Rhodesian Bush War/Second Chimurenga
Date July 1964–1979 Location Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) Result Lancaster House Agreement, Majority rule
Belligerents
Rhodesia  South Africa  Zimbabwe Rhodesia (1979) FROLIZI (1978-1979)	ZANLA ZIPRA FRELIMO[1] FROLIZI (October 1971 to 1978)
Commanders
PM Ian Smith PM Abel Muzorewa Defence Minister P. K. van der Byl Commander Peter Walls Ndabaningi Sithole (1978-1979) James Chikerema (1978-1979)	Robert Mugabe Joshua Nkomo MLA: Samora Machel Ndabaningi Sithole (1964-1978) James Chikerema (October 1971-1978)
Casualties and losses
Around 30,000 [2]

The Rhodesian Bush War, also known as the Second Chimurenga or the Zimbabwe Liberation Struggle, was a war which lasted from July 1964^[3] to 1979 and led to universal suffrage, the end of white minority-rule in Rhodesia, and the creation of the Republic of Zimbabwe. Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election The Lancaster House Agreement ended biracial rule in Zimbabwe Rhodesia following negotiations between representatives of the Patriotic Front (PF consisting of ZAPU Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Zimbabwe Rhodesia (zɪmˈbɑːbweɪ rəʊˈdiːʒə officially the Republic of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, was an unrecognized state that existed from June 1, The Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe ( FROLIZI) was a militant nationalist organization that fought against the government of Rhodesia from its founding in October Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA) was the militant wing of the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant Communist organization and participated Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA) was the armed wing of the Zimbabwe African People's Union, a militant Communist organization in Rhodesia The Liberation Front of Mozambique, better known by the acronym FRELIMO, from the Portuguese Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (IPA /fɾeˈlimo/ Ian Douglas Smith GCLM ID ( 8 April 1919 &ndash 20 November 2007) served as the Prime Minister of the British Abel Tendekayi Muzorewa (born on 4 April 1925) served as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia from the Internal Settlement to the Lancaster Pieter Kenyon Fleming-Voltelyn van der Byl, ID (11 November 1923 &ndash 15 November 1999 served as the Foreign Minister of Rhodesia from 1974 to Lieutenant General George Peter Walls (born in 1927 served as the Commander of the Combined Operations Headquarters of the Military of Rhodesia, and later Zimbabwe Ndabaningi Sithole ( 31 July 1920 – 12 December 2000) founded the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant organization that opposed James Robert Dambaza Chikerema ( 2 April, 1925 &ndash 22 March, 2006) served as the President of the Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe Joshua Mqabuko Nyongolo Nkomo ( June 19, 1917 &ndash July 1, 1999) was the leader and founder of the Zimbabwe African People's Union Samora Moisés Machel ( September 29, 1933 &ndash October 19, 1986) was a Mozambican military commander revolutionary socialist Chimurenga is a Shona word for 'struggle' The word's modern interpretation has been extended to describe a struggle for human rights political dignity and social justice specifically Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to Minoritarianism is a Neologism, closely related to the term minority rule, both of which describe a Political philosophy or agenda which asserts that Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election The Smith and Muzorewa governments fought against Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union and Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union. Ian Douglas Smith GCLM ID ( 8 April 1919 &ndash 20 November 2007) served as the Prime Minister of the British Abel Tendekayi Muzorewa (born on 4 April 1925) served as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia from the Internal Settlement to the Lancaster The Zimbabwe African National Union was a militant organization that fought against White minority rule in Rhodesia, formed as a split from the Zimbabwe African Joshua Mqabuko Nyongolo Nkomo ( June 19, 1917 &ndash July 1, 1999) was the leader and founder of the Zimbabwe African People's Union Zimbabwe African People's Union is a defunct militant Communist organization and political party that fought for the National liberation of Zimbabwe from

Contents 1 Causes 1.1 Internal factors 1.2 External factors 2 Civil disobedience (1957-1964) 3 First phase (1964-1972) 4 Second phase (1972-1979) 5 Perceptions 6 Rhodesian forces 7 Rebel forces 7.1 ZANLA 7.2 ZIPRA 8 Resolution 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

Causes

Internal factors

The war is viewed by many Black Zimbabweans as a war of national liberation, as many of them view their country as having been occupied and dominated by a foreign power, namely, Britain, since 1890. The policies of the white-dominated government were racially discriminatory in several respects. List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Social services were segregated, and voters were divided along racial lines into two rolls with different voting power. In addition, white Rhodesians owned the most productive farmland, which had been acquired by dubious means during the colonial period.

By contrast, most white Rhodesians viewed the war as one of survival, with atrocities committed in the former Belgian Congo, the Mau Mau Uprising campaign in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa fresh in their minds. The Belgian Congo ( Dutch: Belgisch Kongo French: Congo Belge German: Belgisch Kongo was the formal title of present-day Democratic Republic The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south Many whites (and a sizable minority of black Rhodesians) viewed their lifestyle as being under attack, which both had considered safer and with a higher standard of living than many other African countries.

External factors

After World War II, most African colonies sought independence from colonial powers. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Throughout the 1960s and 70s the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China trained and funded mainly Communist African armies of liberation to expand their global influence and gain access to natural resources against the backdrop of the Cold War. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the After the Sino-Soviet Split these two powers were often in competition with each other and hence there were two liberation armies in the Rhodesian Bush War; ZANLA supported by China and ZIPRA supported by the Soviet Union. The Sino-Soviet split was a gradual divergence of diplomatic ties between the People's Republic of China (PRC and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA) was the militant wing of the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant Communist organization and participated Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA) was the armed wing of the Zimbabwe African People's Union, a militant Communist organization in Rhodesia

After gaining independence, the Soviet or Chinese backed nationalists would normally form Marxist/Socialist states, aligned with the Communist Bloc. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. This is a list of countries past and present that declared themselves socialist either in their names or their Constitutions No other criteria are used thus some or During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were This ensured valuable trade links and strategic influence in the region. This pattern was established earlier in South East Asia with conflicts such as the Vietnam War and Cambodian Civil War and in neighbouring African countries with conflicts such as the Angolan War of Independence, Mozambican War of Independence, Gaddafi in Libya or the 1974 coup in Ethiopia leading to the rule of the Marxist Derg. The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (known as the Khmer Rouge) and their allies the Democratic Republic of The Angolan War of Independence (1961&ndash1974 Civil disobedience (1948-1959 See also 1950s in Angola The Portuguese Colonial Act passed on June The Mozambican War of Independence was an Armed conflict between the Guerrilla forces of the Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi 1 (معمر القذافي) (born 7 June 1942) also known as Colonel Gaddafi Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The Derg or Dergue was a communist military junta that came to power in Ethiopia following the ousting of Haile Selassie I. This Cold War competition supported conflicts worried Western observers as well the various colonial governments who questioned the motives of such liberation armies.

The ZANLA fighters were mainly Shona and were supported by the People's Republic of China and North Korea, whereas the ZAPU fighters were mainly Ndebele and were supported by the Soviet Union and East Germany. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state Each group fought separate guerrilla wars against the Rhodesian Security Forces. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc

Rebels were armed with a wide range of weapons, including Russian grenades, Tokarov pistols, PPSh sub-machineguns, the Czech M52/57, the French MAS, German Mauser rifles, and MP40 sub-machineguns, but the most common infantry weapon was the AK-47 and the SKS^[4]. The TT-30 ( 762-мм самозарядный пистолет Токарева образца 1930 года, 762 mm Samozarjadnyj Pistolet Tokareva obrazca 1930 goda The PPSh-41 ( P istolet- P ulemyot Sh pagina; Пистолет-пулемёт Шпагина; Shpagin Machine Pistol; nicknamed The Mosin-Nagant (Винтовка Мосина ISO 9:) is a Bolt-action, internal magazine fed military Rifle that was used by the armed forces Mauser is the common name of a German arms manufacturer maker of a line of Bolt-action Rifles from the 1870s to present The MP40 ( Maschinenpistole 40, literally "Machine Pistol 40" is a Submachine gun developed in Germany and used extensively by Paratroopers The AK-47 (contraction of Russian Автомат Калашникова образца 1947 года; Avtomat Kalashnikova obraztsa 1947 goda; "Kalashnikov's The SKS is a Russian 762x39mm caliber semi-automatic carbine, designed in 1945 by Sergei Gavrilovich Simonov. The nationalist movements also used a variety of Soviet and Chinese-made equipment which eventually included surface-to-air missiles and land mines. A surface to air missile ( SAM) or ground-to-air missile ( GTAM) is a Missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy Aircraft A land mine is an Explosive device designed to be placed on or in the ground to explode when triggered by an operator or the Proximity of a vehicle person The use of ambushes and surprise attacks on civilian convoys and rural farms and villages was a common tactic as these areas were often hard to defend. Nationalists derailed several Rhodesian Railways trains with explosives. The National Railways of Zimbabwe ( NRZ) is the Parastatal railway of Zimbabwe.

In June 1979, the governments of Cuba and Mozambique offered direct military assistance to the Patriotic Front, but Mugabe and Nkomo declined. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa ^[5]

The Communist Party of Great Britain actively supported ZAPU. The Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB was the largest Communist party in the United Kingdom, though it never became a mass party like the Communist parties of North Korean military officials taught Zimbabwean militants how to use explosives and arms in a camp near Pyongyang. North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, Pyongyang (pʰjʌŋjaŋ is the Capital and largest City of North Korea, located on the Taedong River, at. ^[6]

By April 1979. 12,000 ZANLA troops were training in Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Libya. Tanzania ˌtænzəˈniːə officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab ^[7]

The Bush War overlapped several Cold War conflicts in its neighbouring countries, including Angola's war of independence (1961-1975) and civil war (1975-2002), Mozambique's war of independence (1964-1974) and Mozambican Civil War (1977 to 1992), and Shaba I (1977) and Shaba II (1978). Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central The Angolan War of Independence (1961&ndash1974 Civil disobedience (1948-1959 See also 1950s in Angola The Portuguese Colonial Act passed on June The Angolan Civil War began in Angola after the end of the war for independence from Portugal in 1975 Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa The Mozambican War of Independence was an Armed conflict between the Guerrilla forces of the Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação The Mozambican Civil War began in 1975 following the war of independence. Shaba II was an invasion of the Shaba separatist movement FNLC (6500 Katangese gendarmes into the Zairian province of Shaba on 17 May 1978

Civil disobedience (1957-1964)

In September 1956, bus fares in Salisbury were raised to the point at which workers were spending between 18% and 30% of their earnings on transportation. Harare (həˈrɑreɪ or /həˈrɑri/ formerly Salisbury) is the Capital of Zimbabwe. The City Youth League responded by boycotting the United Transport Company's buses and succeeded in preventing the price change. The City Youth League, later known as the African Youth League, is a defunct organization that participated in nonviolent resistance against British rule in Rhodesia On September 12, 1957 members of the Youth League and the defunct ANC formed the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress, led by Joshua Nkomo. Events 1213 - Albigensian Crusade: Simon de Montfort 5th Earl of Leicester, defeats Peter II of Aragon at the The Southern Rhodesia African National Congress was a short lived political party of Black Africans in what is now modern Zimbabwe, then Southern Rhodesia. The Whitehead administration banned the SRANC in 1959 and arrested 307 leaders, excluding Nkomo who was out of the country, on February 29 in Operation Sunrise. Sir Edgar Cuthbert Fremantle Whitehead, OBE, ( February 8, 1905 &ndash September 22, 1971) was a Rhodesian politician Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours ^[3][8][9]

Nkomo, Mugabe, Herbert Chitepo, and Ndabaningi Sithole established the National Democratic Party in January 1960. Herbert Wiltshire Chitepo ( 15 June, 1923 &ndash 18 March, 1975) led the Zimbabwe African National Union until the Central Ndabaningi Sithole ( 31 July 1920 – 12 December 2000) founded the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant organization that opposed Nkomo became its leader in October. An NDP delegation headed by Nkomo attended the constitutional conference in January 1961. While Nkomo initially supported the constitution, he reversed his position after other NDP leaders disagreed. The government banned the NDP in December 1961 and arrested NDP leaders, excluding Nkomo who, again, was out of the country. Nkomo formed the Zimbabwe African People's Union which the Whitehead administration banned in September 1962. Zimbabwe African People's Union is a defunct militant Communist organization and political party that fought for the National liberation of Zimbabwe from ^[3][8][9]

The United Federal Party, campaigning on majority rule, lost overwhelmingly in the 1962 general election to the more conservative Rhodesian Front. The United Federal Party, previously known as the United Party and the United Rhodesia Party, was one of Southern Rhodesia 's most successful political parties The Southern Rhodesia general election of 1962 took place on December 14, 1962. The Rhodesian Front ( RF) was a Political party in Southern Rhodesia when the country was under White minority rule. Nkomo, legally barred from forming a new political party, moved ZAPU's headquarters to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Dar es Salaam (دار السلام "Abode of Peace" Dār as-Salām) formerly Mzizima, is the largest city in Tanzania. Tanzania ˌtænzəˈniːə officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya ^[8]

In July 1963 Nkomo suspended Ndabaningi Sithole, Robert Mugabe, Leopold Takawira, and Washington Malianga for their opposition to his continued leadership of ZAPU. Ndabaningi Sithole ( 31 July 1920 – 12 December 2000) founded the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant organization that opposed Leopold Takawira (1916-1970 served as the Vice President of the Zimbabwe African National Union after supporting the National Democratic Party (NDP and later the Washington Malianga (born in 1926 is one of several leaders of the Zimbabwe African People's Union who left ZAPU in 1963 and founded the Zimbabwe African National Union ^[10] On August 8 they announced the establishment of the Zimbabwe African National Union. Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. The Zimbabwe African National Union was a militant organization that fought against White minority rule in Rhodesia, formed as a split from the Zimbabwe African ZANU members formed a militant wing, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, and sent ZANLA members to the People's Republic of China for training. Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA) was the militant wing of the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant Communist organization and participated Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES ^[8]

In July 1964 ZANLA forces assassinated a Rhodesian Front official and the war began. ^[3]

First phase (1964-1972)

The Smith administration detained the ZANU & ZAPU Political Leadership,headed by Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe in August 1964. Joshua Mqabuko Nyongolo Nkomo ( June 19, 1917 &ndash July 1, 1999) was the leader and founder of the Zimbabwe African People's Union The major political leaders imprisoned were Ndabaningi Sithole, Leopald Takawira, Edgar Tekere, Enos Nkala, Maurice Nyagumbo. Ndabaningi Sithole ( 31 July 1920 – 12 December 2000) founded the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant organization that opposed Edgar Zivanai Tekere (born April 1 1937) is a Zimbabwean Politician. Enos Nkala is one of the founders of the Zimbabwe African National Union. Tapfumaneyi Maurice Nyagumbo (died 28 April[[ 989]] was a Zimbabwean politician In April 1966 the Rhodesian armed forces engaged militants in Sinoia, the first major engagement. Chinhoyi (formerly called Sinoia) is a large provincial town and is the capital of Mashonaland West province in Zimbabwe. ^[3]

The Military Leaders of ZANLA, which consisted of Dare ReChimurenga were Barrister Herbert Chitepo, and Josiah Tongogara. Herbert Wiltshire Chitepo ( 15 June, 1923 &ndash 18 March, 1975) led the Zimbabwe African National Union until the Central Josiah Magama Tongogara ( 1938 - December 26 1979) was a commander of the ZANLA guerrilla army in Rhodesia. Militants began launching attacks against Rhodesia in the mid-1960s, first from bases in Zambia and later from Mozambique. The Republic of Zambia (ˈzæmbɪə is a Landlocked country in Southern Africa. Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa ^[11]

The conflict intensified after the Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain on 11 November 1965. The Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI) of Rhodesia from the United Kingdom was signed on November 11, 1965 by the administration The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. Sanctions were implemented by the British government after UDI, and member states of the United Nations endorsed the British embargo. International sanctions are actions taken by Countries against others for political reasons either Unilaterally or Multilaterally. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security In international Commerce and politics, an embargo is the prohibition of commerce The embargo meant the Rhodesian Forces were hampered by a lack of modern equipment but used other means to receive vital war supplies such as receiving oil, munitions, and arms via the government of apartheid-era South Africa. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa War material was also obtained through elaborate international smuggling schemes, domestic production, and equipment captured from infiltrating enemy combatants.

In the latter months of 1971, the black nationalist factions united and formed a coalition which became known as the 'Joint Guerrilla Alliance to Overthrow the Government. '

Second phase (1972-1979)

The black nationalists operated from secluded bases in neighbouring Zambia and from FRELIMO-controlled areas in the Portuguese colony of Mozambique. The Republic of Zambia (ˈzæmbɪə is a Landlocked country in Southern Africa. The Liberation Front of Mozambique, better known by the acronym FRELIMO, from the Portuguese Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (IPA /fɾeˈlimo/ Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa These militants made periodic raids into Rhodesia. Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence With the decline of the Portuguese empire from 1974 to 1976, Ian Smith realised Rhodesia was surrounded on three sides by hostile nations and declared a formal state of emergency.

Soon Mozambique closed its 800-mile-long border with Rhodesia, but Rhodesian forces often crossed the border in "hot pursuit" raids, attacking the nationalists and their training camps. In 1976, Rhodesian Selous Scouts destroyed a camp containing many hundreds of trainees. The Selous Scouts was a special forces regiment of the Rhodesian Army which operated from 1973 until the introduction of majority rule in 1980 The Rhodesians also operated into Zambia after Nkomo's nationalists shot down two unarmed Vickers Viscount civilian airliners with Soviet supplied SAM-7 heat-seeking missiles. The Republic of Zambia (ˈzæmbɪə is a Landlocked country in Southern Africa. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout For the STRELA computer see Strela computer. For the Apollo test mission see A-102 The 9K32 "Strela-2" In the first incident, Air Rhodesia Flight RH825, ten passengers who survived the crash landing were shot and killed at the crash scene. As the conflict intensified, the United States and Britain attempted to negotiate a peaceful settlement. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located However this was rejected by the Rhodesian government as they were unwilling to relinquish political and economic control, and the black nationalists were bitterly divided by feudal, tribal and political differences.

The RSF called up part-time soldiers in preparation for a major counter-offensive on May 2, 1976. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter. ^[12] Militants bombed a railroad bridge over Matetsi River on October 7, 1976 when a train carrying ore passed over. Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar) ^[13]

On April 3, 1977 General Peter Walls announced the government would launch a campaign to win the "hearts and minds" of Rhodesia's black citizens. Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. Lieutenant General George Peter Walls (born in 1927 served as the Commander of the Combined Operations Headquarters of the Military of Rhodesia, and later Zimbabwe ^[14]

In May 1977 Walls received reports of ZANLA forces massing in the city of Mapai in Gaza Province, Mozambique. Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA) was the militant wing of the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant Communist organization and participated Mapai is a small town in southern Mozambique. History In June 1976 a Selous Scouts attack from Rhodesia named Operation Long John Gaza is a province of Mozambique. It has an area of 75709 km² and a population of 1333106 (2006 Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa Prime Minister Smith gave Walls permission to destroy the base. Walls told the media the Rhodesian forces were changing tactics from contain and hold to search and destroy, "adopting hot pursuit when necessary. Search and Destroy, or Seek and Destroy, or Zippo or even simply S&D, refers to a military Strategy that became a notorious component of the " On May 30, 1977 500 troops passed the border and traveled 60 miles to Mapai, engaging the ZANLA forces with air cover from the Rhodesian Air Force and paratroopers in C-47 Dakotas. Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA) was the militant wing of the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant Communist organization and participated WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Rhodesian government said the military killed 32 ZANLA fighters and lost one Rhodesian pilot. The Mozambican government disputed the number of casualties, saying it shot down three Rhodesian planes and a helicopter and took several troops prisoner, all of which Minister of Combined Operations Roger Hawkins denied. ^[15][16][17]

The United Nations Security Council denounced the incursion of the "illegal racist minority regime in Southern Rhodesia" into Mozambique in Resolution 411, on June 30, 1977. ^[18]

Walls announced a day later that the Rhodesian military would occupy Mapai until they had eliminated ZANLA's presence. for the town in Mozambique see Mapai Mozambique Mapai (מפא"י an acronym for Mifleget Poalei Eretz Yisrael (מפלגת Kurt Waldheim, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, condemned the incident on June 1, and Rhodesian forces withdrew. Kurt Josef Waldheim ( 21 December 1918 – 14 June 2007) was an Austrian Diplomat and Politician. The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected The American, British, and Russian governments also condemned the raid. ^[15]

Militants bombed a department store in Salisbury on August 11, killing 11 and injuring 70. Harare (həˈrɑreɪ or /həˈrɑri/ formerly Salisbury) is the Capital of Zimbabwe. Events 2492 BC - Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation ^[19] They killed sixteen black civilians in eastern Rhodesia on August 21, burning their homes on a white-owned farm. Events 1192 - Minamoto Yoritomo becomes Seii Tai Shōgun and the De facto ruler of Japan. ^[20]

In May 1978, 50 civilians were killed in crossfire exchanged between Marxist militants and the Rhodesian military, the highest number of civilians to be killed in an engagement up to that point. ^[21] In July Patriotic Front members killed 39 black civilians and the Rhodesian government killed 106 militants. ^[22] On November 4, 1978 Walls said 2,000 Patriotic Front militants had been persuaded to defect and fight for the Rhodesian Security Forces. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani The Rwandan Patriotic Front (also translated as Rwandese Patriotic Front; or referred to as Patriotic Front of Rwanda) abbreviated as RPF (also often In reality only 50 militants defected. ^[14] In 1978 450 ZANLA militants crossed the Mozambique border and attacked the town of Umtali. Mutare (known as Umtali until 1982 is the fourth largest city in Zimbabwe, with a population of approximately 189000 At the time ZANU said the militants were women, an unusual characteristic, but in 1996 Joyce Mujuru said the vast majority involved were men and ZANU concocted the story to make Western organizations believe women were involved in the fighting. Joice Mujuru (born April 15, 1955 as Joice Mugari is a Zimbabwean politician currently serving as one of two Vice-Presidents of Zimbabwe along with ^[23] In retaliation for these acts the Rhodesian Air Force bombed guerrilla camps 125 miles inside Mozambique, using 'fatigued' Canberra B2 aircraft and Hawker Hunters —­ actively, but clandestinely, supported by several of the more capable Canberra B(I)12 aircraft of the South African Air Force. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The South African Air Force (SAAF is the Air force of South Africa, with headquarters in Pretoria. A number of joint-force bomber raids on guerrilla encampments and assembly areas in Mozambique and Zambia were mounted in 1978, and extensive air reconnaissance and surveillance of guerrilla encampments and logistical build-up was carried out by the South African Air Force on behalf of the RhAF. The South African Air Force (SAAF is the Air force of South Africa, with headquarters in Pretoria. The increased effectiveness of the bombing and follow-up 'air mobile' strikes using Dakota-dropped parachutists and helicopter 'air cav' techniques had a significant effect on the development of the conflict, until a successful raid on the Rhodesian strategic fuel reserves in Salisbury forced the decision to explore a negotiated settlement. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Harare (həˈrɑreɪ or /həˈrɑri/ formerly Salisbury) is the Capital of Zimbabwe. The conflict continued until 1979 when an agreement was reached on a constitution to transfer power to a majority government — the Lancaster House Agreement. The Lancaster House Agreement ended biracial rule in Zimbabwe Rhodesia following negotiations between representatives of the Patriotic Front (PF consisting of ZAPU

Perceptions

The conflict was seen by the nationalist groups and the British government of the time as a war of national and racial liberation. The Rhodesian government saw the conflict as a fight between one part of the country's population (the whites) on behalf of the whole population (including the black majority) against several externally financed parties made up of predominantly black radicals and communists. Political radicalism or simply radicalism is adherence to radical views and principles in Politics. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The Nationalists saw their country as having been occupied and dominated by a foreign power, namely, Britain, since 1890. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Year 1890 ( MDCCCXC) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The British government, in the person of the Governor General, directly ruled the country from 1923, when it took over from the British South Africa Company. The British South Africa Company (BSAC was established by Cecil Rhodes through the amalgamation of the Central Search Association and the Exploring Company Ltd In 1965, Ian Smith's Rhodesian Front party took over the government when it unilaterally declared independence. The Rhodesian Front ( RF) was a Political party in Southern Rhodesia when the country was under White minority rule. The Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI) of Rhodesia from the United Kingdom was signed on November 11, 1965 by the administration [1]

The minority Rhodesian government believed they were defending Western values, Christianity, the rule of law and democracy by fighting Communists. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system They were unwilling to compromise on most political, economic and social inequalities. The Smith administration said the traditional chiefs were the legitimate voice of the black Shona and Ndebele population and that the nationalists were dangerous usurpers.

In 1979 the Smith administration attempted to blunt the power of the nationalist cause by acceding to an "Internal Settlement" which ended minority rule, changed the name of the country to Zimbabwe-Rhodesia, and installed the country's first black head of government, Abel Muzorewa. Zimbabwe Rhodesia (zɪmˈbɑːbweɪ rəʊˈdiːʒə officially the Republic of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, was an unrecognized state that existed from June 1, Abel Tendekayi Muzorewa (born on 4 April 1925) served as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia from the Internal Settlement to the Lancaster However, unsatisfied with this and spurred on by Britain's refusal to recognise the new order, the nationalist forces persisted. The Second Chimurenga/Bush War ended when the white-dominated government of Rhodesia returned power to the British government with the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. The Lancaster House Agreement ended biracial rule in Zimbabwe Rhodesia following negotiations between representatives of the Patriotic Front (PF consisting of ZAPU The Rhodesian government did so at the behest of both South Africa (its major backer) and the U. S. Although minor multi-ethnic elections had been held on a limited basis in Rhodesia before, elections were held in early 1980. Britain recognised this new government and the newly independent and internationally recognised country was renamed Zimbabwe. See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election

Rhodesian forces

Rhodesia

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Rhodesia

Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

Southern Rhodesia Flags of Rhodesia 1896-1979 Elections in Southern Rhodesia Governor of Southern Rhodesia Prime Minister of Rhodesia Rhodesian Front UDI (11/11/1965) President of Rhodesia Foreign relations of Rhodesia National Anthem of Rhodesia Military of Rhodesia

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The war saw the extensive operation of Rhodesian regulars as well as elite units such as the Selous Scouts and the Rhodesian SAS. Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence This article relates to Southern Rhodesia up to 1964 and Rhodesia thereafter Constitutional origins It was commonly understood that Southern Rhodesia would be the dominant territory in the federation — economically electorally and militarily Southern Rhodesia was the name of the British Colony situated north of the Limpopo River and the Union of South Africa, and known today as Zimbabwe Elections in Southern Rhodesia were used from 1899 to 1923 to elect part of the Legislative Council and from 1924 to elect the whole of the Legislative Assembly which governed the colony This page contains a list of Governors of Southern Rhodesia from 1923 to 1980 and includes the period of UDI (1965–1970 when a competing position to the legal The Prime Minister of Rhodesia (until 1964 Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia was the Head of government in the Colony of Rhodesia. The Rhodesian Front ( RF) was a Political party in Southern Rhodesia when the country was under White minority rule. The Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI) of Rhodesia from the United Kingdom was signed on November 11, 1965 by the administration The position of President of Rhodesia only existed from 1970 to 1979 Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence For other uses of the name see Rhodesia (disambiguation Rise O Voices of Rhodesia was adopted as the National anthem of Rhodesia Information on politics by country is available for every Country, including both De jure and De facto independent The Selous Scouts was a special forces regiment of the Rhodesian Army which operated from 1973 until the introduction of majority rule in 1980 The Rhodesian Special Air Service or Rhodesian SAS refers to C Squadron Special Air Service Regiment (Second World War until 1960 "C" The Rhodesian Army fought bitterly against the black nationalist guerrillas. The Rhodesian Army was part of the Security Forces of Rhodesia. The Rhodesian Army also comprised mostly black regiments such as the Rhodesian African Rifles. The Rhodesian African Rifles, or RAR was the oldest regiment in the Rhodesian Army, dating from the formation of the 1st Rhodesian Native Regiment in 1916 during the Conscription was eventually introduced to supplement the professional soldiers and the many volunteers from overseas. By 1978 all white males up to the age of 60 were subject to periodic call-up into the army; younger men up to 35 might expect to spend alternating blocks of six weeks in the army and at home. Many of the overseas volunteers came from Britain, South Africa, Portugal, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America with the latter three being held in high regard for their recent Vietnam War experience. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia The Rhodesian Army was, considering the arms embargo, well-equipped. The standard infantry weapon was the Belgian FN FAL Rifle as produced in South Africa under license as the R1 Rifle and supplemented by the H&K G3 rifle. The Fusil Automatique Léger (Light Automatic Rifle or FAL is a 7 The G3 is a 762 mm Automatic rifle developed in the 1950s by the German armament manufacturer Heckler & Koch GmbH (HK in collaboration However other weapons such as the British L1A1 variant of the FAL and the older British Lee-Enfield bolt action rifle were used by reservists and the British South Africa Police. The Lee-Enfield Bolt-action, magazine-fed Repeating rifle was the main firearm used by the military forces of the British Empire / Commonwealth The term bolt action refers to a type of Firearm action in which the weapon's bolt is operated manually by the opening and closing of the breech with The British South Africa Police (BSAP was the police force of the British South Africa Company (BSAC of Cecil Rhodes which became the national police force of Other weapons included the Bren LMG, Sten SMG, Uzi, Browning Hi-Power pistol, Colt M16 rifle (very late in the war), GPMG MMG, 81 mm mortar, and Claymore mines. The Bren (from '''Br'''no, the Czechoslovak city of design and '''En'''field, the location of the British Royal Small Arms Factory The Sten (or Sten gun) was a family of British 9 mm Submachine guns used extensively by British and Commonwealth forces throughout The Browning Hi-Power is a single-action, 9 mm semi-automatic Pistol. M16 (more formally United States Rifle II Caliber 556 mm M16) is the U A general purpose machine gun ( GPMG) in concept is a multi-purpose weapon a Machine gun intended to fill the role of either a Light machine gun or The United Kingdom 's L16 81 mm mortar is the standard mortar used by the British army. The M18A1 Claymore is a directional Anti-personnel mine used by the U After UDI Rhodesia was heavily reliant on South African and domestically-produced weapons and equipment, as well as international smuggling operations. The Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI) of Rhodesia from the United Kingdom was signed on November 11, 1965 by the administration

The Rhodesian Air Force (RhAF) operated a variety of equipment and carried out numerous roles. The Royal Rhodesian Air Force was the air arm of the British colonial state of Rhodesia. When the arms embargo was introduced, the RhAF was suddenly lacking spare parts from external suppliers and was forced to find alternative means of keeping their aircraft flying. The RhAF was relatively well equipped and used a large proportion of equipment which was obsolete, such as the World War II vintage Douglas Dakota transport aircraft and the early British jet-fighter the De Havilland Vampire. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout It also used more modern types of aircraft like the Hawker Hunter, Aérospatiale Alouette III helicopters, and Canberra bombers. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Very late in the war, the Rhodesian forces were able to obtain and use a very few smuggled in Bell UH-1 Iroquois helicopters^[24]. For an overview of the whole Huey family of aircraft see Bell Huey WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft.

At the beginning of the war much of Rhodesia's military hardware was of British and Commonwealth origin but during the course of the conflict new equipment such as armoured cars were procured from the South Africans. Several captured Soviet Bloc T-55 tanks were provided to Rhodesia by the South Africans^[25]. The T-54 and T-55 tank were a series of Main battle tanks designed by the Soviet Union. The Rhodesians also produced some of their own armoured vehicles, including unlicensed copies of the Mercedes-Benz UR-416^[26]. Mercedes-Benz is a German manufacturer of luxury Automobiles Buses coaches and Trucks It is currently a division of the The Thyssen Henschel UR-416 is a German Armoured personnel carrier, introduced in 1969 The means with which the Rhodesians procured weaponry meant that the arms embargoes had little effect on the Rhodesian war effort. During the course of the war most white citizens carried personal weapons, and it was not unusual to see white housewives carrying submachine guns. A submachine gun (SMG is a Firearm that combines the automatic fire of a Machine gun with the cartridge of a Pistol, and is A siege mentality set in and all civilian transport had to be escorted in convoys for safety against ambushes. A siege mentality is a shared feeling of helplessness victimization and defensiveness Farms and villages in rural areas were attacked frequently.

The Rhodesian government divided the nation into eight geographical operational areas; Operation Ranger - North West Border, Operation Thrasher - Eastern Border, Operation Hurricane - North East Border, Operation Repulse - South East Border, Operation Grapple - Midlands, Operation Splinter - Kariba, Operation Tangent - Matabeleland, "SALOPS" - Salisbury and District. Harare (həˈrɑreɪ or /həˈrɑri/ formerly Salisbury) is the Capital of Zimbabwe.

Rebel forces

The two major armed groups campaigning against Ian Smith's government were:

• ZANLA (Zimbabwe National Liberation Army), the armed wing of ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union. Ian Douglas Smith GCLM ID ( 8 April 1919 &ndash 20 November 2007) served as the Prime Minister of the British Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA) was the militant wing of the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant Communist organization and participated The Zimbabwe African National Union was a militant organization that fought against White minority rule in Rhodesia, formed as a split from the Zimbabwe African
• ZIPRA (Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army), the armed wing of ZAPU Zimbabwe African People's Union. Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA) was the armed wing of the Zimbabwe African People's Union, a militant Communist organization in Rhodesia Zimbabwe African People's Union is a defunct militant Communist organization and political party that fought for the National liberation of Zimbabwe from

The fighting was largely rural, with both movements attempting to secure peasant support and to recruit fighters while harassing the administration and the white civilians. Unlike the town-dwellers, rural whites faced danger and many were killed but in 1979 there were still 6,000 white farmers. They were vulnerable every time they left the homestead.

ZANLA

Main article: ZANLA

ZANLA was the armed wing of ZANU. Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA) was the militant wing of the Zimbabwe African National Union, a militant Communist organization and participated ^[27]

The organization had strong links with Mozambique's independence movement, FRELIMO. The Liberation Front of Mozambique, better known by the acronym FRELIMO, from the Portuguese Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (IPA /fɾeˈlimo/

ZANLA had Chinese instructors but never actually progressed very far through the Maoist phases of revolution. Unlike ZIPRA, ZANLA was not interested in mounting a conventional threat. It had masses of ill-disciplined and barely trained guerrillas and was unable to seize and retain an objective. Training standards were so low that many cadres did not clean their rifles.

ZANLA, in the end, was present on a more or less permanent basis in over half the country, as evidenced by the location of the demobilisation bases at the end of the war, which were in every province except Matabeleland North ^[28]. Matabeleland North is a province in western Zimbabwe. It borders the provinces of Midlands and Mashonaland West to the east and northeast respectively and the In addition, they were fighting a civil war against ZIPRA, despite the formation of a joint front by their political parties after 1978. It was ZANLA's intention to occupy the ground, supplant the administration in rural areas, and then mount the final conventional campaign. ZANLA concentrated on the politicisation of the rural areas using force, persuasion, ties of kinship and collaboration with spirit mediums.

ZANLA tried to paralyze the Rhodesian effort and economy by planting Soviet anti-tank land mines on the roads. A land mine is an Explosive device designed to be placed on or in the ground to explode when triggered by an operator or the Proximity of a vehicle person From 1972 to 1980 there were 2,504 vehicle detonations of land mines (mainly Soviet TM46s), killing 632 people and injuring 4,410. The mining of roads increased as the war intensified; indeed the increase from 1978 (894 mines or 2. 44 mines were detonated or recovered a day) to 1979 (2,089 mines or 5. 72 mines a day) was 233. 7%. In response, the Rhodesians co-operated with the South Africans to develop a range of mine protected vehicles. They began by replacing air in tyres with water which absorbed some of the blast and reduced the heat of the explosion. Initially, they protected the bodies with steel deflector plates, sandbags and mine conveyor belting. Later, purpose built vehicles with V shaped blast hulls dispersed the blast. (The development led to the South African Hippo, Casspir, Mamba and Nyala wheeled light troop carriers). The Casspir is a landmine -protected personnel carrier (APC that has been in use in South Africa for over 20 Deaths in such vehicles became unusual events. Responding to the mines, Rhodesian engineers also built the world's first effective mine detection vehicle, the Pookie.

ZANLA, aided by FRELIMO, bore the brunt of the "Fire Force" and external camp attacks while establishing themselves amongst the rural people. Because Mugabe and his party later won the election it has been assumed that he had very strong support among the Shona. Nonetheless, the relief when ZANLA elements departed or were driven out was palpable.

ZIPRA

Main article: ZIPRA

ZIPRA was the anti-government force based around the Ndebele ethnicity, led by Joshua Nkomo, and the ZAPU political organization. Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA) was the armed wing of the Zimbabwe African People's Union, a militant Communist organization in Rhodesia Joshua Mqabuko Nyongolo Nkomo ( June 19, 1917 &ndash July 1, 1999) was the leader and founder of the Zimbabwe African People's Union

In contrast to ZANLA's Mozambique links, Nkomo's ZIPRA was more orientated towards Zambia for local bases. However, this was not always with full Zambian government support, and by 1979 ZIPRA's forces, combined with ANC and SWAPO forces in Zambia, was a major threat to Zambia's internal security. Because ZAPU's political strategy relied more heavily on negotiations than armed force, ZIPRA did not grow as quickly or elaborately as ZANLA, but by 1979 it had an estimated 20,000 combatants, almost all based in camps around Lusaka, Zambia.

ZIPRA was responsible for two attacks on civilian Air Rhodesia Viscount airplanes, using a SAM-7 surface-to-air missiles. Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA) was the armed wing of the Zimbabwe African People's Union, a militant Communist organization in Rhodesia For the STRELA computer see Strela computer. For the Apollo test mission see A-102 The 9K32 "Strela-2" A surface to air missile ( SAM) or ground-to-air missile ( GTAM) is a Missile designed to be launched from the ground to destroy Aircraft Ten out of the eighteen civilians on board who survived the first crash were subsequently and systematically massacred by the ZIPRA militants. Nkomo later spoke to the BBC of the attack in a way some considered gloating. In his memoirs, Story of My Life (1985), Nkomo expressed regret for the shooting down of both planes, claiming ZIPRA intelligence believed the plane was carrying General Walls and his aides^[29]. .

ZIPRA took advice from its Soviet instructors in formulating its version of popular revolution and its strategy for taking over the country. On the advice of the Soviets, ZIPRA built up its conventional forces, and motorised with Soviet armored vehicles and a number of small airplanes^[30], in Zambia. ZIPRA's (i. e. ZAPU's) intention was to allow ZANLA to bring the Rhodesian forces to the point of defeat, and then to take the victory from the much lighter forces of ZANLA and the essentially defeated Rhodesians. An ZIPRA kept a light presence within Rhodesia, reconnoitering, keeping contact with the peasants and sometimes skirmishing with ZANLA. ZIPRA's conventional threat actually distracted the Rhodesians from fighting ZANLA to an extent. By the late 1970s, ZIPRA had developed a strategy known as Storming the Heavens to launch a conventional invasion from Zambia. An operation by the Rhodesian armed forces to destroy a ZIPRA base near Livingstone in Zambia was never launched. ^[31]

The ZAPU/ZIPRA strategy for taking over Zimbabwe proved unsuccessful. In any event, the transfer of power to black nationalists took place not by the military take-over expected by ZAPU/ZIPRA, but by a peaceful and internationally supervised election. Rhodesia reverted briefly to real British rule, and a general election took place in early 1980. This election was supervised both by the UK and international forces. Robert Mugabe (of ZANLA/ZANU) won this election, being the only major competitor for the vote of the majority ethnicity, the Shona. Once in power, Mugabe was internationally recognised as Zimbabwe's leader and was installed as head of government, as well as having the backing of the overwhelming majority ethnic group. He was therefore able to quickly and irreversibly consolidate his power in Zimbabwe, forcing ZAPU, and therefore ZIPRA which was ZAPU's army, to give up hope of taking over the country in the place of ZANU/ZANLA.

Resolution

Under the agreement of March 1978, the country was to be known as Zimbabwe Rhodesia, and in the general election of 24 April 1979, Bishop Abel Muzorewa became the country's first black prime minister. Zimbabwe Rhodesia (zɪmˈbɑːbweɪ rəʊˈdiːʒə officially the Republic of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, was an unrecognized state that existed from June 1, Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) Abel Tendekayi Muzorewa (born on 4 April 1925) served as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia from the Internal Settlement to the Lancaster

The factions led by Nkomo and Mugabe denounced the new government as a puppet of white Rhodesians and fighting continued. Later in 1979, the new Conservative British government under Margaret Thatcher called a peace conference in London to which all nationalist leaders were included. The Conservative Party (officially the Conservative and Unionist Party) is a Political party in the United Kingdom. Margaret Hilda Thatcher Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925 The outcome of this conference would become known as the Lancaster House Agreement. The Lancaster House Agreement ended biracial rule in Zimbabwe Rhodesia following negotiations between representatives of the Patriotic Front (PF consisting of ZAPU The economic sanctions imposed on the country were lifted in late 1979, and British rule resumed under a transitional arrangement leading to full independence.

The elections of 1980 resulted in a victory for Robert Mugabe, who assumed the post of prime minister after ZANU-PF received 63% of the vote. The Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF is a Zimbabwean Political party that was the ruling government in Zimbabwe On April 18 the country gained international recognition. Events 1025 - Bolesław Chrobry is crowned in Gniezno, becoming the first King of Poland. Two years later the government renamed the capital of Salisbury to Harare. Harare (həˈrɑreɪ or /həˈrɑri/ formerly Salisbury) is the Capital of Zimbabwe.

See also

• Military history of Africa
• Operation Dingo
• Portuguese Colonial War
• Rhodesian African Rifles
• Rhodesian Armoured Car Regiment
• Grey's Scouts
• Rhodesian Light Infantry
• Second Matabele War, officially known within Zimbabwe as the First Chimurenga
• South African Border War

References

External links

• FireForce Operations: Helicopter Warfare in Rhodesia: 1962–80
• The Selous Scouts Home Page a site with a lot of information on the war in general and in the Selous Scouts in particular
• Rhodesian and South African Military History: An extensive collection of histories and analysis of Rhodesian and South African military operations, to the early 1980s
• Rhodesian Special Forces roll of honour, awards and images.
• The bush war Leopard: Leopard, Rhodesian Bush War landmine resisting vehicle.
• The Black Devils: the Rhodesian Armoured Car Regiment
• [2]: Selous Scouts raid on the Nyadzonya Camp in Mozambique.

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