A robot is a mechanical or virtual, artificial agent. A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity The term virtual is a concept applied in many fields with somewhat differing connotations and also differing denotations It is usually a system, which, by its appearance or movements, conveys a sense that it has intent or agency of its own. System (from Latin systēma, in turn from Greek systēma is a set of interacting or interdependent Entities, real or abstract Intention (criminal|Intentions An agent 's intention in performing an action is his or her specific Purpose in doing so the end The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots to differentiate^[1]. In Computer science, a software agent is a piece of software that acts for a user or other program in a relationship of agency. Internet bots, also known as web robots, WWW robots or simply bots, are software applications that run automated tasks over the Internet

While there is still discussion about which machines qualify as robots,^[2][3][4] a typical robot will have several, though not necessarily all of the following properties:

• is not 'natural' i. Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. e. artificially created
• can sense its environment, and manipulate or interact with things in it
• has some ability to make choices based on the environment, often using automatic control or a preprogrammed sequence
• is programmable
• moves with one or more axes of rotation or translation
• makes dexterous coordinated movements
• appears to have intent or agency (See anthropomorphism for examples of ascribing intent to inanimate objects. A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an Effect upon one another Computer programs (also software programs, or just programs) are instructions for a Computer. A rotation is a movement of an object in a circular motion A two- Dimensional object rotates around a center (or point) of rotation In Euclidean geometry, a translation is moving every point a constant distance in a specified direction Fine motor skills can be defined as coordination of small Muscle movements which occur e In Physics, motion means a constant change in the location of a body Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects ^[5])

Contents 1 Defining characteristics 2 Official definitions and classifications of robots 2.1 Robotics Institute of America 2.2 Japanese Robot Association 2.3 Other definitions of robot 3 Etymology 4 History 4.1 Ancient developments 4.2 Medieval developments 4.3 Early modern developments 4.4 Modern Developments 4.5 Robot Fatalities 5 Timeline 6 Contemporary uses 6.1 Increased productivity, accuracy, and endurance 6.2 Dirty, dangerous, dull or inaccessible tasks 6.3 Unconventional Robots 7 Dangers and fears 8 Literature 9 Competitions and exhibitions 9.1 Previous and future competitions and exhibitions 10 See also 10.1 Research areas 10.2 Additional topics 11 References 11.1 General references 12 External links

Defining characteristics

The last property, the appearance of agency, is important when people are considering whether to call a machine a robot, or just a machine. In general, the more a machine has the appearance of agency, the more it is considered a robot.

Mental agency
For robotic engineers, the physical appearance of a machine is less important than the way its actions are controlled. KITT is the acronymic descriptor for the fictional adventure series Knight Rider character A control system is a device or set of devices to manage command direct or regulate the behavior of other devices or systems ^[6] The more the control system seems to have agency of its own, the more likely the machine is to be called a robot. An important feature of agency is the ability to make choices. So the more a machine could feasibly choose to do something different, the more agency it has. For example:

• a clockwork car is never considered a robot^[7]
• a remotely operated vehicle is sometimes considered a robot. A clockwork is the inner workings of either a mechanical Clock or a device that operates in a similar fashion ^[8] (or telerobot). Telerobotics is the area of Robotics concerned with the control of robots from a distance chiefly using wireless connections (like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, the
• a car with an onboard computer, like Bigtrak, which could drive in a programmable sequence might be called a robot. BIG TRAK / bigtrak was the programmable electric vehicle created by Milton Bradley in 1979
• a self-controlled car, like the 1990s driverless cars of Ernst Dickmanns, or the entries to the DARPA Grand Challenge, which could sense its environment, and make driving decisions based on this information would quite likely be called robot. This article is about automobiles with artificial intelligence The driverless car concept embraces an emerging family of highly automated cognitive and control technologies ultimately aimed at a full "taxi-like" experience for car users Ernst Dieter Dickmanns is a former professor at the Universität der Bundeswehr München in Munich (1975-2001 and a pioneer of dynamic machine The DARPA Grand Challenge is a prize competition for Driverless cars sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA the most prominent research
• a sentient car, like the fictional KITT, which can make decisions, navigate freely and converse fluently with a human, is usually considered a robot. Sentience is the ability to feel or perceive subjectively. It is an important concept in the philosophy of Animal rights, in buddhist philosophy and in KITT is the acronymic descriptor for the fictional adventure series Knight Rider character

Physical agency
However, for many laymen, if a machine looks anthropomorphic or zoomorphic (e. The term " layman " originated from the use of the term Laity, but over the centuries changed definition to mean a person who is a non-expert in a given field of g. ASIMO or Aibo), especially if it is limb-like (e. is a Humanoid robot created by Honda Motor Company. Standing at 130 Centimeters (4 feet 3 Inches) and weighing 54 Kilograms (119 AIBO ( A rtificial I ntelligence ro' BO' t homonymous with "pal" in Japanese was one of several types of Robotic Pets designed A limb (from the Old English lim) is a jointed or Prehensile (as Octopus tentacles or new world Monkey tails Appendage of the g. a simple robot arm), or has limbs, or can move around, it would be called a robot. A robotic arm is a Robot Manipulator, usually programmable with similar functions to a human Arm.

For example, even if the following examples used the same control architecture:

• a player piano is rarely characterized as a robot^[9]

• a CNC milling machine is very occasionally characterized as a robot. The player piano is a self-playing Piano, containing a pneumatic mechanism that plays on the piano action pre-programmed Music via perforated paper rolls The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to a computer "controller" that reads G-code
• a factory automation arm is almost always characterized as a robot or an industrial robot. An industrial robot is officially defined by ISO as an automatically controlled reprogrammable multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes.
• an autonomous wheeled or tracked device, such as a self-guided rover or self-guided vehicle, is almost always characterized as a robot, a mobile robot or a service robot
• a zoomorphic mechanical toy, like Roboraptor, is usually characterized as a robot. Roboraptor is a Robotic Toy invented by Mark Tilden and distributed by Wow Wee Toys International ^[10][11]
• a humanoid, like ASIMO, is almost always characterized as a robot or a service robot. is a Humanoid robot created by Honda Motor Company. Standing at 130 Centimeters (4 feet 3 Inches) and weighing 54 Kilograms (119

Interestingly, while a 3-axis CNC milling machine may have a very similar or identical control system to a robot arm, it is the arm which is almost always called a robot, while the CNC machine is usually just a machine. Having a limb can make all the difference. Having eyes too gives people a sense that a machine is aware ("the eyes are the windows of the soul"). However, simply being anthropomorphic is not sufficient for something to be called a robot. A robot must do something, whether it is useful work or not. So, for example, a dog's rubber chew toy, shaped like ASIMO, would not be considered a robot.

Official definitions and classifications of robots

There are many variations in definitions of what exactly is a robot. Therefore, it is sometimes difficult to compare numbers of robots in different countries. To try to provide a universally acceptable definition, the International Organisation for Standardisation gives a definition of robot in ISO 8373, which defines a robot as "an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications. "^[12] This definition is to be used when comparing the number of robots in each country. ^[13]

In spite of the ISO definition, countries, such as the USA and Japan have different definitions of robots. Japan, for example, lists very many robots partly because more machines are counted as robots. Since both Japan and the USA are important players in the development of robotics, the definitions used in these countries will be mentioned.

Robotics Institute of America

The Robotics Institute of America (RIA) defines a robot as:

A re-programmable multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks. ^[14]

The RIA recognizes four classes of robot:

• 1: Handling devices with manual control
• 2: Automated handling devices with predetermined cycles
• 3: Programmable, servo-controlled robots with continuous of point-to-point trajectories
• 4: Robots capable of Type C specifications which also acquire information from the environment for intelligent motion

Japanese Robot Association

The Japanese Robot Association (JARA) classifies robots into six classes :^[15]

• 1: Manual - Handling Devices actuated by an operator
• 2: Fixed Sequence Robot
• 3: Variable-Sequence Robot with easily modified sequence of control
• 4: Playback Robot, which can record a motion for later playback
• 5: Numerical Control Robots with a movement program to teach it tasks manually
• 6: Intelligent robot: that can understand its environment and able to complete the task despite changes in the operation conditions

Other definitions of robot

There is no one definition of robot which satisfies everyone, and many people have their own. ^[16] For example, Joseph Engelberger, a pioneer in industrial robotics, once remarked: "I can't define a robot, but I know one when I see one. Joseph ("Joe" F Engelberger ( New York City, July 26, 1925 is an Engineer and Entrepreneur who is often credited with being the "Father "^[17]

Etymology

The word robot was introduced to the public at large by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), which premiered in 1921. Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Karel Čapek ( pronounced) ( January 9, 1890 – December 25, 1938 was one of the most influential Czech writers of the 20th century RUR (Rossum's Universal Robots is a Science fiction play by Karel Čapek. ^[18] The play begins in a factory that makes 'artificial people' - they are called robots, but are closer to the modern idea of androids or even clones, creatures who can be mistaken for humans. A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods An android is a Robot designed to resemble a human usually both in appearance and behavior Molecular cloning refers to the procedure of isolating a defined DNA sequence and obtaining multiple copies of it In vivo. They can plainly think for themselves, though they seem happy to serve. At issue is whether the "Robots" are being exploited and, if so, what follows? (see also Robots in literature for details of the play)^[19]

However, Karel Čapek himself was not the originator of the word; he wrote a short letter in reference to an article in the Oxford English Dictionary etymology in which he named his brother, painter and writer Josef Čapek, as its actual inventor. The term " exploitation " may carry two distinct meanings The act of utilizing something for any purpose Robots appear in a wide variety of literature The first use of the word in its modern sense was in Karel Čapek 's play R The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time Josef Čapek (ˈjozɛf ˈʧapɛk ( March 23, 1887 &ndash April 1945 was a Czech artist who was best known as a painter, but who ^[18] In an article in the Czech journal Lidové noviny in 1933, he also explained that he had originally wanted to call the creatures laboři (from Latin labor, work). Lidové noviny is a daily Newspaper published in the Czech Republic. Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. However, he did not like the word, seeing it as too artificial, and sought advice from his brother Josef, who suggested "roboti".

The word robot comes from the word robota meaning literally serf labor, and figuratively "drudgery" or "hard work" in Czech, Slovak and Polish. Czech (ˈʧɛk čeština ˈʧɛʃcɪna in Czech is a West Slavic language with about 12 million native speakers it is the majority language in the The Slovak language ( slovenčina, slovenský jazyk, not to be confused with Slovenščina) sometimes referred to as "Slovakian" Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. The origin of the word is the Old Church Slavonic rabota "servitude" ("work" in contemporary Bulgarian and Russian), which in turn comes from the Indo-European root *orbh-. to make sure old Cyrillic letters are displayed properly (For example instead of just Ѣ write Ѣ Bulgarian (български език IPA: ɛzˈik is an Indo-European language, a member of the Slavic linguistic group Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Robot is cognate with the German word Arbeiter (worker). Cognates in Linguistics are words that have a common origin They may occur within a language such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages.

History

Main article: History of robots

Ancient developments

The idea of artificial people dates at least as far back as the ancient legends of Cadmus, who sowed dragon teeth that turned into soldiers, and the myth of Pygmalion, whose statue of Galatea came to life. The history of robots date at least as far back as the ancient legends Maxfield Parrish ( July 25, 1870 &ndash March 30, 1966) was an American painter and illustrator. Cadmus, or Kadmos (Κάδμος in Greek mythology, was a Phoenician prince son of Agenor and the brother of Phoenix, Cilix Pygmalion is a Legendary figure of Cyprus. Though Pygmalion is the Greek version of the Phoenician royal name Pumayyaton, he is most For the Sicilian Nereid in love with Acis, see Acis and Galatea (mythology For the wife of Lamprus, who prayed to In Greek mythology, the deformed god of metalwork (Vulcan or Hephaestus) created mechanical servants, ranging from intelligent, golden handmaidens to more utilitarian three-legged tables that could move about under their own power, and the bronze manTalos defended Crete. Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance In ancient Roman religion and Hellenic neopaganism, Vulcan is the god of beneficial and hindering fire including the fire of Volcanoes He is also Hephaestus (hɨˈfiːstəs or /hɨˈfɛstəs/ Greek Hēphaistos) was a Greek god whose Roman equivalent was Vulcan. In the Cretan tales incorporated into Greek mythology, Tálos (Greek Τάλως Latin Talus or Tálon (Greek Τάλων was a giant man of bronze Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Medieval muslim alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan included recipes for creating artificial snakes, scorpions, and humans in his coded Book of Stones. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. A snake is an elongate Reptile of the suborder Serpentes Like all reptiles snakes are covered in scales. Scorpions are eight-legged Carnivorous Arthropods They are members of the order Scorpiones within the class Arachnida. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Jewish legend tells of the Golem, a clay creature animated by Kabbalistic magic. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ In Jewish folklore, a golem (גולם sometimes as in Yiddish, pronounced goilem) is an animated being created entirely from inanimate matter Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. Similarly, in the Younger Edda, Norse mythology tells of a clay giant, Mökkurkálfi or Mistcalf, constructed to aid the troll Hrungnir in a duel with Thor, the God of Thunder. The Prose Edda, also known as the Younger Edda, Snorri's Edda ( Snorra Edda) or simply Edda, is an Norse mythology comprises the indigenous pre-Christian religion, beliefs and Legends of the Scandinavian peoples including those who settled on Iceland Thor ( Old Norse: Þórr) is the red-haired and bearded God of Thunder in Germanic paganism and its subset Norse paganism Thunder is the sound made by Lightning. Depending on the nature of the lightning and distance of the listener it can range from a sharp

In ancient China, a curious account on automata is found in the Lie Zi text, written in the 3rd century BC. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era Within it there is a description of a much earlier encounter between King Mu of Zhou (1023 BC-957 BC) and a mechanical engineer known as Yan Shi, an 'artificer'. King Mu of Zhou ( ch 周穆王 Zhōu Mù Wáng or King Mu of Chou or Mu Wang was the fifth sovereign of the Chinese Zhou Dynasty. Events and trends 959 BC — Psusennes II succeeds Siamun as king of Egypt. The latter proudly presented the king with a life-size, human-shaped figure of his mechanical handiwork.

The king stared at the figure in astonishment. It walked with rapid strides, moving its head up and down, so that anyone would have taken it for a live human being. The artificer touched its chin, and it began singing, perfectly in tune. He touched its hand, and it began posturing, keeping perfect time. . . As the performance was drawing to an end, the robot winked its eye and made advances to the ladies in attendance, whereupon the king became incensed and would have had Yen Shih [Yan Shi] executed on the spot had not the latter, in mortal fear, instantly taken the robot to pieces to let him see what it really was. And, indeed, it turned out to be only a construction of leather, wood, glue and lacquer, variously coloured white, black, red and blue. Examining it closely, the king found all the internal organs complete—liver, gall, heart, lungs, spleen, kidneys, stomach and intestines; and over these again, muscles, bones and limbs with their joints, skin, teeth and hair, all of them artificial. . . The king tried the effect of taking away the heart, and found that the mouth could no longer speak; he took away the liver and the eyes could no longer see; he took away the kidneys and the legs lost their power of locomotion. The king was delighted. ^[20]

Concepts akin to a robot can be found as long ago as the 4th century BC, when the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical bird he called "The Pigeon" which was propelled by steam. Archytas (Ἀρχύτας 428 BC – 347 BC was an Ancient Greek Philosopher, Mathematician, Astronomer, Statesman, and strategist Uses A Steam engine uses the expansion of steam in order to drive a Piston or Turbine to perform Mechanical work. Yet another early automaton was the clepsydra, made in 250 BC by Ctesibius of Alexandria, a physicist and inventor from Ptolemaic Egypt. This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius ( Greek Κτησίβιος ( fl Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra ^[21] Hero of Alexandria (10-70 AD) made numerous innovations in the field of automata, including one that allegedly could speak. Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ( Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (c

Medieval developments

Al-Jazari (1136-1206), an Arab Muslim inventor during the Artuqid dynasty, designed and constructed a number of automatic machines, including kitchen appliances, musical automata powered by water, and the first programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Artuqid dynasty ( Artuklu in Turkish, sometimes also spelled as Artukid, Ortoqid or Ortokid; Turkish Plural: Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A Humanoid Robot is a Robot with its overall appearance based on that of the Human body. Al-Jazari's robot was a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. A cam is a projecting part of a rotating Wheel or shaft that strikes a Lever at one or more points on its circular path The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations. ^[22]

One of the first recorded designs of a humanoid robot was made by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) in around 1495. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical knight able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw. Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. ^[19] The design is likely to be based on his anatomical research recorded in the Vitruvian Man. The Vitruvian Man is a world-renowned Drawing with accompanying notes created by Leonardo da Vinci around the year 1487 as recorded in one of his journals It is not known whether he attempted to build the robot (see: Leonardo's robot). Leonardo's robot refers to a humanoid Automaton designed by Leonardo da Vinci around the year 1495

Early modern developments

An early automaton was created in 1738 by Jacques de Vaucanson, who created a mechanical duck that was able to eat and digest grain, flap its wings, and excrete. This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. Jacques de Vaucanson ( February 24, 1709 – November 21, 1782) was a French inventor and artist with a mechanical background who is credited ^[19]

The Japanese craftsman Hisashige Tanaka, known as "Japan's Edison," created an array of extremely complex mechanical toys, some of which were capable of serving tea, firing arrows drawn from a quiver, or even painting a Japanese kanji character. lived during the Edo period of Japan's history. He was born in Kurume, Japan, as a child of a tortoise-shell craftsman The landmark text Karakuri Zui (Illustrated Machinery) was published in 1796. (T. N. Hornyak, Loving the Machine: The Art and Science of Japanese Robots [New York: Kodansha International, 2006])

In 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a radio-controlled (teleoperated) boat, similar to a modern ROV. Year 1898 ( MDCCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common There have already been discussions about Tesla's ethnicity on the talk page A boat is a Watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane on water and provide transport over it Remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs is the common accepted name for tethered underwater Robots in the offshore industry Based on his patents U.S. Patent 613,809 , U.S. Patent 723,188  and U.S. Patent 725,605  for "teleautomation", Tesla hoped to develop the wireless torpedo into a weapon system for the US Navy. The modern torpedo (historically called an automotive automobile locomotive or fish torpedo is a self-propelled explosive Projectile weapon launched above or below A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons (Cheney 1989) ^[23]

Modern Developments

In 1926, Westinghouse Electric Corporation created Televox, the first robot put to useful work. Founded in 1886 as Westinghouse Electric Company and later renamed Westinghouse Electric Corporation by George Westinghouse. They followed Televox with a number of other simple robots, including one called Rastus, made in the crude image of a black man. In the 1930s, they created a humanoid robot known as Elektro for exhibition purposes, including the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs. Elektro is the nickname of a Robot built by Westinghouse in Mansfield Ohio between 1937 and 1938 Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Expo (short for "exposition" and also known as World Fair and World's Fair) is the name given to various large public exhibitions held since the ^[24][25] In 2007, the Mansfield Memorial Museum in Mansfield, Ohio presented an exhibit of some of the Westinghouse robots and related paraphernalia. Mansfield is a city in the US state of Ohio and the County seat of Richland County. ^[26]

In 1928, Japan's first robot, Gakutensoku, was designed and constructed by biologist Makoto Nishimura. Gakutensoku ( Japanese for "learning from the laws of nature" was Japan's first Robot, created in Osaka in 1929 ^[27]

The first electronic autonomous robots were created by William Grey Walter of the Burden Neurological Institute at Bristol, England in 1948 and 1949. Autonomous robots are Robots which can perform desired tasks in unstructured environments without continuous human guidance W Grey Walter ( February 19 1910 &ndash May 6 1977) was a Neurophysiologist and Robotician. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1949 ( MCMXLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. They were named Elmer and Elsie. These robots could sense light and contact with external objects, and use these stimuli to navigate. ^[28]

It wasn't until the second half of the twentieth century, when integrated circuits were invented, and computers began to double rapidly in power (roughly every two years according to Moore's Law),^[29] that it became possible to build robots as we imagine them. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Microchipsjpg|right|thumb|200px|Microchips ( EPROM memory with a transparent window showing the integrated circuit inside Moore's law describes an important trend in the History of computer hardware. Until that time, automatons were the closest things to robots, and while they may have looked humanoid, and their movements were complex, they were not capable of the self-control and decision making that robots are today.

The first truly modern robot, digitally operated, programmable, and teachable, was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate. George Charles Devol Jr (February 20 1912 in Louisville Kentucky) is the Inventor of the first industrial robot called Unimate Unimate was the first Industrial robot,which worked on a General Motors Assembly line in New Jersey in 1961. It is worth noting that not a single patent was cited against his original robotics patent (U.S. Patent 2,988,237 ). The first Unimate was personally sold by Devol to General Motors in 1960 and installed in 1961 in a plant in Trenton, New Jersey to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them. General Motors Corporation ( GM) ( is a multinational automobile manufacturer founded in 1908 and headquartered in the United States. Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Trenton is the Capital of the US state of New Jersey and the County seat of Mercer County. The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Die casting is the process of forcing molten Metal under high pressure into mold cavities (which are machined into dies ^[21]

Robot Fatalities

The first human to be killed by a robot was Robert Williams who died at a casting plant in Flat Rock, MI (January 25, 1979). Robert Williams ( c 1954 &ndash January 25, 1979) a worker at a Ford Motor Company factory in Michigan, is thought to be the first Flat Rock is a city in Wayne County of the US state of Michigan. Events 41 - After a night of negotiation Claudius is accepted as Roman Emperor by the Senate Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) ^[30]

A better known case is that of 37-year-old Kenji Urada, a Japanese factory worker, in 1981. Kenji Urada (c 1944 - 1981 was one of the first individuals killed by a robot Urada was performing routine maintenance on the robot, but neglected to shut it down properly, and was accidentally pushed into a grinding machine. A grinding machine is a Machine tool used for producing very fine finishes or making very light cuts using an abrasive wheel as the cutting device ^[31]

Timeline

Date	Significance	Robot Name	Inventor
Third century B.C.	Automata activated by clocks at preset times		Ctesibius of Alexandria
Third century B.C.	During a parade organized by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, a statue of Nysa could stand up by itself from a sitting position, pour libations of milk and sit down again. The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius ( Greek Κτησίβιος ( fl The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC		Ctesibius of Alexandria?
First century A.D.	In two works (Pneumatica and Automata) Heron of Alexandria describes many machines and automata (mainly from previous sources)		Ctesibius of Alexandria, Philo of Byzantium, Heron of Alexandria
1206	First programmable humanoid robot	mechanical boat with four automatic musicians	Al-Jazari
~1495	Early design of a humanoid robot	mechanical knight	Leonardo da Vinci
1738	Early automaton, a mechanical duck that was able to eat grain, flap its wings, and excrete. Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius ( Greek Κτησίβιος ( fl The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ( Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (c Ctesibius or Ktesibios or Tesibius ( Greek Κτησίβιος ( fl Philo of Byzantium ( Greek: Φίλων ο Βυζάντιος ca Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ( Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (c A Humanoid Robot is a Robot with its overall appearance based on that of the Human body. A boat is a Watercraft of modest size designed to float or plane on water and provide transport over it A musician is a person who plays or writes Music. Musicians can be classified by their roles in creating or performing music An instrumentalist plays a Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Year 1738 ( MDCCXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. For duck as a food see Duck (food; for other meanings see Duck (disambiguation. WING "ESPN 1410" is a commercial AM radio station in Dayton Ohio operating with 5000 watts at 1410 kHz with studios offices and transmitter located on David Excretion is the process of eliminating waste products of Metabolism and other non-useful materials	The Digesting Duck	Jacques de Vaucanson
1920	Word robot coined. The Canard Digérateur, or Digesting Duck, was an Automaton in the form of Duck, created by Jacques de Vaucanson in 1739 Jacques de Vaucanson ( February 24, 1709 – November 21, 1782) was a French inventor and artist with a mechanical background who is credited Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar [32]		Josef Čapek
1921	The term "robot" used in a play called "R. Josef Čapek (ˈjozɛf ˈʧapɛk ( March 23, 1887 &ndash April 1945 was a Czech artist who was best known as a painter, but who Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar U. R. " or "Rossum's Universal Robots"		Karel Čapek
1930s	Early humanoid robot. Karel Čapek ( pronounced) ( January 9, 1890 – December 25, 1938 was one of the most influential Czech writers of the 20th century The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression. It was exhibited at the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs	Elektro	Westinghouse Electric Corporation
1942	The word robotics appears in the science fiction short story I, Robot. Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Expo (short for "exposition" and also known as World Fair and World's Fair) is the name given to various large public exhibitions held since the Elektro is the nickname of a Robot built by Westinghouse in Mansfield Ohio between 1937 and 1938 Founded in 1886 as Westinghouse Electric Company and later renamed Westinghouse Electric Corporation by George Westinghouse. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. See also Robot Robotics is the science and technology of Robots and their design manufacture and application The short story is a literary genre of Fictional Prose Narrative that tends to be more concise and to the point than longer works of fiction such I Robot is a collection of nine Science fiction Short stories by Isaac Asimov, first published by Gnome Press in 1950 in an [33]		Isaac Asimov
1948	Simple robots which exhibit biological like behaviours. Isaac Asimov (c January 2 1920 &ndash April 6 1992 ˈaɪzək ˈæzɪmʌv originally Исаак Озимов but now transcribed into Russian as, was a Russian Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually [34]	Elsie and Elmer	William Grey Walter
1954	Patent submitted for first digitally controlled robot and first teachable robot, (U.S. Patent 2,988,237 )		George Devol
1956	First robot company, Unimation, is founded by George Devol and Joseph Engelberger based on Devol's seminal patents; first commercial robot. W Grey Walter ( February 19 1910 &ndash May 6 1977) was a Neurophysiologist and Robotician. Year 1954 ( MCMLIV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1954 Gregorian calendar) George Charles Devol Jr (February 20 1912 in Louisville Kentucky) is the Inventor of the first industrial robot called Unimate Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Generally a company is a form of Business organization. The precise definition varies George Charles Devol Jr (February 20 1912 in Louisville Kentucky) is the Inventor of the first industrial robot called Unimate Joseph ("Joe" F Engelberger ( New York City, July 26, 1925 is an Engineer and Entrepreneur who is often credited with being the "Father [35]	Unimate	George Devol
1956	Phrase artificial intelligence is coined at a conference at Dartmouth College. Unimate was the first Industrial robot,which worked on a General Motors Assembly line in New Jersey in 1961. George Charles Devol Jr (February 20 1912 in Louisville Kentucky) is the Inventor of the first industrial robot called Unimate Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on Artificial Intelligence was the name of a conference now considered the seminal event for Artificial intelligence as a Dartmouth College ( is a private, Coeducational University located in Hanover, New Hampshire, U [36]		Marvin Minsky and John McCarthy
1961	First industrial robot installed. Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927) is an American cognitive scientist in the field of Artificial intelligence (AI co-founder John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts) is an American Computer scientist and Cognitive Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.	Unimate
1963	First Palletizing Robot. Unimate was the first Industrial robot,which worked on a General Motors Assembly line in New Jersey in 1961. Year 1963 ( MCMLXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.		Fuji Yusoki Kogyo
1973	First robot with six electromechanically driven axes, known as FAMULUS. Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar.	KUKA
1975	Programmable Universal Manipulation Arm (a Unimation product)	Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly	Victor Scheinman
1979	Robert Williams, an American factory worker, is killed by a robot. KUKA Robotics and its German parent company KUKA is one of the world's leading manufacturers of Industrial robots and automation systems for a variety of industries Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The PUMA ( P rogrammable U niversal M achine for A ssembly, or P rogrammable U niversal M anipulation Victor Scheinman is a pioneer in the field of robotics. He is a graduate of the now-defunct New Lincoln High School in New York Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) Robert Williams ( c 1954 &ndash January 25, 1979) a worker at a Ford Motor Company factory in Michigan, is thought to be the first [37]
2000	A humanoid robot that can recognize human faces, see stereoscopically, walk and run on different types of ground (including stairs), and respond (in words and in actions) to English and Japanese commands. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Stereoscopy, stereoscopic imaging or 3-D (three-dimensional imaging is any technique capable of recording three-dimensional visual	ASIMO	Honda Corporation

Contemporary uses

Main articles: Industrial robot and Domestic robot

Robots can be placed into roughly two categories based on the type of job they do:

• Jobs which a robot can do better than a human. is a Humanoid robot created by Honda Motor Company. Standing at 130 Centimeters (4 feet 3 Inches) and weighing 54 Kilograms (119 () is a Multinational corporation, engine Manufacturer and engineering corporation headquartered in Japan. An industrial robot is officially defined by ISO as an automatically controlled reprogrammable multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes. A domestic robot is a Robot used for Household chores Thus far there are only a few limited models Science fiction Authors have suggested that Here, robots can increase productivity, accuracy, and endurance.
• Jobs which a human could do better than a robot, but it is desirable to remove the human for some reason. Here, robots free us from dirty, dangerous and dull tasks.

Increased productivity, accuracy, and endurance

Jobs which require speed, accuracy, reliability or endurance can be performed far better by a robot than a human. Hence many jobs in factories which were traditionally performed by people are now robotized. This has led to cheaper mass-produced goods, including automobiles and electronics. Robots have now been working in factories for more than fifty years, ever since the Unimate robot was installed to automatically remove hot metal from a die casting machine. Since then, factory automation in the form of large stationary manipulators has become the largest market for robots. The number of installed robots has grown faster and faster, and today there are more than 1 million robots in operation worldwide (Half of the robot population is located in Asia, 1/3 in Europe, and 16% in North America. Australasia and Africa each account for 1%. Australasia is a Region of Oceania: New Zealand, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and neighbouring Islands in the Pacific )^[39].

Some examples of factory robots:

• Car production: This is now the primary example of factory automation. KUKA Robotics and its German parent company KUKA is one of the world's leading manufacturers of Industrial robots and automation systems for a variety of industries An industrial robot is officially defined by ISO as an automatically controlled reprogrammable multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes. The automotive industry is the industry involved in the design development manufacture marketing and sale of Motor vehicles In 2007 more than 73 million motor vehicles Over the last three decades automobile factories have become dominated by robots. A typical factory contains hundreds of industrial robots working on fully automated production lines - one robot for every ten human workers. An industrial robot is officially defined by ISO as an automatically controlled reprogrammable multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes. On an automated production line a vehicle chassis is taken along a conveyor to be welded, glued, painted and finally assembled by a sequence of robot stations. Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials usually Metals or Thermoplastics by causing coalescence. Glue or adhesive is a compound that adheres or bonds two items together Paint is any Liquid, liquifiable or mastic composition which after application to a substrate in a thin layer is converted to an opaque Solid
• Packaging: Industrial robots are also used extensively for palletizing and packaging of manufactured goods, for example taking drink cartons from the end of a conveyor belt and placing them rapidly into boxes, or the loading and unloading of machining centers. Packaging is the science art and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution storage sale and use An industrial robot is officially defined by ISO as an automatically controlled reprogrammable multipurpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes.
• Electronics: Mass produced printed circuit boards (PCBs) are almost exclusively manufactured by pick and place robots, typically with SCARA manipulators, which remove tiny electronic components from strips or trays, and place them on to PCBs with great accuracy. Electronics refers to the flow of charge (moving Electrons through Nonmetal conductors (mainly Semiconductors, whereas electrical A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect Electronic components using conductive pathways or traces The SCARA acronym stands for Selective Compliant Assembly Robot Arm or Selective Compliant Articulated Robot Arm. An electronic component is a basic electronic element usually packaged in a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads ^[40] Such robots can place several components per second (tens of thousands per hour), far out-performing a human in terms of speed, accuracy, and reliability. ^[41]

• Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs): Mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision^[42] or lasers, are used to transport goods around large facilities, such as warehouses, container ports, or hospitals. The automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV is a mobile Robot used in industrial applications to move materials around a manufacturing facility ^[43] Early AGV-style robots were limited to tasks that could be accurately defined and must be performed the same every time. Very little feedback or intelligence was required, and the robots may need only the most basic of exteroceptors to sense things in their environment, if any at all. However, newer AGV's, such as the Speci-Minder^[44], ADAM ^[45], Tug ^[46], and PatrolBot Gofer ^[47] qualify under the JARA definition of intelligent robots. They use some form of natural features recognition to navigate. Scanning lasers, stereovision or other means of sensing the environment in two- or three-dimensions is combined with standard dead-reckoning calculations in a probabilistic manner to continuously update the AGV's current location, eliminating cumulative error. This means that the Self-Guided Vehicle (SGV) can navigate a space autonomously once it has learned it or been provided with a map of it. Such new robots are able to operate in complex environments and perform non-repetitive and non-sequential tasks such as carrying tires to presses in factories, delivering masks in a semi-conductor lab, delivering specimens in hospitals and delivering goods in warehouses.

Dirty, dangerous, dull or inaccessible tasks

There are many jobs which a human could perform better than a robot but for one reason or another the human either does not want to do it or cannot be present to do the job. A vacuum cleaner (in colloquial British English also hoover) is a device that uses an air Pump to create a partial Vacuum to Suck The job may be too boring to bother with, for example domestic cleaning; or be too dangerous, for example exploring inside a volcano^[48]. Cleanliness is the absence of dirt including Dust, Stains bad smells and Garbage. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the These jobs are known as the "dull, dirty, and dangerous" jobs. Other jobs are physically inaccessible. For example, exploring another planet,^[49] cleaning the inside of a long pipe or performing laparoscopic surgery. A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is Laparoscopic surgery, also called Minimally invasive surgery (MIS, bandaid surgery, Keyhole surgery, or pinhole surgery ^[50]

• Robots in the home: As their price falls, and their performance and computational ability rises^[51], making them both affordable and sufficiently autonomous, robots are increasingly being seen in the home where they are taking on simple but unwanted jobs, such as vacuum cleaning, floor cleaning and lawn mowing. A domestic robot is a Robot used for Household chores Thus far there are only a few limited models Science fiction Authors have suggested that A vacuum cleaner (in colloquial British English also hoover) is a device that uses an air Pump to create a partial Vacuum to Suck A lawn mower or lawnmower is a machine that has one or more revolving blades to cut a Lawn at an even length While they have been on the market for several years, 2006 saw a great increase in the number of domestic robots sold. By 2006, iRobot had sold more than 2 million vacuuming robots. This article is about the robot company For other uses see I Robot (disambiguation. ^[52] They tend to be relatively autonomous, usually only requiring a command to begin their job. They then proceed to go about their business in their own way. At such, they display a good deal of agency, and are considered intelligent robots.

• Telerobots: When a human cannot be present on site to perform a job because it is dangerous, far away, or inaccessible, teleoperated robots, or telerobots are used. Telerobotics is the area of Robotics concerned with the control of robots from a distance chiefly using wireless connections (like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, the Rather than following a predetermined sequence of movements a telerobot is controlled from a distance by a human operator. The robot may be in another room or another country, or may be on a very different scale to the operator. A laparoscopic surgery robot such as da Vinci allows the surgeon to work inside a human patient on a relatively small scale compared to open surgery, significantly shortening recovery time. Laparoscopic surgery, also called Minimally invasive surgery (MIS, bandaid surgery, Keyhole surgery, or pinhole surgery Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental ^[50] An interesting use of a telerobot is by the author Margaret Atwood, who has recently started using a robot pen (the Longpen) to sign books remotely. Margaret Eleanor Atwood, CC (born November 18, 1939) is a Canadian Writer. The Longpen is similar to the Autopen of the 1800s. An Autopen is a machine for automatically signing a signature as an Autograph. This saves the financial cost and physical inconvenience of traveling to book signings around the world. ^[53] At the other end of the spectrum, iRobot ConnectR robot is designed to be used by anyone to stay in touch with family or friends from far away. One robot in use today, Intouchhealth's RP-7 remote presence robot, is being used by doctors to communicate with patients, allowing the doctor to be anywhere in the world. This increases the number of patients a doctor can monitor.

• Military robots: Teleoperated robot aircraft, like the Predator Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, are increasingly being used by the military. Artificial Soldier redirects here For the album by industrial group Front Line Assembly, see Artificial Soldier Military robots An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV is an unpiloted Aircraft. UAVs can be remote controlled or fly autonomously based on pre-programmed flight plans or more complex dynamic These robots can be controlled from anywhere in the world allowing an army to search terrain, and even fire on targets, without endangering those in control. ^[54] Many of these robots are teleoperated, but others are being developed that can make decisions automatically; choosing where to fly or selecting and engaging enemy targets. ^[55] Hundreds of robots such as iRobot's Packbot and the Foster-Miller TALON are being used in Iraq and Afghanistan by the U.S. military to defuse roadside bombs or Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in an activity known as Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD). This article is about the robot company For other uses see I Robot (disambiguation. PackBot is a series of Robots by IRobot. PackBot EOD (Explosive ordnance disposal can be controlled by radio or wired control to handle situations involving The Foster-Miller TALON robot is a small tracked Military robot designed for missions ranging from reconnaissance to combat For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The United States Armed Forces are the overall unified military forces of the United States An improvised explosive device ( IED) is a Bomb constructed and deployed in ways other than in conventional Military action ^[56] Autonomous robots such as MDARS and Seekur are being developed to perform security and surveillance tasks at military facilities to address manpower shortages as well as keeping troops out of harm's way. Autonomous robots are Robots which can perform desired tasks in unstructured environments without continuous human guidance The Crusher Unmanned Ground Vehicle (UGV) is being developed to perform military missions autonomously. ^[57]

• Elder Care: The population is aging in many countries, especially Japan, meaning that there are increasing numbers of elderly people to care for but relatively fewer young people to care for them. This form of Home automation (called assistive domotics) focuses on making it possible for the Elderly and Disabled to live at home and still be safe and Gerontology (from Greek γερο gero, "old age" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit ^[58][59] Humans make the best carers, but where they are unavailable, robots are gradually being introduced. ^[60]

Unconventional Robots

Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of robot, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them. It is expected that these new types of robot will be able to solve real world problems when they are finally realized.

• Nanorobots: Nanorobotics is the still largely hypothetical technology of creating machines or robots at or close to the scale of a nanometer (10^-9 meters). Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or Robots at or close to the microscopic scale of a Nanometres (10-9 Metres. A nanometre ( American spelling: nanometer, symbol nm) ( Greek: νάνος nanos dwarf; μετρώ metrό count) is a The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International Also known as nanobots or nanites, they would be constructed from molecular machines. A molecular machine has been defined as a discrete number of molecular components that have been designed to perform mechanical-like movements (output in response to specific stimuli So far, researchers have mostly produced only parts of these complex systems, such as bearings, sensors, and Synthetic molecular motors, but functioning robots have also been made such as the entrants to the Nanobot Robocup contest. Synthetic molecular motors are Molecular machines capable of rotation under energy input ^[62] Researchers also hope to be able to create entire robots as small as viruses or bacteria, which could perform tasks on a tiny scale. A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Possible applications include micro surgery (on the level of individual cells), utility fog^[63], manufacturing, weaponry and cleaning. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Utility fog is a term suggested by Dr John Storrs Hall to describe a hypothetical collection of tiny robots together performing a certain function ^[64] Some people have suggested that if there were nanobots which could reproduce, the earth would turn into "grey goo", while others argue that this hypothetical outcome is nonsense. Grey goo is a hypothetical end-of-the-world scenario involving Molecular nanotechnology in which out-of-control self-replicating robots consume all matter ^[65][66]
• Soft Robots: Most man-made machines are made from hard, stiff materials, especially metal and plastic. The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products This is in contrast to most natural organisms, which are mostly soft tissues. Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism Researchers at Tufts University recently developed robots with silicone bodies and flexible actuators (air muscles, electroactive polymers, ferrofluids). Silicones are largely inert compounds with a wide variety of forms and uses Pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs are contractile or extensional devices operated by pressurized air. Electroactive Polymers or EAPs are Polymers whose shape is modified when a Voltage is applied to them A ferrofluid (from the Latin ferrum, meaning iron is a liquid which becomes strongly polarised in the presence of a Magnetic field. The control software emphasizes soft behaviors using fuzzy logic and neural networks. Soft computing refers to a collection of computational techniques in Computer science, Machine learning and some engineering disciplines which study model and analyze Fuzzy logic is a form of Multi-valued logic derived from Fuzzy set theory to deal with Reasoning that is approximate rather than precise Traditionally the term neural network had been used to refer to a network or circuit of biological neurons. ^[67]

Soft-bodied robots can look, feel, and behave differently from traditional hard robots, enabling new applications. Some of these robots are currently exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMa) in New York City. The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, USA, on 53rd Street between Fifth

• Reconfigurable Robots: A few researchers have investigated the possibility of creating robots which can alter their physical form to suit a particular task,^[68] like the fictional T-1000. Modular Self-reconfiguring Robotic systems or self-reconfigurable modular robots are autonomous kinematic machines with variable morphology The T-1000 is a fictional Android Assassin featured as the main Antagonist in Terminator 2 Judgment Day. Real robots are nowhere near that sophisticated however, and mostly consist of a small number of cube shaped units, which can move relative to their neighbours, for example SuperBot. Algorithms have been designed in case any such robots become a reality. ^[69]

• Swarm robots: Inspired by colonies of insects such as ants and bees, researchers hope to create very large swarms (thousands) of tiny robots which together perform a useful task, such as finding something hidden, cleaning, or spying. The SWARM Remote Weapon System (Stabilised Weapon And Reconnaissance Mount is a fully armored Remote weapon system designed and built by the Thales Group in Swarm robotics is a new approach to the coordination of Multirobot systems which consist of large numbers of mostly simple physical Robots It is supposed that a desired In Biology, a colony (from Latin colonia) refers to several individual Organisms of the same Species living closely together usually Ants are social Insects of the family Formicidae and along with the related families of Wasps and Bees belong to the order Bees are flying Insects closely related to Wasps and Ants Bees are a Monophyletic lineage within the superfamily Apoidea Each robot would be quite simple, but the emergent behaviour of the swarm would be more complex. For other uses see Emergence (disambiguation, Emergent, and Emergency. ^[71] The whole set of robots can be considered as one single distributed system, in the same way an ant colony can be considered a superorganism. An ant colony is an underground Lair where Ants live Colonies consist of a series of underground chambers connected to each other and the surface of the earth by A superorganism is an Organism consisting of many organisms This is usually meant to be a Social unit of eusocial animals where Division of labour They would exhibit swarm intelligence. Swarm intelligence (SI is Artificial intelligence based on the Collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized systems The largest swarms so far created include the iRobot swarm, and the Open-source micro-robotic project swarm, which are being used to research collective behaviors. ^[72] Swarms are also more resistant to failure. Whereas one large robot may fail and ruin the whole mission, the swarm can continue even if several robots fail. This makes them attractive for space exploration missions, where failure can be extremely costly. ^[73]
• Evolutionary Robots: is a methodology that uses evolutionary computation to help design robots, especially the body form, or motion and behaviour controllers. Evolutionary Robotics ( ER) is a methodology that uses Evolutionary computation to develop controllers for Autonomous robots Algorithms Methodology (also called manner) is defined as "the analysis of the principles of methods rules and postulates employed by a discipline" In Computer science evolutionary computation is a subfield of Artificial intelligence (more particularly Computational intelligence) that involves In Control theory, a controller is a device which monitors and affects the operational conditions of a given Dynamical system. In a similar way to natural evolution, a large population of robots is allowed to compete in some way, or their ability to perform a task is measured using a fitness function. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 A fitness function is a particular type of Objective function that quantifies the optimality of a solution (that is a chromosome) in a Genetic algorithm Those that perform worst are removed from the population, and replaced by a new set, which have new behaviors based on those of the winners. Over time the population improves, and eventually a satisfactory robot may appear. This happens without any direct programming of the robots by the researchers. Researchers use this method both to create better robots,^[74] and to explore the nature of evolution. ^[75] Because the process often requires many generations of robots to be simulated, this technique may be run entirely or mostly in simulation, then tested on real robots once the evolved algorithms are good enough. Simulation is the imitation of some real thing state of affairs or process ^[76]
• Virtual Reality: Robotics also has application in the design of virtual reality interfaces. Virtual reality ( VR) is a technology which allows a user to interact with a Computer-simulated environment be it a real or imagined one Virtual reality ( VR) is a technology which allows a user to interact with a Computer-simulated environment be it a real or imagined one Specialized robots are in widespread use in the haptic research community. These robots, called "haptic interfaces" allow touch-enabled user interaction with real and virtual environments. Robotic forces allow simulating the mechanical properties of "virtual" objects, which users can experience through their sense of touch. ^[77]

Dangers and fears

Although current robots are not believed to have developed to the stage where they pose any threat or danger to society,^[78] fears and concerns about robots have been repeatedly expressed in a wide range of books and films. A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions The principal theme is the robots' intelligence and ability to act could exceed that of humans, that they could develop a conscience and a motivation to take over or destroy the human race. (See The Terminator, Runaway, Robocop, the Replicators in Stargate, the Cylons in BattleStar Galactica, The Matrix, and I, Robot. The Terminator is a 1984 science fiction / Action film directed and co-written by James Cameron. Runaway is a 1984 Science fiction Action film starring Tom Selleck, Gene Simmons and Cynthia Rhodes. RoboCop is a 1987 Cyberpunk film directed by Paul Verhoeven. The film features Peter Weller, Dan O'Herlihy, Kurtwood In the Science fiction series Stargate SG-1, the Replicators are Self-replicating machines that seek to convert all civilizations into more of The Cylons are a Cybernetic Civilization at war with the Twelve Colonies of humanity in the Battlestar Galactica Science fiction The Matrix is a 1999 science fiction - martial arts - Action film written and directed by Larry and Andy Wachowski and I Robot is a Science fiction film set in a world where humans and Humanoid robots interact ( Chicago in the year 2035) ) Robots could be dangerous if they were programmed to kill or if they are programmed to be so smart that they make their own software, build their own hardware to upgrade themselves or if they change their own source code.

Frankenstein (1818), often called the first science fiction novel, has become synonymous with the theme of a robot or monster advancing beyond its creator. Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus, generally known as Frankenstein, is a Novel written by the British author Mary Shelley Probably the best known author to have worked in this area is Isaac Asimov who placed robots and their interaction with society at the center of many of his works. Isaac Asimov (c January 2 1920 &ndash April 6 1992 ˈaɪzək ˈæzɪmʌv originally Исаак Озимов but now transcribed into Russian as, was a Russian Of particular interest are Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics. In Science fiction, the Three Laws of Robotics are a set of three rules written by Isaac Asimov, which almost all positronic robots appearing in his fiction Currently, malicious programming or unsafe use of robots may be the biggest danger. Although industrial robots may be smaller and less powerful than other industrial machines, they are just as capable of inflicting severe injury on humans. However, since a robot can be programmed to move in different trajectories depending on its task, its movement can be unpredictable for a person standing in its reach. Therefore, most industrial robots operate inside a security fence which separates them from human workers. Manuel De Landa has theorized that humans are at a critical and significant juncture where humans have allowed robots, "smart missiles," and autonomous bombs equipped with artificial perception to make decisions about killing us. Manuel DeLanda, (born 1952 in Mexico City) is a Writer, Artist and Philosopher who has lived in New York since 1975 He believes this represents an important and dangerous trend where humans are transferring more of our cognitive structures into our machines. ^[79] Even without malicious programming, a robot, especially a future model moving freely in a human environment, is potentially dangerous because of its large moving masses, powerful actuators and unpredictably complex behavior. A robot falling on someone or just stepping on his foot by mistake could cause much more damage to the victim than a human being of the same size. Designing and programming robots to be intrinsically safe and to exhibit safe behavior in a human environment is one of the great challenges in robotics. Intrinsic safety ( IS) is a protection technique for safe operation of electronic equipment in explosive atmospheres Some theorists, such as Eliezer Yudkowsky, have suggested that developing a robot with a powerful conscience may be the most prudent course of action in this regard. Eliezer S Yudkowsky (born in 1979 is an American Artificial intelligence Researcher concerned with the Singularity, and an advocate of

Literature

Main article: Robots in literature

See also: List of fictional robots and androids

Robots have frequently appeared as characters in works of literature. Robots appear in a wide variety of literature The first use of the word in its modern sense was in Karel Čapek 's play R This list of fictional robots and androids is a Chronological list categorised by medium Isaac Asimov wrote many volumes of science fiction focusing on robots in numerous forms and guises, contributing greatly to reducing the Frankenstein complex, which dominated early works of fiction involving robots. Isaac Asimov (c January 2 1920 &ndash April 6 1992 ˈaɪzək ˈæzɪmʌv originally Исаак Озимов but now transcribed into Russian as, was a Russian In Isaac Asimov 's Robot novels the Frankenstein complex is a colloquial term for the fear of Robots Asimov's stories predict that the phobia will His three laws of robotics have become particularly well known for codifying a simple set of behaviors for robots to remain at the service of their human creators. In Science fiction, the Three Laws of Robotics are a set of three rules written by Isaac Asimov, which almost all positronic robots appearing in his fiction

The first reference in Western literature to mechanical servants appears in The Iliad of Homer. The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the In Book XVIII, Hephaestus, god of fire, creates new armour for the hero Achilles. Hephaestus (hɨˈfiːstəs or /hɨˈfɛstəs/ Greek Hēphaistos) was a Greek god whose Roman equivalent was Vulcan. He is assisted by robots. ^[80] According to the Rieu translation, "Golden maidservants hastened to help their master. Emile Victor Rieu (1887&ndash1972 is best known for his lucid translations of Homer, as editor of Penguin Classics, and for a modern translation of the four They looked like real women and could not only speak and use their limbs but were endowed with intelligence and trained in handwork by the immortal gods. " Of course, the words "robot" or "android" are not used to describe them, but they are nevertheless mechanical devices human in appearance. ^[80]

Numerous words for different types of robots are now used in literature. Robot has come to mean mechanical humans, while android is a generic term for artificial humans. An android is a Robot designed to resemble a human usually both in appearance and behavior Cyborg or "bionic man" is used for a human form that is a mixture of organic and mechanical parts. A cyborg is a Cybernetic Organism ( ie, an organism that has both artificial and natural systems Bionics (also known as biomimetics, biognosis, Biomimicry, or bionical creativity engineering) is the application of biological Organic artificial humans have also been referred to as "constructs" (or "biological constructs").

In science fiction, the Three Laws of Robotics are a set of three rules written by Isaac Asimov, which almost all positronic robots appearing in his fiction must obey. Introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround", although foreshadowed in a few earlier stories, the Laws state the following:

1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.

Later, Asimov added the Zeroth Law: "A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm"; the rest of the laws are modified sequentially to acknowledge this.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first passage in Asimov's short story "Liar!" (1941) that mentions the First Law is the earliest recorded use of the word robotics. [1] Asimov was not initially aware of this; he assumed the word already existed by analogy with mechanics, hydraulics, and other similar terms denoting branches of applied knowledge. [2]

Due in part to Asimov's Robot stories, robotic characters have since become a staple of science fiction, appearing in a variety of print and cinematic works including Star Trek, Star Wars, and Doctor Who. Star Wars is an epic Space opera franchise initially conceived by George Lucas during the 1970s and significantly expanded Doctor Who is a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC.

Competitions and exhibitions

See also: Robot competition

Competitions for robots are gaining popularity, attracting participation from amateurs, private industry, schools and research institutions. A robotic competition is an event where Robots have to accomplish a given task Plen the robot should not be confused with the Public Leadership Education Network or PLEN Plen is a small Desktop toy Humanoid robot RoboCup is an international robotics competition founded in 1993 Robots compete at a wide range of tasks including destructive combat ^[81], non-destructive combat ^[82], fire-fighting ^[83], maze solving, performing tasks ^[84], navigational exercises (eg. the DARPA Grand Challenge) and many others. The DARPA Grand Challenge is a prize competition for Driverless cars sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA the most prominent research Some contests^[85] require participants to provide tutorials showing how they built and programmed their robot.

Here is an alphabetical list of ongoing, successful competitions and exhibitions.

Botball is a LEGO-based competition between fully autonomous robots. Botball is an Annual robotics competition for middle and high school students Lego, officially trademarked LEGO, is a line of construction Toys manufactured by the Lego Group, a privately Autonomy ( Greek: Auto- Nomos - nomos meaning "law" one who gives oneself his/her own Law) is the right to Self-government There are two divisions. The first is for high-school and middle-school students, and the second (called "Beyond Botball") is for anyone who chooses to compete at the national tournament. Teams build, program, and blog about a robot for five weeks before they compete at the regional level. Winners are awarded scholarships to register for and travel to the national tournament. A scholarship is an award of access to an institution or a financial aid award for an individual student scholar for the purpose of furthering their Education Botball is a project of the KISS Institute for Practical Robotics, based in Norman, Oklahoma.

The DARPA Grand Challenge has held events since 2004 testing driverless cars in obstacle courses. The DARPA Grand Challenge is a prize competition for Driverless cars sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA the most prominent research The driverless car concept embraces an emerging family of highly automated cognitive and control technologies ultimately aimed at a full "taxi-like" experience for car users

The FIRST Robotics Competition (FRC) is a multinational competition that teams professionals and young people to solve an engineering design problem. The FIRST Robotics Competition is a high school Robotics competition organized by FIRST. These teams of mentors (corporate, teachers, or college students) and high school students collaborate in order to design and build a robot in six weeks. This robot is designed to play a game that is developed by FIRST and changes from year to year. FIRST, or F or I nspiration and R ecognition of S cience and T echnology is an organization founded by inventor Dean Kamen FIRST, or For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology, is an organization founded by inventor Dean Kamen in 1992 as a way of getting high school students involved in and excited about engineering and technology. Dean L Kamen (born April 5, 1951) is an American Entrepreneur and Inventor from New Hampshire.

FIRST LEGO League (FLL) is a robotics competition for elementary and middle school students (ages 9-14, 9-16 in Europe), arranged by FIRST. FIRST Lego League (also known by the acronym FLL) is an international competition It is arranged by the FIRST organization Each year the contest focuses on a different topic related to the sciences. Each challenge within the competition then revolves around that theme. The students then work out solutions to the various problems that they're given and meet for regional tournaments to share their knowledge and show off their ideas. The World Festival is held every year in Atlanta.

The FIRST Tech Challenge (FTC) is a mid-level robotics competition targeted toward high-school aged students. The FIRST Tech Challenge (FTC) formerly the FIRST Vex Challenge (FVC is a mid-level Robotics competition targeted toward high-school aged students See also Robot Robotics is the science and technology of Robots and their design manufacture and application It offers the traditional challenge of a FIRST competition but with a more accessible and affordable robotics kit. The ultimate goal of FTC is to reach more young people with a lower-cost, more accessible opportunity to discover the excitement and rewards of science, technology, and engineering.

The Intelligent Ground Vehicle Competition (IGVC) has hosted a yearly student robotics competition every year since 1993, usually in Michigan and usually in early June. See the web site for dates and location. It is multidisciplinary, theory-based, hands-on, team-implemented, outcome-assessed, and based on product realization. Many of the participants design their vehicles during year-long coursework. Students in business and engineering management, language and graphic arts, and public relations also participate. Students solicit and interact with industrial sponsors who provide component hardware and advice, and in that way get an inside view of industrial design and opportunities for employment.

The International Robot Exhibition (IREX), organized by the Japan Robot Association (JARA), has run biennially since 1973.

The Trinity College Fire-Fighting Robot Contest competition in April 2007 was the 14th annual event. There are many different divisions for all skill levels. Robots in the competition are encouraged to find new ways to navigate through the rooms, put out a candle and save a "child" from a building. Robots can be composed of any materials, but must fit within certain size restrictions.

Previous and future competitions and exhibitions

The British TV show Robot Wars, in which machines built by amateur hobbyists battle to destroy one another, ran from 1997 to 2003. The machines, however, were radio controlled and had little autonomy.

See also

Main list: List of basic robotics topics

For classes and types of robots see Category:Robots.

Research areas

Artificial consciousness Automated planning and scheduling Behavior based robotics and Subsumption architecture Cognitive robotics Cybernetics Developmental robotics

Human-robot interaction Localization Mechatronics Nanotechnology and MEMS NASA and robotics Navigation

Robot control Robot soccer Robot software Social robots Swarm robotics Telepresence

Additional topics

Android science Clanking replicator Disabled robotics: Powered exoskeleton Domestic robots Gynoid Hybrot Japanese robotics Mecha

Microbotics Microsoft Robotics Studio Lego Mindstorms Open source hardware Rapid prototyping Robot kits Robot locomotion Robotic mapping

Robotics suite RooTooth Snake-arm robot Ubiquitous robot Uncanny Valley URBI Vocoder Webots

References

General references

• Cheney, Margaret [1989:123] (1981). Tesla, Man Out of Time. Dorset Press. New York. ISBN 0-88029-419-1
• Craig, J. J. (2005). Introduction to Robotics. Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
• Flanagan, J. R. , Lederman, S. J. Neurobiology: Feeling bumps and holes (Portable Document Format), News and Views, Nature, 2001 Jul. Nature is a prominent Scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869 26;412(6845):389-91.
• Hayward V, Astley OR, Cruz-Hernandez M, Grant D, Robles-De-La-Torre G. Haptic interfaces and devices (Portable Document Format). Sensor Review 24(1), pp. 16-29 (2004).
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 2. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
• Robles-De-La-Torre G. & Hayward V. Force Can Overcome Object Geometry In the perception of Shape Through Active Touch. Nature 412 (6845):445-8 (2001).
• Robles-De-La-Torre G. The Importance of the Sense of Touch in Virtual and Real Environments (Portable Document Format). IEEE Multimedia 13(3), Special issue on Haptic User Interfaces for Multimedia Systems, pp. 24-30 (2006).
• Sotheby's New York. The Tin Toy Robot Collection of Matt Wyse, (1996)
• Tsai, L. -W. (1999). Robot Analysis. Wiley. New York.
• DeLanda, Manuel. War in the Age of Intelligent Machines. 1991. Swerve. New York.

External links

Coursework

• LearnArtificialNeuralNetworks Robot control and neural networks

Encyclopaedias

• Robot article at Britannica

Hobbyist tutorials

• Ikalogic Good tutorials, active discussion board, most material is copyleft
• SocietyOfRobots Excellent tutorials, active discussion board

News sites

• Robots.net Daily news about robots, robotics, and AI

Other links

• Giant list of known robots
• IFR.org picture gallery Pictures and classification of industrial robots. Copyleft is a play on the word Copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies and modified versions The larger site is a trade group with many possibly useful links.
• Robotics at the Open Directory Project Great place for robotics links, including some that were deleted from this page
• Robotics Research Papers – DMOZ Directory

Research societies

• IEEE Robotics and Automation Society (RAS) and its wiki
• International Foundation of Robotics Research (IFRR)
• NASA Robotics Division
• The roboethics official website

The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory

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