in the Early Middle Ages Scotland in the High Middle Ages Scotland in the Late Middle Ages Norman invasion of Wales Wales in the Late Middle Ages Medieval Ireland: Gaelic, Norman Early-modern: Britain, Ireland Modern: History of the United Kingdom Ireland History of Ireland History of Northern Ireland History of Ireland (1801–1922) Irish Free State History of Wales By nation England Ireland Northern Ireland Republic of Ireland Isle of Man Scotland Wales See also: Guernsey Jersey Orkney Islands By topic Settlement of Great Britain and Ireland Constitutional history: Britain, Ireland Economic history: Britain, Ireland Military history of the United Kingdom History of English society Maritime history of Britain

Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410. The history of the British Isles has witnessed intermittent periods of competition and cooperation between the people that occupy the various parts of Great Britain, Prehistoric Britain was a period in the human occupation of Great Britain that was the later part of Prehistory, conventionally ending with the Roman invasion In Great Britain, the Bronze Age is considered to have been the period from around 2700 to 700 BC. In Britain and Ireland the Iron Age lasted from about the 7th century BC until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century in non- Romanised Archaeology and Geology continue to reveal the secrets of prehistoric Scotland, uncovering a complex and dramatic past before the Romans brought Scotland Prehistoric Wales in terms of human settlements covers the period from about 230000 years ago the date attributed to the earliest human remains found in what is now Wales Prehistory Mesolithic (8000 BC - 4500 BC What little is known of pre- Christian Ireland comes from a few references in Roman writings Up to and during the Roman occupation of Britain, the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages (a sub-family of the Celtic languages Sub-Roman Britain is a term derived from an Archaeologists ' label for the material culture of Britain in Late Antiquity. The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental The Early Medieval era in Ireland from 800 to 1166 is characterised by Viking raids then settlement in what had become a stable and wealthy country This period in Ireland's history was marked by the dominance of the so-called Protestant Ascendancy. Great Britain during the Middle Ages (from the 5th century withdrawal of Roman forces from the province of Britannia The Early Middle Ages, a period which corresponds in part with Early Historic Scotland and the Later Iron Age, is that era of Scottish pre-history and The history of Scotland in the High Middle Ages covers Scotland in the era between the death of Domnall II in 900 AD and the death of king Alexander III The history of Scotland in the Late Middle Ages might be said to be dominated by the twin themes of crisis and transition The Norman invasion of Wales began shortly after the Norman invasion of England. Wales in the Late Middle Ages covers the period from the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffydd in late 1282 to the incorporation of Wales into England by the Laws in Wales Acts Gaelic Ireland was the political order that existed in Ireland prior to the Norman invasion and that ran in parallel to the subsequent nominal Lordship The later medieval period in Ireland (" Norman Ireland " was dominated by the Cambro-Norman invasion of the country in 1171. Early Modern Britain is the History of the island of Great Britain roughly corresponding to the 16th 17th and 18th centuries Early Modern Ireland saw the first full conquest of Ireland by England and its colonization with Protestant settlers from England and Scotland The history of the United Kingdom — British history — as an unified Sovereign state begins with the legistlative union between the kingdoms of England The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental Northern Ireland was established as a distinct region of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1921 under the terms of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. From 1801 to 1922 the whole island of Ireland formed a constituent part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (UK The Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann (1922&ndash1937 was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by The country of Wales, or Cymru in Welsh has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29000 years though continuous human habitation The history of England is similar to the history of Britain until the arrival of the Saxons The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental Northern Ireland was established as a distinct region of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1921 under the terms of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Republic of Ireland first became an independent state on 6 December 1922 The Isle of Man has been the scene of human occupation since the end of the Last glacial period over 10000 years ago The history of Scotland begins around 10000 years ago when Humans first began to inhabit Scotland after the end of the Devensian glaciation, the last The country of Wales, or Cymru in Welsh has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29000 years though continuous human habitation The Bailiwick of Guernsey (Bailliage de Guernesey is a British Crown dependency in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy. The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy that held sway in both France and Prehistoric Orkney See also Prehistoric Orkney As with Prehistoric Scotland generally the arrival of Hunter gatherers in Orkney had to The British Isles have a long history of migration from across Europe, starting in the Palaeolithic period The Constitution of the United Kingdom is said to be uncodified. Irish states have existed under a number of different names for nearly a thousand years This is a history of the economy of the United Kingdom and of the countries that joined to form it in 1707 and 1801 To 1800 The first settlers in Ireland were seafarers who survived largely by Fishing, Hunting and gathering. The military history of the United Kingdom covers the period from the birth of the united Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 with the political union of England and The History of English society demonstrates innumerable changes over many centuries The Maritime history of the United Kingdom involves events including Shipping, Ports Navigation, and seamen, as well as marine See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Romans referred to their province as Britannia. Britannia was the term originally used by the Romans to refer first to the British Isles, and later to the island of Great Britain. Prior to the Roman invasion, Iron Age Britain already had cultural and economic links with Continental Europe, but the invaders introduced new developments in agriculture, urbanization, industry and architecture, leaving a legacy that is still apparent today. This page refers to the conquest begun in AD 43 For other Roman invasions see Caesar's invasions of Britain and Carausian Revolt. In Britain and Ireland the Iron Age lasted from about the 7th century BC until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century in non- Romanised Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe or simply the Continent, is the Continent of Europe, explicitly excluding European Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation

Historical records beyond the initial invasion are sparse, although many Roman historians mention the province in passing. In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin provincia, pl provinciae) was the basic and until the Tetrarchy (circa Most of the knowledge of the period stems from archaeological investigations and especially epigraphic evidence. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Epigraphy (ἐπιγραφολογία from Greek ἐπιγραφή — "inscription" is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs engraved

Contents 1 Chronological history 1.1 Early contact 1.2 Roman invasion 1.3 Roman rule is established 1.4 Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland 1.5 Third century 1.6 Fourth century 1.7 End of Roman rule 1.8 Sub-Roman Britain 2 Themes 2.1 Trade and industry 2.2 Provincial government 2.2.1 Provincial subdivisions 2.3 Town and country 2.4 Religion 2.4.1 Pagan 2.4.2 Christianity 3 Legacy 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

Chronological history

Early contact

Main article: Caesar's invasions of Britain

Britain was not unknown to the Classical world. During his Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar invaded' Britain twice in 55 and 54 BC. As early as the 4th century BC the Greeks and Carthaginians traded for British tin:^[1] the Greeks refer to the Cassiterides or "tin islands" and describe them as being situated somewhere near the west coasts of Europe. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Cassiterides, meaning Tin Islands, (from the Greek word for tin Κασσίτερος /Kassiteros are in ancient geography the name of islands regarded ^[2] The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 5th century BC, and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. Dates Pliny says that Timaeus (born about 350 BC believed Pytheas' story of the discovery of Amber. But it was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers even refusing to believe it existed. ^[3]

The first direct Roman contact came when the Roman general and future dictator, Julius Caesar, made two expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BC as an offshoot of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons had been helping the Gallic resistance. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The first expedition, more a reconnaissance than a full invasion, gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but, undermined by storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry, was unable to advance further. KENT (1400 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Adult Standards/MOR format The expedition was a military failure but a political success: the Roman Senate declared a 20-day public holiday in Rome in honour of this unprecedented achievement. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. ^[4]

In his second invasion Caesar took with him a substantially larger force and proceeded to coerce or invite many of the native tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Mandubracius or Mandubratius was a king of the Trinovantes of south-eastern Britain in the 1st century BC. Cassivellaunus was a historical British chieftain who led the defence against Julius Caesar 's second expedition to Britain in 54 BC. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether the tribute agreed was paid by the Britons after Caesar's return to Gaul. ^[5]

Caesar had conquered no territory but had established clients on the island and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of political influence. In Rome cliens (plural clientes) referred to the lesser partner in the Ancient Roman social institution of Clientela, obligated through a debt of loyalty Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable,^[6] and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claims that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. ^[7] Likewise, archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. ^[8] Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus' own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ( Latin: "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus" is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus ^[9] When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in AD 16, they were sent back by local rulers, telling tall tales of monsters. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Germania was the Latin Exonym for ^[10]

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. The Catuvellauni were a Celtic Belgic tribe or state of south-eastern Britain before the Roman conquest. Tasciovanus was a historical king of the Catuvellauni tribe before the Roman conquest of Britain. The Atrebates (singular Atrebas, meaning "settlers" were a Belgic tribe of Gaul and Britain before the Roman conquests Commius ( Commios, Comius, Comnios) was a historical king of the Belgic nation of the Atrebates, initially in Gaul, then ^[11] This policy was followed until AD 39 or 40, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and staged an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor ^[12] When Claudius successfully invaded in 43, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, this time Verica of the Atrebates. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Verica (early 1st century AD was a British client king of the Roman Empire in the years preceding the Claudian invasion of 43

Roman invasion

Main article: Roman conquest of Britain

The invasion force in 43 was led by Aulus Plautius. This page refers to the conquest begun in AD 43 For other Roman invasions see Caesar's invasions of Britain and Carausian Revolt. Aulus Plautius was a Roman politician and general of the mid-1st century ^[13] It is not known how many Roman legions were sent; only one legion, the II Augusta, commanded by Vespasian, is directly attested to have taken part. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Legio II Augusta, or Second Augustan Legion, was a Roman legion, levied by Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus in 43 BC, and still operative Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who ^[14] The IX Hispana,^[15] the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix)^[16] are attested in 60/61 during the Boudican Revolt, and are likely to have been there since the initial invasion. Legio XX Valeria Victrix was a Roman legion, probably raised by Augustus some time after 31 BC. Boudica (also spelled Boudicca, formerly known as Boadicea, and known in Welsh culture and legends as "Buddug" (d However, the Roman Army was flexible, with units being used and moved whenever necessary, so this is not certain. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military

The invasion was delayed by a mutiny of the troops, who were eventually persuaded by an imperial freedman to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. Ocean (Ὠκεανός was believed to be the world-ocean in Classical antiquity, which the ancient Romans and Greeks considered to be They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent, although some suggest that at least part of the invasion force landed on the south coast, in the Fishbourne area of West Sussex. Richborough ( pronounced /ˈrɪtʃb(ərə/ is a settlement north of Sandwich on the east coast of the county of Kent, England. KENT (1400 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Adult Standards/MOR format Settlements Most settlements in West Sussex are either along the south coast or are situated in the M23 corridor ^[17]

The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni and their allies in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, in a battle on the river Medway, the second on the Thames. The Battle of the Medway took place in 43 on the River Medway in the lands of the Iron Age tribe of the Cantiaci, now the English The Thames ( is a major River flowing through southern England. One of the Catuvellaunian leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Togodumnus (d AD 43 was a historical king of the British Catuvellauni tribe at the time of the Roman conquest. Caratacus ( Brythonic *Caratācos, Greek Καράτακος; variants Latin Caractacus, Greek Καρτάκης Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Camulodunum is the Roman name for the ancient settlement which is today's Colchester, a town in Essex, England. Colchester ( /ˈkəʊltʃɛstə/ is a town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester, in Essex, England. The future emperor Vespasian subdued the southwest,^[18] Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories,^[19] and treaties were made with tribes outside the area under direct Roman control. Titus Flavius Vespasianus, commonly known as Vespasian ( November 17 9 &ndash June 23 79) was a Roman Emperor who Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus (or Togidubnus) was a 1st century king of the Regnenses in early Roman Britain.

Roman rule is established

See also: Romano-British

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. Romano-British culture is that of the Romanized Britons under the Roman Empire and later the Western Roman Empire, and of those exposed to Roman culture in the years The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were a powerful and warlike Tribe of ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouthshire, Breconshire and The Ordovices were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Islands before the Roman invasion of Britain. The Deceangli or Deceangi were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Isles prior to the Roman invasion of Britain. The Brigantes were a Celtic tribe who in pre-Roman times controlled the largest section of Northern England and a significant part of the Midlands The Iceni or Eceni were a Brythonic Tribe who inhabited an area of Britain corresponding roughly to the modern-day county of Norfolk The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Caratacus ( Brythonic *Caratācos, Greek Καράτακος; variants Latin Caractacus, Greek Καρτάκης Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Publius Ostorius Scapula (died 52 was a Roman statesman and general who governed Britain from 47 until his death and was responsible for the defeat and capture of Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. Cartimandua (or Cartismandua, ruled ca 43 - 69) whose name appears to contain the Indo-European element *mandu(a "pony"was a queen of the He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. However, the Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance. Venutius was a 1st century king of the Brigantes in northern Britain at the time of the Roman conquest. ^[20]

In 60-61, while Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was campaigning in Wales, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under Boudica, widow of the recently-deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus, provoked by the seizure of the tribe's lands and the brutal treatment of the queen and her daughters. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, also spelled Paullinus, (flourished 1st century) was a Roman general Boudica (also spelled Boudicca, formerly known as Boadicea, and known in Welsh culture and legends as "Buddug" (d Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the rest would be left untouched. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called He was wrong. The Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum and routed the part of the IX legion that was sent to relieve it. Suetonius Paulinus rode to London, the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St Albans). Verulamium was the third-largest city in Roman Britain. It was sited in the southwest of the modern city of St Albans in Hertfordshire. Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Suetonius regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. The Battle of Watling Street (sometimes called the Battle of Paulerspury) took place in Roman-occupied Britain in AD 60 or Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. ^[21] The revolt had almost persuaded Nero to withdraw from Britain altogether. ^[22]

There was further turmoil in 69, the "year of four emperors". The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69 in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively. Quintus Petilius Cerialis Caesius Rufus (born ca 30 was a Roman general Sextus Julius Frontinus (ca 40-103 AD was one of the most distinguished Roman aristocrats of the late first century AD but is best known to the post-Classical world as an ^[23] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi. South Wales (De Cymru is an area of Wales bordered by England and the Bristol Channel to the east and south and Mid Wales and West Wales "Gold mine" redirects here See Goldmine for other uses of the term The Dolaucothi Gold Mines ( also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are Roman surface and deep mines located in the valley of the River Cothi,

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. The Lunt Roman Fort was a Roman fort, of unknown name in the Roman province of Britannia. Coventry ( is a city and Metropolitan borough in the County of West Midlands in England. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. Gnaeus Julius Agricola ( June 13, 40 &ndash August 23, 93) was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. The Ordovices were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Islands before the Roman invasion of Britain. With XX Valeria Victrix, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in what is today northern Scotland. Legio XX Valeria Victrix was a Roman legion, probably raised by Augustus some time after 31 BC. The Caledonians ( Latin: Caledonii) or Caledonian Confederacy, is a name given by historians to a group of the Indigenous According to Tacitus, the Battle of Mons Graupius took place in 83 or 84 AD. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. ^[24] This marked the high tide mark of Roman territory in Britain; shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans retired to a more defensible line along the Forth-Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers. The Firth of Forth ( Scottish Gaelic: Linne Foirthe) is the Estuary or Firth of Scotland's River Forth, where it flows The Firth of Clyde forms a large area of coastal water sheltered from the Atlantic ocean by the Kintyre peninsula which encloses the outer Firth in

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a side-effect of this, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I. Publius Helvius Pertinax, commonly known as Pertinax ( August 1, 126 &ndash March 28, 193) was a Roman emperor who briefly Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus (c 159 – April 12 238) known in English as Gordian I, was Roman Emperor

Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth-Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged, although others appear to have been abandoned. The Latin word castra, with its singular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to mean buildings or plots of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in what are now the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. The Scottish Lowlands ( a' Ghalldachd, meaning roughly 'the non-Gaelic region' in Gaelic, and called Lawlands or Lallans in Scots Romanization may also refer to linguistics see Romanization. Romanization was a gradual process of Cultural assimilation, in which One of the most important sources of this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to AD 90-110. Vindolanda was a Roman auxiliary Fort ( castrum) located at Chesterholm just south of Hadrian's Wall in northern England Northumberland is a county in the North East of England. The non-metropolitan county of Northumberland borders Cumbria to the west These tablets provide vivid evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

Around 105, however, a serious setback appears to have happened at the hands of the tribes of Scotland; several Roman forts were destroyed by fire with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in southeastern-most Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site. Armour (or armor) is protective covering most commonly manufactured from metals to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact Trimontium is the name of a Roman fort at Newstead, near Melrose, Borders, Scotland, close under the three Eildon Newstead is a Village in the Scottish Borders, just east of Melrose, coordinates 55 There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war from the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune on Cyrene. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the However, Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the natives rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Dacian Wars ( 101 - 102, 105 - 106) were two brief wars between the Roman Empire and Dacia during Emperor Trajan The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway-Tyne isthmus around this time. The Stanegate, or "stone road" ( Old English) was an important Roman road in northern England. The Solway Firth is a Firth that forms part of the border between England and Scotland, between Cumbria (including the Solway Plain) and The River Tyne is a River in England. It is formed by the confluence of two rivers the North Tyne and the South Tyne.

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign (117), a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman Vercovicium (or Housesteads Roman Fort) was an auxiliary Castra on Hadrian's Wall, in the Roman province of Britannia. Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after Quintus Pompeius Falco was a Roman politician of the early 2nd century. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought VI Victrix with him from Lower Germany. Aulus Platorius Nepos was a Roman politician of the early 2nd century. Legio VI Victrix (Victorious was a Roman legion founded by Octavian in 41 BC. Germania Inferior was a Roman province located on the left bank of the Rhine, in today's southern and western Netherlands, parts of Legio VI replaced the famous IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable instability in Scotland during the first half of the second century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth-Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military re-occupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus. Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius The Antonine Wall is a stone and turf Fortification, built by the Romans across what is now the Central belt of Scotland Quintus Lollius Urbicus was made governor of Roman Britain in 138, by one of the early decrees of the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. This northward extension of the empire was probably the result of attacks, maybe by the Selgovae of southeast Scotland, on the Roman buffer state of the Votadini who lived north of the Hadrianic frontier. The Novantae and Selgovae were peoples of the early second century who lived in what is now Galloway, in southwestern-most Scotland. A buffer state is a Country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater powers, which by its sheer existence is thought to prevent conflict between them The Votadini (the Wotādīnī, or Votādīnī) were a people of the Iron Age in Great Britain, and their territory was briefly part of the

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155-157, when the Brigantes revolted. The Brigantes were a Celtic tribe who in pre-Roman times controlled the largest section of Northern England and a significant part of the Midlands With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Cnaeus Julius Verus. Gnaeus Iulius Verus was Roman general and senator of the mid- 2nd century AD eventually becoming governor of Britain Within a year the Antonine Wall was reoccupied, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antonius' undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time, however; the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

During the twenty year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danube provinces. The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. In Archaeology, a Hoard is a collection of artifacts purposely buried in the ground Sufficient Roman silver found in Scotland suggests more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were boosting treaty agreements with cash payments, a situation with comparators elsewhere in the empire at the time. A Treaty is an agreement under International law entered into by actors in international law namely States and International organizations.

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached and barbarians had killed the commanding officer or governor there in what Dio Cassius described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus ( August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Ulpius Marcellus was a Roman consular governor of Britannia who returned there as general of the later 2nd century. Unhappy with Marcellus' strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper emperor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. Caerellius Priscus was a governor of Roman Britain in the late 170s. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination; they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian Prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Sextus Tigidius Perennis (?&ndash185 was a prefect of the Roman imperial Bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Guard, during the reigns of Praetorian prefect (Latin Praefectus praetorio) was the constant title of a high office in the Roman state that changed fundamentally in nature Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

The future emperor Pertinax was sent to Britannia to restore order and was initially successful in regaining control. Publius Helvius Pertinax, commonly known as Pertinax ( August 1, 126 &ndash March 28, 193) was a Roman emperor who briefly A riot broke out amongst the troops however, in which Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and he asked to be recalled to Rome, briefly succeeding Commodus in 192.

Third century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the throne emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor For others with this Cognomen, see Albinus (cognomen. Decimus Clodius Ceionius Septimius Al­binus (ca The latter was the new governor of Britain and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant to the reign. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus' support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Gaius Pescennius Niger (c 140&ndash194 was a Roman usurper from 193 to 194 Once Niger was neutralised however, Severus turned on his ally in Britain—though it is likely that Albinus saw that he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195 where the provinces were also sympathetic to him and set up at Lugdunum. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western This article is about the city in Gaul for other uses of Lugdunum see Lugdunum (disambiguation Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum (modern Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Although Albinus came close to victory, Severus' reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus' sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment.

Albinus demonstrated the two major political problems posed by Roman Britain. First, in order to maintain its security it had three legions stationed there. These would provide an ambitious man with weak loyalties a powerful base for rebellion, as it had for Albinus. Second, deploying the legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, with the result that Britain was defenceless to invaders.

Traditionally, the view has been that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus' absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor Virius Lupus was obliged to buy peace from the fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae, however more recent work suggests that it is more likely that he left a reasonable force behind to protect the frontier and that the level of chaos was not as great as earlier thought. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Virius Lupus was a Roman soldier and politician of the late second and early 3rd century The Maeatae were a confederation of tribes who lived probably beyond the Antonine Wall in Roman Britain. Even so, a succession of militarily distinguished governors were appointed to the province, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report back to Rome in 207 described barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". Lucius Alfenus Senecio was a Roman figure of the late second - early third centuries Alfenus requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter option, despite being 62 years old.

Archaeological evidence shows that Alfenus had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus' arrival in Britain prompted the rebellious tribes to immediately sue for peace. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory however, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first hand experience of controlling and administering a barbarian province. Caracalla ( April 4 188 &ndash April 8, 217) born Lucius Septimius Bassianus and later Publius Septimius Geta ( March 7, 189 &ndash December 26 211) was a Roman Emperor co-ruling with his father Septimius Severus

An expedition led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the wall and passing through eastern Scotland in a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by guerrilla raids by the natives and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The campaign pushed northwards as far as the River Tay, and peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians who seem to have suffered similar losses to the Romans. The Tay ( Gaelic: Tatha) is a river starting in the Highlands and flowing down into the centre of Scotland through Perth and By 210, Severus had returned to York with the frontier set at Hadrian's Wall and assumed the title Britannicus. Almost immediately another northern tribe, the Maeatae, rebelled. Caracella left with a punitive expedition, but by the next year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim for the throne.

As one of his last acts, Septimius Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the existing province into Upper Britain and Lower Britain. Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor Britannia Superior was one of the provinces of Roman Britain created around 197 AD by the Roman Emperor Septimus Severus immediately after winning a Civil War against Britannia Inferior was a subdivision of the Roman province of Britannia established c Although this kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century, it was not permanent. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period often called the Long Peace. Even so the number of hoards found in the period rises, suggesting unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; over the next hundred years they expanded in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts. The Saxon Shore Forts is the collective name given to a system of Forts ( Castra) built along the east and south-east coast of what is now England

During the middle of the third century the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, although increasing inflation had its economic effect. In economics inflation or price inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services over a period of time In 259, a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. The Gallic Empire (in Latin Imperium Galliarum) is the modern name for the independent realm that existed from 260 to 273, during the For the alleged son of this emperor also called Postumus see Postumus Junior; for the son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa see Agrippa Postumus Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (218-268 ruled the Roman Empire as co-emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260 and then as the sole Roman Emperor Britannia was part of this until 274, when Aurelian reunited the empire. Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ( September 9, 214 or 215 &ndashSeptember or October 275 known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270&ndash275

In the late 270s a half-Brythonic usurper named Bononus rebelled to avoid the repercussions of letting his fleet be burnt by barbarians at Cologne. He was quickly crushed by Probus, but soon afterwards an unnamed governor in Britannia also attempted an uprising. Marcus Aurelius Probus (c August 19, 232 &ndashSeptember/October 282 was a Roman Emperor (276&ndash282 Irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians were sent across the Channel by Probus to put down the uprising, perhaps in 278. The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose

The last of the string of rebellions to affect Britannia was that of Carausius and his successor Allectus. Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius (died 293 was a military commander of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century Allectus (died 296 was a Roman usurper - emperor in Britain and northern Gaul from 293 to 296 Carausius was a naval commander, probably in the English Channel. He was accused of keeping pirate booty for himself, and his execution was ordered by the Emperor Maximian. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c 250 &ndash c In 286, he set himself up as emperor in Britain and northern Gaul and remained in power whilst Maximian dealt with uprisings elsewhere. In 288, an invasion failed to unseat the usurper. An uneasy peace ensued, during which Carausius issued coins proclaiming his legitimacy and inviting official recognition.

In 293, Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel's port at Boulogne and cutting it off from naval assistance. Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Boulogne-sur-Mer ( Bonen in Dutch is a City in Northern France. After the town fell, Constantius tackled Carausius' Frankish allies. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Subsequently the usurper was murdered by his treasurer, Allectus. Allectus (died 296 was a Roman usurper - emperor in Britain and northern Gaul from 293 to 296 Allectus' brief reign was brought to an end when Asclepiodotus landed near Southampton and defeated him in a land battle. Asclepiodotus may refer to Asclepiodotus of Heraclea, (2nd century BC - a commander in the Macedonian army during the Third Macedonian War Asclepiodotus Southampton ( IPA /ˌsaʊθˈhæmptən/ is the largest city in the county of Hampshire, on the south coast of England ^[25]

Constantius arrived in London to receive the victory and chose to divide the province further, into four provinces:

• Maxima Caesariensis (based on London): from Upper Britannia
• Britannia Prima: from Upper Britannia
• Flavia Caesariensis: from Lower Britannia
• Britannia Secunda: from Lower Britannia

These four provinces were part of Diocletian's Tetrarchy reform in 293: Britannia became one of the four dioceses—governed by a vicarius—of the prætorian prefecture Galliae ('the Gauls', also comprising the provinces of Gaul, Germania and Hispania), after the abolition of the imperial tetrarchs under the Western Emperor (in Rome itself, later Ravenna). Maxima Caesariensis was the name of one of the four provinces of later Roman Britain (but is not named in the surviving copies of the Verona List, dated 312 Britannia Prima was one of the provinces of Roman Britain in existence by c Flavia Caesariensis was one of the provinces of Roman Britain. Britannia Secunda was one of the provinces of Roman Britain in existence by c Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals Germania was the Latin Exonym for Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Ravenna is a City and Comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy.

Fourth century

Constantius Chlorus returned to Britain in 306, aiming to invade northern Britain. The province's defences had been rebuilt in the preceding years, and although his health was poor, Constantius wished to penetrate into enemy territory. Little is known of his campaigns, and there is little archaeological evidence for them. From fragmentary historical sources it seems he reached the far north of Britain and won a great battle in early summer before returning south to York.

Constantius remained in Britain for the rest of the time he was part of the Tetrarchy, dying on July 25, 306. Events 285 - Diocletian appoints Maximian as Caesar, co-ruler Events By Place Roman Empire July 25 — Constantine I is proclaimed Emperor by his troops His son, Constantine I, had managed to be by his side at that moment and assumed his duties in Britain. Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine Unlike the earlier usurper Albinus, he was able to successfully use his base in Britain as a starting point on his march to the imperial throne.

For a few years, the British provinces were loyal to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following his death. Flavius Magnus Magnentius (303– August 11, 353) was a Roman usurper ( January 18, 350 – August 11, 353 Flavius Julius Constans (320-350 was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 337 to 350 Following his defeat and death in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paul "Catena" to Britain to hunt down Magnentius' supporters. The Battle of Mons Seleucus was fought in 353 between the forces of Constantius II and the forces of the usurper Magnentius. Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II ( 7 August, 317 - November 3, 361) was a Roman Emperor Paulus was the name of an imperial notary, or senior civil servant who served under the Roman Emperor Constantius II in the middle of the 4th century Paul's investigations deteriorated into a witch hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. "Witch trial" redirects here For the song by Rush, see Fear series. Flavius Martinus was a Vicarius of Roman Britain c 353 under Constantius II. When Paul instead suspected Martinus of treason, the vicarius found himself forced to physically attack Paul with a sword with the aim of assassinating him, but at the end he committed suicide. AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media.

In the 4th century, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Irish in the west. The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world A series of forts was built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when a general assault of Saxons, Irish and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate in 367. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Attacotti (variously spelled refers to a people who despoiled Roman Britain between 364 and 368 along with Scotti, Picts, Saxons, Roman military This crisis, sometimes called the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius with a string of military and civil reforms. The Great Conspiracy is a term given to a year-long war that occurred in Roman Britain near the end of the Roman occupation of the island Flavius Theodosius was a senior military officer serving in the Western Roman Empire.

Another usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt in Segontium in 383 and crossed the Channel. Magnus Maximus (ca 335&ndash August 28, 388) also known as Maximianus, was an Hispanic usurper of the Western Roman Empire Segontium is a Roman fort for a Roman auxiliary force located on the outskirts of Caernarfon in Gwynedd, North Wales. Maximus held much of the western empire and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. The Picts were a Confederation of tribes in what was later to become eastern and northern Scotland from Roman times until the 10th century Scoti or Scotti ( Old Irish Scot, modern Scottish Gaelic Sgaothaich) was the generic name given by the Romans to the His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned at this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all of the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were struggling after the catastrophic Battle of Adrianople in 378. The second Battle of Adrianople ( August 9 378) sometimes known as the Battle of Hadrianopolis, was fought between a Roman army led by the Around 396, there were increasing barbarian incursions in Britain, and an expedition, possibly led by Stilicho, brought naval action against the raiders. Flavius Stilicho (occasionally written as Stilico) (ca 359 &ndash August 22, 408) was a high-ranking general ( Magister militum It seems peace was restored by 399, although it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered, and indeed by 401 more troops were withdrawn to assist in the war against Alaric I. Alaric I ( Alareiks in the original Gothic; Alarik or Alarich in modern Germanic languages Alaricus in Latin and Alarico

End of Roman rule

Main article: Roman departure from Britain

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the fifth century. The Roman departure from Britain was completed by 410. The Archaeological records of the final decades of Roman rule show undeniable signs of decay Mikhail Ivanovich Rostovtzeff, or Rostovtsev (Михаи́л Ива́нович Росто́вцев ( Zhitomir, Ukraine &ndash October 20, However, consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. The destruction of many sites is now believed to be much later than had formerly been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There were growing barbarian attacks, but these were focused on vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy, although many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the fifth century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Great Casterton is a village in the county of Rutland in the East Midlands of England. Rutland is a county of mainland England, bounded on the west and north by Leicestershire, northeast by Lincolnshire, and southeast by Hucclecote is a Village in Gloucestershire, England situated on the old Roman road connecting Gloucester with Barnwood, History See also History of Gloucestershire Gloucestershire is a historic county mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in the 10th century Saint Patrick (Patricius Irish: Naomh Pádraig) was a Roman Britain -born Christian Missionary and is the Patron saint New buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Verulamium was the third-largest city in Roman Britain. It was sited in the southwest of the modern city of St Albans in Hertfordshire. Cirencester is a Market town in Gloucestershire, England, 93 miles (150 km west northwest of London Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the fifth and sixth centuries, surrounded by large farming estates. Canterbury ( ˈkæntəbɹ̩i is a City in eastern Kent in the South East region of England. Cirencester is a Market town in Gloucestershire, England, 93 miles (150 km west northwest of London See also Wroxeter (disambiguation Wroxeter (pronounced "Rock-Sitter" is a Village in the county of Shropshire, England, on Winchester or Winton ( archaic) is a historic city in southern England, with a population of around 40000 within a radius of its centre Gloucester (ˈɡlɒstɚ) is a city, district and County town of Gloucestershire in the South West region of England.

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the fourth century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, and problems with the payment of soldiers and officials. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, although it never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, although minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were no new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Pottery mass production probably ended a decade or two previously; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor probably adopted leather or wooden ones.

Sub-Roman Britain

Main article: Sub-Roman Britain

Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attack on all sides towards the end of the 4th century, and troops were too few to mount an effective defence. Sub-Roman Britain is a term derived from an Archaeologists ' label for the material culture of Britain in Late Antiquity. The army rebelled and, after elevating two disappointing usurpers, chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. Constantine III (died 411 by September 18) was a Roman general who declared himself Western Roman Emperor in 407 abdicating in 411 (and being killed He soon crossed to Gaul with an army and was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. Honorius may refer to Honorius (emperor (Flavius Augustus Honorius western Roman emperor 395-423 Honorius of Canterbury (Saint Honorius A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration (although Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai). Zosimus ( ''fl'' 490s-510s was a Byzantine historian who lived in Constantinople during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius A later appeal for help by the British communities was rejected by the Emperor Honorius in 410. Flavius Honorius ( September 9, 384 &ndash August 15, 423) was Roman Emperor (393- 395 and then Western Roman Emperor This apparent contradiction has been explained by EA Thompson as a peasant revolt against the landowning classes, with the latter group asking for Roman help; an uprising certainly occurred in Gaul at the time. With the higher levels of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and small warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still aspiring to Roman ideals and conventions.

By tradition, the pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts and Irish, though archaeology has suggested some official settlement as landed mercenaries as early as the third century. Vortigern (ˈvɔrtɨɡɝːn also spelled Vortiger and Vortigen and in Welsh Gwrtheyrn was a 5th century warlord in Britain, a leading ruler among Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may well have begun much earlier even than that. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries being brought to Britain in the first and second centuries to support the legions. The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name). Brittany (Breizh bʁejs Bretagne; Gallo: Bertaèyn) is a former independent Celtic kingdom and Duchy, now incorporated into Similar orders were sent out in the 490s but met with no response. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the famous Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aëtius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446; another is the Battle of Dyrham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea. The Groans of the Britons ( Latin: gemitus Britannorum) is the name of the final appeal made by the post-Roman Romano-British population of Britain Aëtius is also the name of several other persons Flavius Aëtius or simply Aëtius, (c The Battle of Deorham was fought in southwestern Britain in 577, between the Saxons of Wessex and the Britons to their west

Most scholars reject the historicity of the later legends of King Arthur, which seem to be set in this period, but some such as John Morris see it as evidence behind which may lie a plausible grain of truth. A legend ( Latin, legenda, "things to be read" is a Narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to King Arthur is a legendary British leader who according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders Dr John Morris (1913 - June 1977 was an English historian who specialised in the study of the institutions of the Roman Empire and the history of Sub-Roman Britain

Themes

Trade and industry

Further information: Mining in Roman Britain

By the time of the Roman occupation, Britain's tin exports to the Mediterranean had been largely eclipsed by the more convenient supply from Iberia. Mining was one of the most prosperous activities in Roman Britain. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Gold, tin, iron, lead, silver, jet, marble and pearls however were all exploited by the Romans in Britain along with more everyday commodities such as hunting dogs, animal skins, timber, wool and slaves. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Jet is a geological material and is considered to be a minor gemstone Marble is a nonfoliated Metamorphic rock resulting from the Metamorphism of Limestone, composed mostly of Calcite (a crystalline form of A pearl is a hard roundish object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled Mollusk. Foreign investment created a vigorous domestic market, and imports were often of exotic continental items such as fine pottery, olive oil, lavastone querns, glassware, garum and fruit. Quern-stones are a pair of stone tools for hand Grinding a wide variety of materials Garum, also called liquamen,

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine was probably first worked by the army from ca 75 AD, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The Dolaucothi Gold Mines ( also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are Roman surface and deep mines located in the valley of the River Cothi, The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. Hydraulic mining, or hydraulicking, is a form of Mining that employs Water to dislodge rock material or move sediment They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia in great detail. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Naturalis Historia ( Latin for "Natural History" is an Encyclopedia written Circa AD 77 by Pliny the Elder. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for crushing and comminution. A method of mining fires were set against a rock face to break the rock by Thermal shock after dousing with water Comminution is one of the four main groups of mechanical processing and describes the movement of the Particle size distribution (grains drops bubbles into a range of finer The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from ca 75 AD through to the first century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence form the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. The Weald (wɪəld is the name given to a physiographic area in south-east England situated between the parallel Chalk Escarpments of the North The Mendip Hills (commonly called The Mendips) are a range of Limestone hills situated to the south of Bristol and Bath in Somerset Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Although mining had long been practised in Britain, the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. Hydraulic mining, or hydraulicking, is a form of Mining that employs Water to dislodge rock material or move sediment The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Doalucothi being especially impressive. An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

Although Roman designs were most popular, rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site Local pottery rarely attained the standards of the Gaulish industries although the Castor ware of the Nene Valley was able to withstand comparison with the imports. The River Nene is a River in the east of England that rises from three sources in the English County of Northamptonshire. Most native pottery was unsophisticated however and intended only for local markets.

By the third century, Britain's economy was diverse and well-established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north. The design of Hadrian's Wall especially catered to the need for customs inspections of merchants' goods.

Provincial government

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons were placed under the Emperor's control. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were former senators and had held the consulship. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. These men were carefully selected often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. In the history of the Roman empire, civitas (pl civitates mainly referred to the condition of Roman Citizenship It was also used to describe a type of settlement When not campaigning he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus iuridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and in time of war probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections.

Provincial subdivisions

Britannia 43-early 3rd c. Britannia was the term originally used by the Romans to refer first to the British Isles, and later to the island of Great Britain. Capital Camulodunum (43-c. Camulodunum is the Roman name for the ancient settlement which is today's Colchester, a town in Essex, England. 65), then Londinium

Britannia Inferior, Early 3rd c. London, the capital of the United Kingdom, has a recorded history that goes back over 2000 years Britannia Inferior was a subdivision of the Roman province of Britannia established c - 293, capital at Eboracum

Britannia Superior Early 3rd c. The history of York as a city dates to the beginning of the first millennium AD but evidence for the presence of people in the area date back much further to 8000/7000 BC Britannia Superior was one of the provinces of Roman Britain created around 197 AD by the Roman Emperor Septimus Severus immediately after winning a Civil War against - 293, capital at Londinium

Flavia Caesariensis, 293-410, capital Lincoln

Britannia Secunda, 293-410, capital Eboracum

Maxima Caesariensis, 293-410, capital Londinium

Britannia Prima, 293-410, capital Cirencester

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which still survive. London, the capital of the United Kingdom, has a recorded history that goes back over 2000 years Flavia Caesariensis was one of the provinces of Roman Britain. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Events By place Western Roman Empire Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Emperor. Lincoln (ˈlɪŋkən is a Cathedral city and County town of Lincolnshire, England. Britannia Secunda was one of the provinces of Roman Britain in existence by c Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Events By place Western Roman Empire Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Emperor. The history of York as a city dates to the beginning of the first millennium AD but evidence for the presence of people in the area date back much further to 8000/7000 BC Maxima Caesariensis was the name of one of the four provinces of later Roman Britain (but is not named in the surviving copies of the Verona List, dated 312 Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Events By place Western Roman Empire Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Emperor. London, the capital of the United Kingdom, has a recorded history that goes back over 2000 years Britannia Prima was one of the provinces of Roman Britain in existence by c Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Events By place Western Roman Empire Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Emperor. Cirencester is a Market town in Gloucestershire, England, 93 miles (150 km west northwest of London

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them, include: (with their Latin names in brackets)

• Alcester - (Aluana)
• Bath - (Aquae Sulis)
• Caerleon - (Isca Augusta)
• Caernarfon - (Segontium)
• Caerwent - (Venta Silurum)
• Canterbury - (Durovernum Cantiacorum)
• Carmarthen - (Moridunum)
• Colchester - (Camulodunum)
• Corbridge - (Coria)
• Chichester - (Noviomagus Regnorum. Alcester ( IPA /ˈɒlˌstə(ɹ/ or /ˈɔːlˌstə(ɹ/ is an old Market town of Roman origin at the junction of the River Alne and Bath is a city in Somerset in the south west of England It is situated west of London and south-east of Bristol. For the Roman Baths complex at Aquae Sulis see Roman Baths (Bath. Caerleon (Caerllion is a suburban village and community, situated on the River Usk in the northern outskirts of the city of Newport, South Isca Augusta (or Isca Silurum) was a Roman Legionary fortress and settlement, the remains of which lie beneath parts of the present-day Caernarfon (the original Welsh spelling is now almost always used in preference to the anglicised forms "Caernarvon" or "Carnarvon" is a Segontium is a Roman fort for a Roman auxiliary force located on the outskirts of Caernarfon in Gwynedd, North Wales. Caerwent (Caer-went is a Village and community in Monmouthshire, Wales, located about 5 miles west of Chepstow and 11 miles east Venta Silurum was a Town in the Roman province of Britannia (later Britannia Prima) Canterbury ( ˈkæntəbɹ̩i is a City in eastern Kent in the South East region of England. Durovernum Cantiacorum was a Town in the Roman province of Britannia. Carmarthen ( Welsh Caerfyrddin - caer fort + Myrddin Moridunum is the County town of Carmarthenshire, Wales. Moridunum (or almost certainly Moridunum Demetarum) was a Roman fort and Town in the Roman province of Britannia. Colchester ( /ˈkəʊltʃɛstə/ is a town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester, in Essex, England. Camulodunum is the Roman name for the ancient settlement which is today's Colchester, a town in Essex, England. Corbridge is a small town in Northumberland, England, situated 16 miles (25 km west of Newcastle and 4 miles (6 km east of Hexham Coria was a Fort and Town, located 25 miles (4km south of Hadrian's Wall, in the Roman province of Britannia. Chichester is a cathedral city in West Sussex, England. It has a long history as a settlement its Roman past and its subsequent importance Noviomagus Reginorum was the Roman town which is today called Chichester, situated in the modern English county of West Sussex. Noviomagus means New Market and is also the Roman place name of a town in the Netherlands, now called Nijmegen)
• Chester - (Deva Victrix)
• Cirencester - (Corinium)
• Dover - (Portus Dubris)
• Dorchester - (Durnovaria)
• Exeter - (Isca Dumnoniorum)
• Gloucester - (Glevum)
• Leicester - (Ratae Corieltauvorum)
• London - (Londinium)
• Lincoln - (Lindum Colonia)
• Manchester - (Mamucium)
• Newcastle upon Tyne - (Pons Aelius)
• Northwich - (Condate)
• St Albans - (Verulamium)
• Towcester - (Lactodorum)
• Whitchurch - (Mediolanum)
• Winchester - (Venta Belgarum)
• York - (Eboracum)

Further information: List of Roman place names in Britain

Religion

Pagan

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain,^[26] were outlawed by Claudius,^[27] and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Chester is the County town of Cheshire, England. Lying on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales, it is home to 77040 Deva Victrix, or simply Deva, was a legionary fortress and town in the Roman province of Britannia. Cirencester is a Market town in Gloucestershire, England, 93 miles (150 km west northwest of London Corinium Dobunnorum was the second largest town in the Roman province of Britannia. Dover is a town and major ferry port in the county of Kent, England. Dubris or Portus Dubris was the original name of the town of Dover, Kent, England given to it by its Roman founders Dorchester is a Market town in southern central Dorset, England, on the River Frome at the junction of the A35 and A37 Durnovaria is the Latin form of the Brythonic name for the Roman town of Dorchester in the modern English county of Dorset Exeter ( (IPA ˈeksɪtər is a city, district and County town of Devon, England. Isca Dumnoniorum was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. Gloucester (ˈɡlɒstɚ) is a city, district and County town of Gloucestershire in the South West region of England. Glevum (or more formally Colonia Nervia Glevensium, or occasionaly Glouvia) was a Roman fort in Roman Britain. Leicester (ˈlɛstə is the largest city and Unitary authority area in the East Midlands of England, and is the traditional Ratae Corieltauvorum was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. This article covers the history of London during the Roman period from around 47 AD when the Roman city of Londinium was founded Lincoln (ˈlɪŋkən is a Cathedral city and County town of Lincolnshire, England. Lindum Colonia (otherwise simply Lindum or more formally Colonia Domitiana Lindensium) was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. Newcastle upon Tyne ( (often shortened to Newcastle) is a city and Metropolitan borough of Tyne and Wear, England Pons Aelius (or Newcastle Roman Fort) was an auxiliary Castra and small Roman settlement on Hadrian's Wall in the Roman province Northwich is a town in Cheshire, England. It lies in the heart of the Cheshire Plain, at the confluence of the rivers St Albans is the main urban area of the City and District of St Albans in southern Hertfordshire, England, around north of central London. Verulamium was the third-largest city in Roman Britain. It was sited in the southwest of the modern city of St Albans in Hertfordshire. Towcester (ˈtoʊstɚ the Roman town of Lactodorum, is a small town in Northamptonshire, England. Lactodurum was a Town in the Roman province of Britannia. Today it is known as Towcester, located in the English county of Northamptonshire Whitchurch is a Market town in North Shropshire, England. It is the oldest continuously inhabited town in Shropshire. Mediolanum was a fort and small Town in the Roman province of Britannia. Winchester or Winton ( archaic) is a historic city in southern England, with a population of around 40000 within a radius of its centre Venta Belgarum was a Town in the Roman province of Britannia Superior. York ( is an historic Walled city sited at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. Eboracum was a fort and City in Roman Britain. Today it is known as York, located in North Yorkshire, England. A partial list of Roman place names in Great Britain. This list includes only names documented from Roman times A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies History There are numerous Megalithic monuments and Menhirs present on Anglesey testifying to the presence of mankind in prehistory ^[28] However, under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham. Ancasta was a Celtic goddess worshipped in Roman Britain. She is known from a single dedicatory inscription found in the United Kingdom at Bitterne near Nettleham is a large village and Civil parish within the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England.

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain northern European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at Bath before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. A votive deposit or votive offering is an object left in a Sacred place for Ritual purposes Worship of the emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica.

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The Mithraic Mysteries or Mysteries of Mithras (also Mithraism) was a Roman mystery religion which became popular among the military in the late The Temple of Mithras is one example of the popularity of mystery religions amongst the rich urban classes. Mystery Religions, Sacred Mysteries or simply Mysteries, were "religious cults of the Graeco-Roman

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The earliest written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Anglicised as Tertullian, (ca 200, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". ^[29] Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. Icklingham is a village in Suffolk, England The Saxon Shore Forts is the collective name given to a system of Forts ( Castra) built along the east and south-east coast of what is now England Richborough ( pronounced /ˈrɪtʃb(ərə/ is a settlement north of Sandwich on the east coast of the county of Kent, England. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early fourth century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. The Water Newton Treasure is a Hoard of Roman Silverware discovered near the Roman town of Durobrivae at Water Newton in Lullingstone is a village in the county of Kent, England. It is best known for its castle, Roman villa and its public golf course Hinton St Mary is a village in north Dorset, England, situated on a low Limestone ridge beside the River Stour, one Mile north of A large 4th century cemetery at Poundbury with its east-west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period. Poundbury is an experimental New town — or more correctly a new Village — on the outskirts of Dorchester in the County of Dorset Grave goods, in Archaeology and Anthropology, are the items buried along with the body

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314. Represented at the Council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain: Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius. A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Restitutus ( fl. 314 was an archbishop of London in the early 4th century Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well-established. Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄ Saint Alban, the first British Christian martyr, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (although some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Aaron and Julius of Isca Augusta. Saint Alban was the first British Christian Martyr. Along with his fellow Saints Julius and Aaron, Alban is one of three martyrs remembered Saints Julius and Aaron are celebrated as two British Martyrs who died during the religious persecutions of the Emperor Diocletian in AD 304 Isca Augusta (or Isca Silurum) was a Roman Legionary fortress and settlement, the remains of which lie beneath parts of the present-day One heresy, Pelagianism, was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. Pelagianism is a theological theory named after Pelagius (ad 354 – ad Pelagius (ca 354 &ndash ca 420/440 was an ascetic monk who denied the doctrine of Original sin, later developed by Augustine of Hippo, and 354 to c. 420/440.

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, datable to c. 363, has been widely publicized as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to warn a Christian women called Nigra of the arrival of Bilonicus, describing him as a canem Arii, an "Arian dog", indicating that the struggle between orthodoxy and heresy was present in Britain as elsewhere in the empire. Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. However, this translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text, in fact, has nothing to do with Christianity. ^[30]

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain, the Romans built an extensive network of roads, many of whose routes are still followed today. The Roman Roads were essential for the growth of the Roman Empire, by enabling the Romans to move armies and trade goods and to communicate news The Romans also built water and sewage systems. Sewage is the mainly liquid Waste containing some solids produced by humans which typically consists of washing water Feces, Urine, laundry waste and other

Britain's major cities, such as London, were founded by the Romans. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.

Britain is also noteworthy as having the largest European region of the former Roman Empire that currently speaks neither (as a majority language):

• A Romance language (for example, Romania, where territory was under Roman control about half as long as Britain), nor
• A language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants (such as Greek), though Welsh exists as a minority language, with many borrowings from Latin, such as llaeth ("milk"), ffenestr ("window"). The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Welsh ( cy Cymraeg or cy y Gymraeg, kəmˈrɑːɨɡ and {{IPA|[ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]}}, is a member of the Brythonic branch of Celtic A minority language is a Language spoken by a Minority of the Population of a country The Cornish language also survived into the early modern period and is currently undergoing some revival. For the Cornish-English dialect see West Country dialects and List of Cornish dialect words.

Significant Germanic migration to Britain seems to have taken place only after the coming of the Romans. The Germanic speakers came originally as auxiliary troops to support the Romans in their conquest of the Celts.

Many British people now have Italian ancestry, although in most cases it is mixed in with other ethnicities (see Italian Britons). The' Italian people' are a Southern European Ethnic group located primarily in Italy, Switzerland, France and by virtue of a wide-ranging Italian Britons also known as Britalians, are British citizens whose ancestry originates in Italy.

See also

• Britannia (disambiguation)
• Roman departure from Britain
• List of Roman governors of Britain
• Roman client kingdoms in Britain
• History of Britain
• Romano-British
• Sub-Roman Britain
• Roman sites in the United Kingdom
• Mining in Roman Britain
• Dolaucothi

References

External links

• Roman Britain, by Kevan W. White
• The Roman Army and Navy in Britain, by Peter Green
• Roman Britain: Guy de la Bedoyere
• Roman Britain at LacusCurtius
• Roman London - "In their own words" (PDF) By Kevin Flude
• Roman Britain - History
• The History Files The End of Roman Britain
• The Roman Inscriptions of Britain -- an online version of the authoritative collection of R. G. Collingwood and R. P. Wright
• "Roman Britain – the effects of 400 years of occupation" on BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time featuring Greg Woolf, Mary Beard and Catharine Edwards

In Our Time is a discussion programme hosted by Melvyn Bragg on BBC Radio 4 in the United Kingdom.

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