Rome, Parthia and Seleucid Empire in 200 BC. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire For his grandfather and namesake see Lucius Licinius Lucullus. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Publius Ventidius Bassus was a Roman General and one of Julius Caesar 's protégées Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Gaius Avidius Cassius (ca 130&ndashJuly 175 was a Roman usurper who briefly ruled Egypt and Syria in 175 Statius Priscus was a Roman governor of Cappadocia, he was sent to Armenia by Marcus Aurelius with Lucius Verus, Aurelius' Co-emperor to conduct Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor Caracalla ( April 4 188 &ndash April 8, 217) born Lucius Septimius Bassianus and later Marcus Opellius Macrinus (ca 165 - June 218 was Roman emperor for fourteen months in 217 and 218 Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, commonly called Alexander Severus, (October 1 208 &ndash March 18, 235) was the last Roman emperor Marcus Antonius Gordianus ( January 20 225 – February 11, 244) known in English as Gordian III, was Roman Emperor Marcus Julius Philippus or Philippus I Arabs (c 204 - 249 known in English as Philip the Arab or formerly (prior to World War II in For other uses see Valerian. Publius Licinius Valerianus (c 200 - after 260 commonly known in English as Valerian Marcus Aurelius Carus (c 230 - late July/early August 283 was a Roman Emperor (282-283 Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331 or 332 to 26 June 363) was Roman Emperor (Caesar Flavius Anastasius (Φλάβιος Ἀναστάσιος or Anastasius I (Ἀναστάσιος Β΄ (c Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or Flavius Belisarius (Βελισάριος (505(? – 565 was one of the greatest Generals of the Byzantine Empire and one of the most acclaimed generals in history Flavius Iustinus (Iunior Augustus (c 520 - 578 was Eastern Roman emperor from 565 to 578 Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus (Φλάβιος Μαυρίκιος Τιβέριος Αύγουστος Մավրիկ Mavrig; 539 &ndash November 27 Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East King Phraates III of Parthia succeeded his father Sanatruces and ruled the Parthian Empire from 70 to 57 BC Surena may refer to either a noble family of Parthia also known as the House of Suren, or to a renowned 1st century BCE General Surena who was Pacorus I of Parthia (died 38 BC was the son of king Orodes II of the Parthian Empire. Artabanus II of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from about AD 10 to 38 Vologases I of Parthia (in Persian Balash or Valakhsh ruled the Parthian Empire from about 51 to 78 Vologases IV of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from 147 to 191 Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid dynasty, was ruler of Istakhr (206-241 subsequently Persia Shapur I was the second Sassanid King of the Second Persian Empire. Shapur II was the ninth King of the Sassanid Empire from 309 to 379 Kavadh I (b 449 r 488&ndash531 also spelled Kaveh, Kavad) son of Peroz I (457&ndash484 was the nineteenth Sassanid King of Persia from Khosrau I or Khosrow I ( Chosroes I in classical sources most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan, Persian انوشيروان meaning Bahram Chobin (Chubin Chobina (in Persian بهرام چوبین was a famous Eran spahbod (military commander during Khosrau II 's rule in Sassanid Khosrau II or Khosrow II ( Chosroes II or Xosrov II in classical sources sometimes called Shāhin son of Dulnak (Persian دولناک ( (died c 626 was a senior Sassanid general ( Spahbod) during the reign of Khosrau II Shahrbaraz (or Shahrwaraz) (died June 9, 630) was a general with the rank of Eran Spahbod ( Commander of the Army of Iran) under Rhahzadh, alternatively known as Razates was a Persian Spahbod (commander from the Mihran family under Sassanid king Khosrau II. Soon both the Romans and the Parthians would invade the Seleucid-held territories, and become the strongest states of their time.

The Roman-Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between the Greco-Roman world and two successive Iranian empires. In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation The following is a list of Iranic states and empires. It includes both states and empires founded by the Iranian peoples and those that have been heavily affected by Iranian They began as a war between the late Roman Republic and Parthia in 92 BC, before being carried over to the Roman and the Sassanid Empires. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The bitter and lenghty conflict finally concluded as a struggle between the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) and the Sassanid Empire in 627 AD, soon followed by Arab invasions into both Roman and Persian territories from 632 AD onwards. The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab

Although warfare between the Romans and the Iranians lasted for seven centuries, neither side was able to dominate the other. The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. A game of "tug of war" ensued, with towns, fortifications, and provinces continuously sacked, captured, destroyed and changing sides frequently. Tug of war, tug o' war, or tug war, also known as rope pulling, is a Sport that directly puts two teams against each other in a test of strength Neither army had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns so far from their borders, and thus neither was able advance too far without stretching their frontiers too thinly.

The energy expended during the Roman-Persians Wars amounted to little for either side as the Muslim onslaught during the 7th century defeated the war-exhausted Persian Empire and deprived the Eastern Roman Empire of its Near Eastern and North African territories soon after the end of the Roman-Persian conflict. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan

Historical background

The Eastern world was of particular importance for the Romans, since it was regarded as a source of wealth, and as a road to glory for Roman leaders and generals from Pompey to Heraclius. The Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST internal designation HT-7U is an experimental Superconducting Tokamak Magnetic fusion energy Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East As Warwick Ball stresses, "above all, the East was the only area which held another great power that could match Rome: Iran. "^[1] In Rome there was understandable preoccupation with eastern policies, although the same was probably not as true for the Iranian empires, which particularly under the Sassanids, faced important powers to the East as well, and conquered a great empire: the Kushans. The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 According to Ball, "the East was of far more importance to Iran than Rome ever was: the Parthians established relations with China, for example, before they did with Rome. "^[2]

The other major power in the Mediterranean that could resist Rome was the Seleucid Empire of Antiochus III the Great. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Antiochus III the Great, ( Greek; ca 241&ndash187 BC ruled 222&ndash187 BC younger son of Seleucus II Callinicus His kingdom was however declining; the Romans routed him at Thermopylae, and in 190 BC set foot for the first time in Asia. The Battle of Thermopylae was fought in 191 BC between a Roman army led by consul Manius Acilius Glabrio and a Seleucid force led by King In 189 BC the Seleucid army was once again completely routed at the Battle of Magnesia by the Romans who expanded their conquests in Asia Minor. The Battle of Magnesia was fought in 190 BC near Magnesia ad Sipylum, on the plains of Lydia (modern Turkey) between the Romans Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black By the time of Pompey, more than a century later, the rump Seleucid Empire had become a Roman province. Pompey's arrival in Antioch in the summer of 64 BC marked the end of one empire and the beginning of another. ^[3]

At the same time, a new power loomed in the Iranian plateau: the Parthians, the last of the great Indo-Iranian tribal confederations to migrate westwards from Central Asia. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Ruled by the Arsacid dynasty, the Parthias were ready by the middle of the 2nd century BC to launch a full-scale invasion of Seleucid-held Iran; they soon re-established a considerable part of the Achaemenid Empire (the old Persian Empire), they fended off several Seleucid attempts to regain their lost territories, and extended their rule deep into India. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country ^[4]

Roman-Parthian Wars

For more details on this topic, see Roman-Parthian Wars.

See also: Parthia#Conflicts with Rome

Roman Republic vs Parthia

Armenia under Tigranes

Parthian enterprise in the West began in the time of Mithridates I, and were revived by Mithridates II, who conducted unsuccessful negotiations with Lucius Cornelius Sulla for a Roman-Parthian alliance (c. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Mithridates I (B 195 BC? D 138 BC was the "Great King" of Parthia from ca Mithridates II (the Great was king of Parthia from 123 to 88 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c 105 BC). ^[5] Roman-Parthian contact was restored, when Lucullus invaded Southern Armenia, and defeated Tigranes in 69 BC, but again no definite agreement was made. For his grandfather and namesake see Lucius Licinius Lucullus. From the 1st century BC onwards Armenia was in part or whole subject to the Roman Empire and its successor the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. This article is about a king of Armenia in the 1st century BCE. ^[6] In 66/65 BC Pompey came to an agreement with Phraates III, and Roman-Parthian troops invaded Armenia, but soon a dispute arose over Euphrates boundary. King Phraates III of Parthia succeeded his father Sanatruces and ruled the Parthian Empire from 70 to 57 BC Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת Finally, Phraates asserted his control over Mesopotamia, except for the western district of Osroene, which became a Roman dependency. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Osroene (also spelled Osrohene, Osrhoene; Syriac:ܡܠܟܘܬܐ ܕܒܝܬ ܥܣܪܐ ܥܝܢܐ Malkuṯā d-Bēt ʿŌsrā ʿĪnē ^[7] In 53 BC, Crassus led an invasion of Mesopotamia, with catastrophic results; at the Battle of Carrhae, the worst Roman defeat since the Battle of Cannae, Crassus and his son, Publius, were killed by the Parthians under General Surena^[8] The following year, the Parthians raided Syria, and in 51 BC they mounted a major invasion, but their army was caught in an ambush near Antigonea by the Romans. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca The Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC was a decisive victory for the Parthian Spahbod Surena over the Roman general Crassus near For the 11th century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018. Publius Licinius Crassus is the name of several Romans of the Middle and Late Republic, some with the additional Cognomen Dives Surena may refer to either a noble family of Parthia also known as the House of Suren, or to a renowned 1st century BCE General Surena who was Syria was a Roman province, conquered in 64 BC by Pompey, as a consequence of his military presence after pursing victory in the Third Mithridatic Antigonia (Αντιγόνεια also Transliterated as Antigonea and Antigoneia was a Hellenistic city in Seleucis, Syria ^[9]

During Caesar's civil war the Parthians made no move, but maintained relations with Pompey. The Roman civil war of 49 BC sometimes called Caesar's Civil War, is one of the last conflicts within the Roman Republic. After his defeat and death, a force under Pacorus I came to the aid of the Pompeian general Caecilius Bassus, who was besieged at Apamea Valley by the Caesarian forces. Pacorus I of Parthia (died 38 BC was the son of king Orodes II of the Parthian Empire. With the civil war over, Julius Caesar elaborated plans for a campaign against Parthia, but his assassination averted the war. During the ensuing Liberators' civil war, the Parthians actively supported Brutus and Cassius, sending a contingent which fought with them at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. The Liberators' civil war was started by the Second Triumvirate to avenge Julius Caesar 's murder Marcus Junius Brutus (85&ndash42 BC or Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. For the Roman consul see Gaius Cassius Longinus (consul 171 BC. The Battle of Philippi was the final battle in the Wars of the Second Triumvirate between the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian (the Second Triumvirate ^[10] After that defeat, the Parthians invaded Roman territory in 40 BC in conjunction with Quintus Labienus, a Roman erstwhile supporter of Brutus and Cassius; they swiftly overran Syria, defeated Roman forces in the province, and advanced into Judaea, overthrowing the Roman client Hyrcanus II and installing his nephew Antigonus in his place. Quintus Labienus (d 39 BC the son of Titus Labienus, was a Roman republican general later in the service of Parthia. Kingdom of Judea redirects here For the 10th-6th century BCE kingdom see Kingdom of Judah Iudaea ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard Hyrcanus II, a member of the Hasmonean dynasty was the Jewish High Priest and King of Judea in the 1st century BCE Antigonus the Hasmonean was the son of King Aristobulus II of Judea. For a moment, the whole of the Roman East seemed to be either in Parthian hands or on the point of capture. The conclusion of the second Roman civil war was soon to bring about a revival of Roman strength in Asia. List of Civil wars involving Rome. There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. ^[11]

Meanwhile Mark Antony had already sent Ventidius to oppose Labienus who had invaded Anatolia. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Publius Ventidius Bassus was a Roman General and one of Julius Caesar 's protégées Soon Labienius was driven back to Syria by Roman forces, and, though his Parthians allies came to his support, he was defeated, taken prisoner and then put to death. After suffering a further defeat near the Syrian Gates, the Parthians withdrew from Syria. The Syrian Gates, also known as the Belen Pass is a mountain pass located in the Hatay Province of south-central Turkey. They returned in 38 BC, but were decisively defeated by Ventidius, and Pacorus was killed. In Judaea, Antigonus was ousted with Roman help by Herod in 37 BC. Herod (הוֹרְדוֹס Horodos, Greek: Herōdes) also known as Herod I or Herod the Great (73 BC – 4 BC in Jericho ^[12] With Roman control of Syria and Judaea restored, Mark Antony led a huge army into Azerbaijan, but his siege train and its escort were isolated and wiped out, while his Armenian allies deserted. Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large Failing to make progress against Parthian positions, the Romans withdrew with heavy casualties. In 33 BC Antony was again in Armenia, contracting an alliance with the Median king against both Octavian and the Parthians, but other preoccupations obliged him to withdraw, and the whole region passed under Parthian control. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was ^[13]

Roman Empire vs Parthia

Parthia, its subkingdoms, and neighbors in 1 AD.

Under the threat of an impending war between the two powers, Gaius Caesar and Phraataces worked out a rough compromise in 1 AD. See also Gaius Julius Caesar, for others of the same name Gaius Julius Caesar (20 BC - AD 4 most commonly known as Julius Caesar, was Phraates V of Parthia known as Phraataces (a diminutive ruled the Parthian Empire from 2 BC to AD 4. According to the agreement, Parthia undertook to withdraw its forces from Armenia, and to recognize a de facto Roman protectorate over the country. Nonetheless, Roman-Persian rivalry over control and influence in Armenia continued unabated for the next several decades. ^[14] The decision of the Parthian king Artabanus II to place his son on the vacant Armenian throne triggered a war with Rome in 36 AD, which ended with Artabanus renunciating claims to a Parhian sphere of influence in Armenia. Artabanus II of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from about AD 10 to 38 ^[15] A new crisis was triggered in 58 AD, when the Romans under Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo invaded Armenia after the Parthian king Vologases I forcibly installed his brother Tiridates on the throne there. Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo (ca 7 - 67 was a Roman general Life Descent Corbulo was born in Italy into a senatorial family Vologases I of Parthia (in Persian Balash or Valakhsh ruled the Parthian Empire from about 51 to 78 Tiridates I ( Տրդատ Ա EA: Trdat I WA: Drtad I was King of Armenia beginning in AD 53 and the founder of the Arshakuni Dynasty ^[16] Roman forces overthrew Tiridates and replaced him with a Cappadocian prince. Cappadocia (or Capadocia, Turkish Kapadokya, from Greek: Καππαδοκία / Kappadokía which in turn is from the Persian: The war came to an end in 63 AD, when the Romans agreed to allow Tiridates and his descendants to rule Armenia on condition that they received the kingship from the Roman emperor. ^[17]

A new series of wars began in the second century AD, during which the Romans consistently held the upper hand over Parthia. In 114 and 115 AD the Roman Emperor Trajan first invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia, annexed them as Roman provinces, and then captured the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon, before sailing downriver to the Persian Gulf. Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the ^[18] However, in that year revolts erupted in Palestine, Syria and northern Mesopotamia, while a major Jewish revolt broke out in Roman territory, severely stretching Roman military resources. Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The Kitos War ( 115 — 117) (מרד הגלויות mered ha'galoyot or mered ha'tfutzot (מרד התפוצות translation Rebellion of the Simultaneously, Parthian forces began attacking key Roman positions; at the same time the Roman garrisons at Seleucia, Nisibis and Edessa had been attacked and evicted by the local populaces. For the Syrian seaport of the same name that figures in the travels of Saint Paul see Seleucia Pieria. Nusaybin ancient Nisibis, Nisibia Nisibin is a city in Mardin Province, southeastern Turkey populated by Turks, Aramean-Syriacs Edessa ( Greek:) is the historical name of a Syriac town in northern Mesopotamia, refounded on an ancient site by Seleucus I Nicator Trajan subdued the rebels in Mesopotamia, but having installed the Parthian prince Parthamaspates on the throne there as a client ruler he withdrew his armies, and proceeded to Syria, where he set up his headquarters at Antioch. Parthamaspates, Roman Client king of Parthia and later of Osroene, was the son of the Parthian emperor Osroes I. In 117 AD, before he could reorganize the effort to consolidate Roman control over the Parthian provinces, Trajan died. ^[19]

The ruins of Ctesiphon, the Parthian and Sassanid capital.

Trajan's Parthian War marked "a shift of emphasis in the 'grand strategy of the Roman empire'", but his successor, Hadrian, decided that it was in Rome's interest to re-establish the Euphrates as the limit of its direct control, and willingly returned to the status quo ante, surrendering the territories of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Adiabene back to their previous rulers and client-kings. Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after The term status quo ante bellum comes from Latin meaning literally as things were before the war. Adiabene (from the Αδιαβηνή Adiabene, itself derived from Aramaic syr ܚܕܝܐܒ Ḥaḏy’aḇ or Ḥḏay’aḇ) was ^[20] Once again, at least for another half century, Rome was to avoid active intervention east of the Euphrates. ^[19] War over Armenia broke out again in 161 AD, when Vologases IV defeated the Romans there, captured Edessa and ravaged Syria. Vologases IV of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from 147 to 191 In 163 AD a Roman counter-attack under Statius Priscus defeated the Parthians in Armenia and installed a favored candidate on the Armenian throne. Statius Priscus was a Roman governor of Cappadocia, he was sent to Armenia by Marcus Aurelius with Lucius Verus, Aurelius' Co-emperor to conduct The following year Avidius Cassius began an invasion of Mesopotamia, winning battles at Dura-Europos and Seleucia and sacking Ctesiphon in 165 AD. Gaius Avidius Cassius (ca 130&ndashJuly 175 was a Roman usurper who briefly ruled Egypt and Syria in 175 Dura-Europos ("Fort Europos" was a Hellenistic, Parthian and Roman border City built on an Escarpment ninety meters above An epidemic, possibly of smallpox, which was sweeping Parthia at the time now spread to the Roman army, leading to their withdrawal. ^[21] In 195-197 AD another Roman offensive under the emperor Septimius Severus led to the Roman acquisition of northern Mesopotamia, as far as the areas around Nisibis and Singara. Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor ^[22] A final war against the Parthians was launched by the emperor Caracalla, who sacked Arbela in 216 AD, but after his assassination his successor Macrinus was defeated by the Parthians near Nisibis and was obliged to make a payment of reparations for the damage done by Caracalla in exchange for peace. Caracalla ( April 4 188 &ndash April 8, 217) born Lucius Septimius Bassianus and later Arbil (also written Erbil or Irbil; BGN: Arbīl; Kurdish: هه‌ولێر Hewlêr Marcus Opellius Macrinus (ca 165 - June 218 was Roman emperor for fourteen months in 217 and 218 The Battle of Nisibis was fought in the summer of 217 between the armies of the Roman Empire under the newly ascended emperor Macrinus and the Parthian ^[23]

Roman-Sassanid Wars

For more details on this topic, see Byzantine-Sassanid Wars.

Early Roman-Sassanid conflicts

The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur (Hans Holbein the Younger, 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch, Kunstmuseum Basel). The Kunstmuseum Basel houses the largest and most significant public Art collection in Switzerland, and is listed as a heritage site of national significance

Persian-Roman conflict was renewed shortly after the overthrowing of the Parthian rule and the foundation of the Sassanid empire by Ardashir I, who raided in Mesopotamia and Syria in 230, demanding the restitution of the Achaemenid possessions in Europe. Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid dynasty, was ruler of Istakhr (206-241 subsequently Persia Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding ^[24] After fruitless negotiations, Alexander Severus set out against Ardashir in 232; Ardashir was finally repulsed, and Alexander Severus celebrated a triumph in Rome. Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, commonly called Alexander Severus, (October 1 208 &ndash March 18, 235) was the last Roman emperor ^[25] In 238-240, towards the end of his reign, Ardashir attacked again, taking several citied in Syria and Mesopotamia, including Carrhae, Nisibis and Hatra. Hatra (الحضر) is an ancient ruined city in the Ninawa Governorate and al-Jazira region of Iraq. ^[26] The struggle resumed and intensified under Ardashir's successor Shapur I; he invaded Mesopotamia but his forces were defeated at a battle near Resaena in 243; Carrhae and Nisibis were retaken by the Romans. Shapur I was the second Sassanid King of the Second Persian Empire. The Battle of Resaena or Resaina, near Ceylanpinar TR was fought in 243 between the forces of the Roman Empire, led by Praetorian Prefect Resaena was the ancient name of the city of Ras al-Ayn, Syria. ^[27] Encouraged by this success, the emperor Gordian III advanced down the Euphrates but was repelled near Ctesiphon at the Battle of Misiche in 244. Marcus Antonius Gordianus ( January 20 225 – February 11, 244) known in English as Gordian III, was Roman Emperor For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire The Battle of Misiche (dated between Jan 13 and March 14 244AD was fought between the Sassanid Persians and the Romans somewhere in ancient Mesopotamia ^[28]

In the early 250s, the emperor Philip was involved in a struggle over the control of Armenia. Marcus Julius Philippus or Philippus I Arabs (c 204 - 249 known in English as Philip the Arab or formerly (prior to World War II in Shapur had the Armenian king murdered, and re-opened hostilities against Rome; he defeated the garrison troops at the Battle of Barbalissos, and then probably took and plundered Antioch. The Battle of Barbalissos was fought between the Sassanid Persians and Romans at Barbalissos. Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also ^[29] Some time between 258 and 260, Shapur captured the emperor Valerian I after defeating his army at the Battle of Edessa, but his subsequent advance into Anatolia was stopped, when the army of Palmyra defeated the Persians, causing them to retreat to their homeland. For other uses see Valerian. Publius Licinius Valerianus (c 200 - after 260 commonly known in English as Valerian The Battle of Edessa took place between the armies of the Roman Empire under the command of Emperor Valerian and Sassanid forces under King Shapur The Palmyrene Empire ( 260 &ndash 273) was a splinter empire that broke off the Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century. ^[30]

Julian's unsuccessful campaign in 363 resulted in the loss of most of the Roman territorial gains under the peace treaty of 299.

In 283 the emperor Carus launched a successful invasion of Persia, sacking its capital, Ctesiphon; the Romans would probably have extended their conquests, if Carus had not died in December of the same year. Marcus Aurelius Carus (c 230 - late July/early August 283 was a Roman Emperor (282-283 ^[31] After a brief period of peace during Diocletian's early reign, the Persians renewed hostilities, invading Armenia and defeating the Romans not far from Carrhae in 296 or 297. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate ^[32] In 298, however, Galerius crushed the Persians in battle, capturing the Persian treasury and the royal harem, an utter disgrace for the Persian monarch. Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 The Roman victory was the most decisive for many decades: all the territories that had been lost, all the debatable lands, and control of Armenia were now in Roman hands. ^[33]

The arrangements of 299 proved long-lasting. It was Shapur II who broke the long peace between the two empires in mid 330s, and mounted a series of offensives against the Romans with little lasting effect. Shapur II was the ninth King of the Sassanid Empire from 309 to 379 ^[34] Shapur launched a new campaign in 359, and provoked a major offensive in 363 by the Roman Emperor Julian. Flavius Claudius Julianus, known also as Julian or Julian the Apostate (331 or 332 to 26 June 363) was Roman Emperor (Caesar ^[35] Despite victory at the Battle of Ctesiphon, Julian was unable to take the Persian capital; he was killed the same year at the Battle of Samarra. The Battle of Ctesiphon took place on May 29, 363 between the armies of Roman Emperor Julian and the Sassanid King Shapur II The battle of Samarra (the exact location is unknown took place on 26th June of 363 after the invasion of Sassanid Persia ( Iran) by the Romans. The Romans were forced to hand over their former possessions east of the Tigris, as well as Nisibis and Singara; Armenia was also soon conquered by Shapur. The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern ^[36] In 384, a definitive peace treaty was signed by Shapur III and Theodosius I, which divided Armenia between the two states. Shapur III was the eleventh Sassanid King of Persia from 383 to 388 Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄ With both empires preoccupied by barbarian threats from the north, a largely peaceful period followed, interrupted only by two brief wars, the first in 421-422, and the second in 440. ^[37]

Anastasian and Iberian Wars

Main articles: Anastasian War and Iberian War

Map of the Roman-Persian frontier after the division of Armenia in 384. The Anastasian War was fought from 502 to 506 between the Eastern Roman and Sassanid Empire. The Iberian War was fought from 526 to 532 between the Eastern Roman Empire and Sassanid Empire over the eastern Georgian kingdom The frontier remained stable throughout the 5th century.

War broke out, when the Roman emperor Anastasius I refused to provide financial support to the Persian king, Kavadh I, who tried to gain the money by force. Flavius Anastasius (Φλάβιος Ἀναστάσιος or Anastasius I (Ἀναστάσιος Β΄ (c Kavadh I (b 449 r 488&ndash531 also spelled Kaveh, Kavad) son of Peroz I (457&ndash484 was the nineteenth Sassanid King of Persia from ^[38] In 502 Kavadh quickly captured the unprepared city of Theodosiopolis,^[39] and then besieged Amida. Theodosiopolis redirects here it is also a name of the ancient city of Apros, Thrace Diyarbakır (دیاربکر Diyâr-i Bekr 'land of the Bekr ' (from Persian) Kurdish Amed Zazaki language Dêrbekir Syriac The siege of the fortress-city proved to be a far more difficult enterprise than Kavadh expected; the defenders repelled the Persian assaults for three months before they were finally beaten. ^[40] In 503 the Romans attempted an ultimately unsuccessful siege of the Persian-held Amida while Kavadh invaded Osroene, and laid siege to Edessa with the same results. ^[41] Finally in 504, the Romans gained the upper hand with the renewed investment of Amida leading to the hand-over of the city. Investment is the military tactic of surrounding an enemy Fort (or town with armed forces to prevent entry or escape That year an armistice was agreed as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the Huns from the Caucasus. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Negotiations between the two powers took place, but it was not until November 506 that a treaty was finally agreed. Procopius states that peace was agreed for seven years. Procopius of Caesarea ( Προκόπιος ο Καισαρεύς, c ^[42] In 505 Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at Dara. Dara or Daras ( Δάρας) was an important East Roman fortress city in northern Mesopotamia on the border with the Sassanid Empire The dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa, Batnac and Amida. ^[43] Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work continued at Dara; Anastasius pursued the project despite the Persian reactions, and the walls were completed by 507/508. ^[44]

Roman and Persian Empires in 500 AD, also showing their neighbors, many of whom were dragged into wars between the great powers.

In 524/525 Kavadh proposed Justin I to adopt his son, Khosrau, but the negotiations soon broke down. Flavius Iustinus (c 450&ndash August 1, 527) known in English as Justin I, was an Byzantine Emperor (518&ndash527 who rose through the ranks Khosrau I or Khosrow I ( Chosroes I in classical sources most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan, Persian انوشيروان meaning It was not until 530, however, that full-scale warfare on the main eastern frontier broke out. ^[45] Tensions between the two powers were further heightened by the defection of the Iberian king Gourgen to the Romans in 524/525. This article is about the people of ancient Georgia For the Iberians of ancient Iberian Peninsula see Iberians. ^[46] By 526-527, overt Roman-Persian fighting had broken out in the Transcaucasus region and upper Mesopotamia. The South Caucasus is a mountainous geopolitical area of south-central Eurasia, also referred to as Transcaucasia, or The Transcaucasus. ^[47] The early years of war favored the Persians: by 527 the Iberian revolt had been crushed, a Roman offensive against Nisibis and Thebetha in that year was unsuccessful and forces trying to fortify Thannuris and Melabasa were prevented from doing so by Persian attacks. ^[48] Attempting to remedy the deficiencies revealed by these Persian successes, the new Roman emperor, Justinian I, reorganized the eastern armies. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or The Byzantine army was the primary military body of the Byzantine armed forces serving alongside the Byzantine navy. ^[49] In 528 Belisarius tried unsuccessfully to protect Roman workers in Thannuris, undertaking the construction of a fort right on the frontier. Flavius Belisarius (Βελισάριος (505(? – 565 was one of the greatest Generals of the Byzantine Empire and one of the most acclaimed generals in history ^[50]

Plan of the Battle of Dara

In 530 the Romans defeated the Persians at Dara and Satala. The Battle of Dara was fought between the Sassanids and the Byzantine Empire in 530. Located in Turkey, the city of Satala, according to the ancient geographers was situated in a valley surrounded by mountains a little north of the Euphrates, where In 531 Belisarius was defeated by Persian and Lakhmid forces at the Battle of Callinicum, but, during the summer of the same year, the Romans captured cities in Armenia, and effectively repulsed Persian offensives. The Lakhmids ( Arabic:) Banu Lakhm ( Arabic:) Muntherids ( Arabic:) were a group of Arab Christians who lived in The Battle of Callinicum took place between the armies of the Eastern Roman Empire under the command of General Belisarius and Sassanid Persians under ^[51] Immediately after the failure at Callinicum, which resulted in the dismissal of Belisarius, unsuccessful negotiations between the Perians and the Romans took place. Ar-Raqqah ( الرقة, also spelled Rakka) is a city in north central Syria located on the north bank of the Euphrates River, about 160 km ^[52] Negotiations re-opened in spring 532 and the two sides finally came to an agreement; the Eternal Peace, which lasted less than eight years, was signed in September 532. Both powers agreed to return all occupied territories and the Romans to make a one-off payment of 110 centenaria (11,000 lbs of gold). The Romans recovered the Lazic forts, Iberia remained in Persian hands, but the Iberians who had left their country were allowed to remain in Roman territory or to return to their native land. ^[53]

Justinian vs Khosrau I

See also: Lazic War

Roman and Sassanid Empires during Justinian's reign

Roman (Byzantine) Empire      Acquisitions by Justinian

Sassanid Empire      Sassanid Vassals

In 540 AD, the Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" and Khosrau I invaded Syria; he extorted large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia, and systematically looted the key cities. The Lazic War also known as the Great War of Egrisi ( Georgian: ეგრისის დიდი ომი Egrisis Didi Omi) in Georgian historiography ^[54] Belisarius was quickly recalled by Justinian to the East to deal with the Persian threat; the Roman general took the field and waged an inconclusive campaign against Nisibis in 541 AD. In 542 AD Khosrau launched another offensive in Mesopotamia, and unsuccessfully attempted to capture Sergiopolis. Resafa ( الرصافة) known in Roman times as Sergiopolis, was a city located in what is now modern-day Syria. ^[55] He soon withdrew in the face of an army under Belisarius, en route sacking the city of Callinicum. ^[56] Attacks on a number of Roman cities were repulsed and Persian forces were defeated and captured at Dara by John Troglita. Dara or Daras ( Δάρας) was an important East Roman fortress city in northern Mesopotamia on the border with the Sassanid Empire John Troglita (Ioannes Troglita was a 6th century Roman general ^[57] In 543 AD, the Romans fielded a force of 30,000 troops, and launched an offensive against Dvin, but were defeated by a small Persian force at Anglon. For the modern town see Dvin (town. Dvin (Դվին Δουσιος Τισιον was a large commercial city the capital of Early medieval In 544 AD Khosrau besieged Edessa without success and was eventually bought off by the defenders. ^[58] In the wake of the Persian retreat, Roman envoys proceeded to Ctesiphon for negotiations. ^[59] A five-year truce was agreed in 545, secured by Roman payments to the Persians. ^[60]

The Eastern Roman-Persian border at the time of Justinian's death in 565 AD, with Lazica in Eastern Roman (Byzantine) hands.

In early 548 AD, king Gubazes of Lazica, having found Persian protection oppressive, asked Justinian to restore the Roman protectorate. Egrisi (ეგრისი is a medieval Georgian name for the region and kingdom in the western part of modern-day Georgia, known to the Byzantine The emperor seized the chance, and in 548/549 AD combined Roman and Lazic forces won a series of victories against Persian armies, but failed in repeated attempts to take the fort of Petra; the city was finally subjected in 551 AD. Petra (from "petra" rock in Greek; Arabic: البتراء Al-Batrāʾ) is an archaeological site in the Arabah ^[61] That year the truce which had been established in 545 AD was renewed outside Lazica for a further five years, with the Romans paying 2,000 lbs of gold each year. ^[62] The Romans failed to completely expel the Sassanids from Lazica, and in 554 AD Mihr-Mihroe launched a new attack, and captured the fortress of Telephis, which was commanded by general Martin. ^[63] In 557 AD Khosrau, who had now to deal with the White Huns, renewed the truce, this time without excluding Lazica; negotiations continued for a definite peace treaty. The Huna (also known as Indo-Hephthalites or Alchon) as they were known in South Asia, seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group who ^[64] Finally, in 561 AD, the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau put together a 50-year peace. The Persians agreed to evacuate Lazica, and received an annual subsidy of 30,000 nomismata annually. ^[65] Both sides agreed not to build new fortifications near the frontier and to ease restrictions on diplomacy and trade between the two empires. ^[66]

War for the Caucasus

The Sassanid empire and its neighbors (including the Eastern Roman Empire in 600 AD

For more details on this topic, see Roman-Persian War of 572-591.

The war began, when the Armenians revolted against Sassanid rule in early 572 AD. ^[67] Justin II took them under his protection, and Roman troops under Justin's nephew, Marcian, raided Arzanene, invaded Persian Mesopotamia, and defeated its local forces. Flavius Iustinus (Iunior Augustus (c 520 - 578 was Eastern Roman emperor from 565 to 578 Aghdznik (Աղձնիք also known as Altzniq or Arzanene, was a region of old Armenia that existed before AD 300, when it was ruled by Bakur ^[68] Marcian's sudden dismissal, however, and the arrival of troops under Khosrau resulted in the ravaging of Syria, the failure of the Roman siege of Nisibis, and the falling of Dara. ^[69] At a cost of 45,000 solidi a one-year truce (later in the year extended to five years^[70]) was arranged, though the Persians still wanted to restore control in Armenia. The solidus (the Latin word for solid) was originally a Gold coin issued by the Romans. ^[71] In 576 AD Khosrau I attempted to combine aggression in Armenia with discussion of a permanent peace. He failed however to take Theodosiopolis, and after a confrontation near Melitene the Persian royal baggage was captured. Malatya ( Hittite: Melid; Greek: Μαλάτεια Malateia; Armenian: Մալաթիա Malatia; Kurdish: ^[72] The Romans exploited Persian disarray by invading deep into Persian territory, and raiding Atropatene. Atropatene was the Seleucid -era Koine Greek name given to a kingdom established in the 4th century BCE and the nominal ancestor of the name ' Azerbaijan ^[72] Sassanid confidence revived, when Tamkhusro defeated the Romans in Persian Armenia, where their actions had alienated local inhabitants. Persian Armenia corresponds to the Armenian territory controlled by Persia throughout history ^[73] In the spring of 578 AD the Persians raided Roman Mesopotamia, but the Roman general Maurice retaliated by invading Arzanene; he also took and garrisoned the stronghold of Aphumon, and sacked Singara in Persian Mesopotamia. Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus (Φλάβιος Μαυρίκιος Τιβέριος Αύγουστος Մավրիկ Mavrig; 539 &ndash November 27 Khosrau I died early the next year, defeated after so many victories. ^[74]

Persian Armenia (387-591)

During the 580s the war continued in inconclusive fashion, with victories on both sides. In 582 AD Maurice defeated Tamkhusro, who was killed, but the Roman general did not follow up his victory; he had to hurry to Constantinople to pursue his imperial ambitions. ^[75] In 589 AD the Persians captured Martyropolis through treachery, but in the same year the stalemate was shattered when the Persian general Bahram Chobin, having been dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd IV, raised a rebellion. Silvan or Miyarfarqin ( Kurdish: Farqîn, Middle Persian: Miyān Pārgin, Persian: سيلوان) is a district Bahram Chobin (Chubin Chobina (in Persian بهرام چوبین was a famous Eran spahbod (military commander during Khosrau II 's rule in Sassanid Hormizd IV, son of Khosrau I, reigned as the twenty-first King of Persia from 579 to 590 Hormizd was overthrown in a palace coup in 590 AD and replaced by his son Khosrau II, but Bahram pressed on with his revolt regardless and the defeated Khosrau was soon forced to flee for safety to Roman territory, while Bahram took the throne as Bahram VI. Khosrau II or Khosrow II ( Chosroes II or Xosrov II in classical sources sometimes called With support from Maurice, Khosrau raised a rebellion against Bahram, and in 591 AD the combined forces of his supporters and the Romans restored Khosrau II to power. In exchange for their help, Khosrau not only returned Dara and Martyropolis but also agreed to cede the western half of Iberia and more than half of Persian Armenia to the Romans. ^[76]

Climax

See also: Siege of Constantinople (626)

The Sassanid Empire at its greatest extent ca. See Sieges of Constantinople for other sieges The Siege of Constantinople in 626 AD by the Sassanid Empire ended in a decisive victory 610 AD. The shaded area (Phrygia/Lydia) indicates vassal kingdoms under Sassanid military control. In antiquity Phrygia (Φρυγία was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now modern-day Turkey. Defining Lydia Aside from a legend related by Herodotus, who states that the name Lydia came from king Lydus at the time of the fall of Troy

During Maurice’s Balkan campaigns, he and his family were murdered by Phocas in November 602. Flavius Phocas Augustus, (el Φωκάς Phokas; reigned 602–610 called the Tyrant, usurped the Byzantine throne from the Emperor Maurice Khosrau II used the pretext to attack the Eastern Roman Empire, and reconquer the province of Mesopotamia. ^[77] The war initially went the Persians' way, partly because of Phocas' brutal repression and the succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt, enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610 AD. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Phocas was eventually deposed by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers An icon (from Greek εἰκών eikōn, "image" is a religious work of art most commonly a painting from Eastern Christianity. ^[78] By this time the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 AD they overran Syria and entered Anatolia. A major counter-attack led by Heraclius in 613 AD was decisively defeated outside Antioch, and the Roman position collapsed; the Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor, and captured Chalcedon on the Bosporus. For the Ecumenical Council of 451 see Council of Chalcedon; For the religious/political organization see Chalcedon Foundation. The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the ^[79] Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt (by mid-621 AD the whole province was in their hands^[80]) and to devastate Anatolia,^[81] while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans, bringing the Roman Empire to the brink of destruction. Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The Caucasian Avars are a modern people of Caucasus, mainly of Dagestan.

Cherub and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrau II; plaque from a cross (Champlevé enamel over gilt copper, 1160-1170, Paris, Louvre). CHERUB is a series of young adult books written by the author Robert Muchamore. Champlevé is an Enamelling technique in the Decorative arts, or an object made by that process in which troughs or cells are carved into the surface of a metal In a discussion of Material science, enamel (or vitreous enamel or porcelain enamel in U Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France

During these years, Heraclius strove to rebuild his army, slashing non-military expenditure, devaluing the currency and melting down, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, Church plate to raise the necessary funds to continue the war. ^[82] On April 5, 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. Events 456 - St Patrick returns to Ireland as a missionary bishop Events Religion July 16 — Year one of the Islamic calendar begins during which the Hijra occurs — Prophet Muhammad He assembled his forces in Asia Minor, probably in Bithynia, and, after he revived their broken morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war. Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius ^[83] The Roman army proceeded to Armenia, inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief, and then won a victory over the Persians. ^[84] On March 25, 624 Heraclius left again Constantinople, and after he celebrated with his family Easter in Nicomedia on April 15, he campaigned in the Caucasus, winning a series of victories in Azerbaijan and Armenia against Khosrau and his generals. Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. Events By Place Byzantine Empire After 70 years of Visigothic rule the Byzantine Empire recaptures Andalusia Easter ( Greek: Πάσχα Pascha or Pasxa) is the most important religious feast in the Christian Liturgical year. Events 1450 - Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English ^[85] In 626 AD the Avars and Slavs besieged Constantinople, supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, but the siege ended in failure (the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city^[86]), while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius' brother Theodore. Shahrbaraz (or Shahrwaraz) (died June 9, 630) was a general with the rank of Eran Spahbod ( Commander of the Army of Iran) under Shāhin son of Dulnak (Persian دولناک ( (died c 626 was a senior Sassanid general ( Spahbod) during the reign of Khosrau II

The assassination of Khosrau II, in a Mughal manuscript of ca 1535, Persian poems are from Ferdowsi's Shahnameh

Late in 627 AD Heraclius launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of the Turkish contingent which had accompanied him, he defeated the Persians at the Battle of Nineveh. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. Shāhnāmé, or Shāhnāma ((alternative spellings are Shahnama Shahnameh Shahname Shah-Nama, etc The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Battle of Nineveh was the climactic battle of the last of the Roman-Persian Wars between the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire, in 627 Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrau's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal. Discredited by this series of disasters, Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavadh II, who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. Kavadh II (Siroes twenty-third Sassanid King of Persia son of Khosrau II (590&ndash628 was raised to the throne in opposition to his father in February 628 In 629 AD Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony. The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which by a Christian tradition are believed to be from the actual cross upon which Jesus was crucified Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the ^[87]

Aftermath

The devastating impact of this last war, added to the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict, left both empires crippled. When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne, Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. The Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation from Khosrau II's campaigns, religious unrest, and the increasing power of the provincial landholders. The Roman Empire was even more severely affected, with its financial reserves exhausted by the war, the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs,^[88] Anatolia devastated by repeated Persian invasions and the empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt loosened by many years of Persian occupation. ^[89]

Left:Byzantine Empire by 626 AD under Heraclius, Stripped areas are lands still threatened by the Sassanids Right:Byzantine Empire by 650 AD: by this point the Sassanid Empire had fallen as well as Byzantine Syria, Palestine, and Egypt to the Arab Caliphate

Neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the Arabs (newly united by Islam), which, according to James Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. "^[90] According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine-Persian conflict opened the way for Islam. "^[91] The Sassanid Empire rapidly succumbed to these attacks and was completely destroyed. The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia During the Byzantine-Arab Wars, the exhausted Roman Empire's recently regained southern provinces were also lost during the Muslim conquest of Syria, Egypt and North Africa, reducing the empire to a territorial rump consisting of Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy. The Muslim conquest of Syria occurred in the first half of the 7th century and refers to the region known as the Bilad al-Sham, the Levant, or Greater Syria At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Arab Muslim expansion following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest ^[92] These remaining lands were thoroughly impoverished by frequent attacks, marking the transition from classical urban civilisation to a more rural, medieval form of society. However, unlike Persia the Roman Empire (in its medieval form usually termed the Byzantine Empire) ultimately survived the Arab assault, holding onto its residual territories and decisively repulsing two Arab sieges of its capital in 674-678 and 717-718. There were at least 11 Sieges of Constantinople during the history of the Byzantine Empire. The First Arab Siege of Constantinople in 674 was a major conflict of the Byzantine-Arab Wars, and was one of the numerous times Constantinople 's defences The Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717-718 was a combined land and sea effort by the Arabs to take the capital city of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople ^[93]

Strategies and military tactics

Parthian cataphract fighting a lion (British Museum, London). The British Museum is a Museum of human history and culture in London. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.

When the two great powers of the time, Rome and Parthia, first came into collision, it seemed as if Parthia had the potential to push its frontier to the Aegean and the Mediterranean. Etymology In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. The Romans repulsed, however, the great invasion of Syria under Pacorus and Labienus, and gradually managed to take advantage of the weeknesses of the Parthian military system, which, according to George Rawlinson, was adapted for national defense but ill-suited for conquests. The Romans, on the contrary, were always modifying and evolving their system, and, from Trajan's times, they re-orientated their "grand strategy", and took on the offensive against the Parthians. ^[94] From their part, the Parthians, like the Sassanids in the late third and fourth centuries, generally shunned sustained defense of Mesopotamia, when Romans invaded. The Iranian heartland would be indeed preserved, as the Roman expeditions exhausted their offensive impetus by the time they reached lower Mesopotamia, and their extended line of communications through territory not sufficiently pacified exposed them to revolts and counterattacks. ^[95]

From the fourth century AD, the Persian Sassanids would become stronger and adopt the role of agressors; they considered much of the land added to the Roman empire in Parthian and early Sassanid times rightfully to belong to the Iranian sphere. ^[96] Everett Wheeler argues that "the Sassanids, administratively more centralized than the Parthians, formally organized defense of their territory, although they lacked a standing army until Khosrau I. "^[97] In general the Romans regarded the Sassanids as a more serious threat than the Parthians; on the other side, the Sassanids regarded the Roman Empire as the enemy par excellence. ^[98]

Militarily, the Sassanids continued the Parthians' heavy dependence on the combination of cataphracts (the heavy armored cavalry was provided by the aristocracy) and light-horse archers, adding a power force of war elephants obtained from India, but the traditional Persian weakness in the arm of infantry still applied, and their quality was inferior to the average Roman legion. A cataphract was a form of Heavy cavalry used by nomadic eastern Iranian tribes and dynasties and later Ancient Greeks and Romans. Heavy cavalry is the late 19th century Misnomer for Cavalry troops that from the late 17th to late 19th centuries usually wore armour and were mounted on largest A war elephant is an Elephant trained and guided by humans for combat India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists ^[99] This Persian heavy cavalry inflicted several defeats on the Roman foot-soldiers (against Crassus in 53 BC,^[100] Mark Antony in 36 BC, Valerian in 260 AD etc. ); the Roman army, still composed of well-trained and disciplined infantry, was not able to beat the Parthian-Sassanid cavalry decisively. ^[101] This weakness led to the introduction of cataphractarii into the Roman army;^[102] as a result, the growth in importance of heavily armed cavalry was a feature of both Roman and Persian armies after the third century AD, and until the end of the wars. ^[96] As far as siege warfare is concerned, the Romans had achieved and maintained a high degree of sophistication, and had developed a range of siege machines. A siege engine is a device that is designed to Break or circumvent City walls and other Fortifications in Siege warfare. On the other hand, the Parthians were inept at besieging; their cavalry armies were more suited to the hit-and-run tactics that destroyed Antony's siege train in 36 BC. The situation changed with the rise of Sassanids, when Rome encountered an enemy equally skilled in siegecraft, who made use of artillery, machines captured from the Romans, embankments, and siege towers. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine ^[103]

Towards the end of the 1st century AD, Rome organized the protection of its eastern frontiers through a line of fortifications, the limes' system, which, reorganized by Diocletian, lasted till the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. A limes (or the Limes Romanus) was a Border defense or delimiting system of Ancient Rome. ^[104] Just as the Romans, so the Sassanids constructed defensive walls on the edge of lands facing their opponents. Recent discoveries unearthed at the Great Wall of Gorgan, an ancient frontier wall ("a barrier of awesome scale and sophistication") built by the Sassanids, revealed a high degree of sophistication in terms of military engineering and organization. The Great Wall of Gorgan, also called the Gorgan Defense Wall Anushirvân Barrier Firuz Barrier and Qazal Al'an and sometimes Sadd-i-Iskandar, ( Persian for dam A military engineer is primarily responsible for the design and construction of offensive defensive and logistical structures for Warfare Other duties include the ^[105] According to the conclusions of a recent research:^[106]

At the time when the Western Roman Empire is collapsing and even the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire under great external pressure, the Sasanian Persian Empire musters the manpower to build and garrison a monument of greater scale than anything comparable in the west. The Persians seem to match, or more than match, their Late Roman rivals in army strength, organisational skills, engineering and water management. Archaeology is beginning to paint a clearer picture of an ancient super power at its apogee.

Assessments

The Roman-Persian Wars have been characterized as "futile", and "both depressing and tedious to contemplate with. "^[107] Roman historian Cassius Dio had in a prophetic way commented on this "never-ending cycle of armed confrontations," saying that "it is shown by the facts themselves that [Severus'] conquest has been a source of constant wars and great expense to us. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was For it yields very little and uses up vast sums; and now that we have reached out to peoples who are neighbor of the Medes and the Parthians rather than of ourselves, we are always, one might say, fighting the battles of those peoples. "^[108] In the long series of wars between the two powers, the frontier in upper Mesopotamia remained more or less constant. Historians point out that the stability of the frontier over the centuries is remarkable, although Nisibis, Singara, Dara and other cities of upper Mesopotamia changed hands from time to time, and the possession of these frontier cities gave one empire a trade advantage over the other. As William Bayne Fisher states:^[109]

One has the impression that the blood spilled in the warfare between the two states brought as little real gain to one side or the other as the few meters of land gained at terrible cost in the trench warfare of the First World War. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All

Both sides attempted to justify their respective military goals, in both active and reactive ways. Roman claim for world domination was accompanied by a sense of mission and pride in Western civilization, and by ambitions to become a guarantor of peace and order. Roman sources reflect long-standing prejudices with regard to the Eastern powers' different customs, religious structures, languages and forms of government. John F. Haldon underscores that "although the conflicts between Persia and East Rome revolved around issues of strategic control around the eastern frontier, yet there was always a religious-ideological element present. " From the time of Constantine on, Roman emperors appointed themselves as the protectors of christians of Persia. ^[111] This attitude created intense suspicions on the loyalties of Christians living in Sassanid Iran, and often led to Roman-Persian tensions or even military confrontations. ^[112] A characteristic of the final phase of the conflict, when what had began in 611-612 as a war of raid was soon to be trasformed into a war of conquest, was the pre-emince of the Cross as a symbol of imperial victory, and of the strongly religious element in the Eastern Roman imperial propaganda; Heraclius himself cast Khosrau as the enemy of God, and authors of the sixth and seventh centuries were fiercely hostile to Persia. ^[113] This tradition of a a "pro-Roman" historical scholarship prevailed for centuries, and it was not until recently that modern scholars adopted a broader approach, and tried to illuminate the much less-known Persian position. ^[114]

Citations and notes

References

Primary Sources

Secondary sources

Further reading

External links

• Alemani, Agustí. Sixth Century Alania: between Byzantium, Sasanian Iran and the Turkic World. Ēran ud Anērān. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. Retrieved on 2008-05-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance.
• Rome and Parthia at War. History Articles - Classical Europe and Mediterranean. All Empires - Online History Community. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1204 - Baldwin IX Count of Flanders is crowned as the first Emperor of the Latin Empire.
• Sassanids vs Byzantines. History Articles - Medieval Europe. All Empires - Online History Community. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1204 - Baldwin IX Count of Flanders is crowned as the first Emperor of the Latin Empire.

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