A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround") is a significant change that usually takes place in a long period of time. Vulgar Latin (in Latin sermo vulgaris, "folk speech" is a Blanket term covering the popular Dialects and Sociolects of the Latin Aristotle described two types of political revolution:
- Complete change from one constitution to another
- Modification of an existing constitution. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. [1]
Revolutions have occurred throughout human history and vary widely in terms of methods, duration, and motivating ideology. Prehistory See also Prehistory Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics Their results include major changes in culture, economy, and socio-political institutions. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Social organization or social institution, refers to a group of Social positions connected by Social relations performing a Social role. A political system is a System of Politics and Government. It is usually compared to the Law system, Economic system, Cultural
Scholarly debates about what does and does not constitute a revolution center around several issues. Early studies of revolutions primarily analyzed events in European history from a psychological perspective, but more modern examinations include global events and incorporate perspectives from several social sciences, including sociology and political science. The history of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems Several generations of scholarly thought on revolutions have generated many competing theories and contributed much to the current understanding of this complex phenomenon.
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Political and socioeconomic revolutions
Perhaps most often, the word 'revolution' is employed to denote a change in socio-political institutions. Social organization or social institution, refers to a group of Social positions connected by Social relations performing a Social role. A political system is a System of Politics and Government. It is usually compared to the Law system, Economic system, Cultural [2][3][4] Jeff Goodwin gives two definitions of a revolution. Jeff Goodwin is a Professor of Sociology at New York University. A broad one, where revolution is "any and all instances in which a state or a political regime is overthrown and thereby transformed by a popular movement in an irregular, extraconstitutional and/or violent fashion"; and a narrow one, in which "revolutions entail not only mass mobilization and regime change, but also more or less rapid and fundamental social, economic and/or cultural change, during or soon after the struggle for state power. The word regime (occasionally spelled " régime " particularly in older texts refers to a set of conditions most often of a Political nature Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of Individuals and/or Organizations focused on specific Mass mobilization (also known as social mobilization or popular mobilization) refers to Mobilization of Civilian Population as part " Regime change " is literally the replacement of one Regime with another A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people "[5] Jack Goldstone defines them as
an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in society, accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and noninstitutionalized actions that undermine authorities. Jack A Goldstone is an American Sociologist and Political scientist, specializing in studies of Social movements, Revolutions and International [6]
Political and socioeconomic revolutions have been studied in many social sciences, particularly sociology, political sciences and history. The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Among the leading scholars in that area have been or are Crane Brinton, Charles Brockett, Farideh Farhi, John Foran, John Mason Hart, Samuel Huntington, Jack Goldstone, Jeff Goodwin, Ted Roberts Gurr, Fred Halliday, Chalmers Johnson, Tim McDaniel, Barrington Moore, Jeffery Paige, Vilfredo Pareto, Terence Ranger, Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy, Theda Skocpol, James Scott, Eric Selbin, Charles Tilly, Ellen Kay Trimbringer, Carlos Vistas, John Walton, Timothy Wickham-Crowley and Eric Wolf. Clarence Crane Brinton ( Winsted Connecticut, 1898 - Cambridge Massachusetts, September 7, 1968) was an American historian of France as well Samuel Huntington is a human name and may refer to Samuel Huntington (statesman (1731-1796 American jurist statesman and revolutionary leader Jack A Goldstone is an American Sociologist and Political scientist, specializing in studies of Social movements, Revolutions and International Jeff Goodwin is a Professor of Sociology at New York University. Fred Halliday (born 1946 in Dundalk, Republic of Ireland) is a British academic and author specialising in the Middle East and International relations Chalmers Ashby Johnson (born 1931 is an American Author and Professor emeritus of the University of California San Diego. Barrington Moore Jr ( 12 May 1913 - 16 October 2005) was an American political sociologist: his most famous work was Vilfredo Federico Damaso Pareto (vil'fredo pa'reto July 15, 1848 – August 19, 1923) or Fritz Wilfried Pareto, was an Italian Terence Osborn Ranger (born 1929 is a prominent African historian, focusing on the History of Zimbabwe. Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy (July 6 1888 February 24 1973 was a Historian and social philosopher, whose work spanned the disciplines of history theology sociology Theda Skocpol (born May 4 1947) is an American sociologist and Political scientist at Harvard University. James Scott may refer to James Scott 1st Duke of Monmouth (1649&ndash1685 noble recognized by some as James II of England James Scott (1671-1732 Charles Tilly ( May 20, 1929 &ndash April 29, 2008) was an American sociologist, political scientist, and People named John Walton include John Walton (delegate (1738–1783 Georgia Continental Congressman signer of the Articles of Confederation Eric R Wolf ( February 1, 1923 &ndash March 6, 1999) was an Anthropologist, best known for his studies of Peasants, [7]
Jack Goldstone differentiates four 'generations' of scholarly research dealing with revolutions. Jack A Goldstone is an American Sociologist and Political scientist, specializing in studies of Social movements, Revolutions and International [6] The scholars of the first generation such as Gustave Le Bon, Charles A. Ellwood or Pitirim Sorokin, were mainly descriptive in their approach, and their explanations of the phenomena of revolutions was usually related to social psychology, such as Le Bon's crowd psychology theory. Gustave Le Bon ( May 7, 1841 &ndash December 13, 1931) was a French Social psychologist, Sociologist, and amateur Charles A Ellwood (January 20 1873 - September 25 1946 was one of the leading American Sociologists of the Interwar period studying Intolerance Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (Питирим Александрович Сорокин ( January 21, 1889 – February 11, 1968) was a Social psychology is the study of how people and groups interact Crowd psychology, or social facilitation theory, is a branch of Social psychology. [2]
Second generation theorists sought to develop detailed theories of why and when revolutions arise, grounded in more complex social behavior theories. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. In Biology, Psychology and Sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards society or taking place between members of the same species They can be divided into three major approaches: psychological, sociological and political. [2]
The works of Ted R. Gurr, Ivo K. Feierbrand, Rosalind L. Feierbrand, James A. Geschwender, David C. Schwartz and Denton E. Morrison fall into the first category. They followed theories of cognitive psychology and frustration-aggression theory and saw the cause of revolution in the state of mind of the masses, and while they varied in their approach as to what exactly caused the people to revolt (e. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language In Psychology and other social and Behavioral sciences aggression refers to behavior that is intended to cause harm g. modernization, recession or discrimination), they agreed that the primary cause for revolution was the widespread frustration with socio-political situation. The idea of modernization comes from a view of societies as having a standard Evolutionary pattern as described in the Social evolutionism theories A recession is a contraction phase of the Business cycle. The U Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is [2]
The second group, composed of academics such as Chalmers Johnson, Neil Smelser, Bob Jessop, Mark Hart, Edward A. Chalmers Ashby Johnson (born 1931 is an American Author and Professor emeritus of the University of California San Diego. Neil J Smelser is a University of California Berkeley Sociologist who studied Collective behavior. Bob Jessop is a British Marxist academic and writer who has published extensively on State theory and Political economy. Mark Hart (born July 2 1953, Fort Scott, Kansas) is a multi Instrumentalist best known for his stints as a member of Supertramp Tiryakian, Mark Hagopian, followed in the footsteps of Talcott Parsons and the structural-functionalist theory in sociology; they saw society as a system in equilibrium between various resources, demands and subsystems (political, cultural, etc. Talcott Parsons ( December 13, 1902 - May 8, 1979) was an American sociologist, who served on the faculty of Harvard University Structural functionalism also known as a social systems paradigm is a Sociological paradigm which addresses what Social functions various elements ). As in the psychological school, they differed in their definitions of what causes disequilibrium, but agreed that it is a state of a severe disequilibrium that is responsible for revolutions. [2]
Finally, the third group, which included writers such as Charles Tilly, Samuel P. Huntington, Peter Ammann and Arthur L. Charles Tilly ( May 20, 1929 &ndash April 29, 2008) was an American sociologist, political scientist, and Samuel Phillips Huntington (born April 18, 1927) is an American political scientist who gained prominence through his " Clash of Civilizations Stinchcombe followed the path of political sciences and looked at pluralist theory and interest group conflict theory. Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems The political theory of pluralism holds that Political power in society does not lie with the Electorate, nor with a small concentrated Elite, but is distributed Those theories see events as outcomes of a power struggle between competing interest groups. An interest group (also advocacy group, lobby group, pressure group or special interest group) is an organized collection of people who seek In such a model, revolution happen when two or more groups cannot come to terms within a normal decision making process traditional for a given political system, and simultaneously have enough resources to employ force in pursuing their goals. Decision making can be regarded as an outcome of mental processes ( cognitive process) leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives A political system is a System of Politics and Government. It is usually compared to the Law system, Economic system, Cultural In Physics, a force is whatever can cause an object with Mass to Accelerate. [2]
The second generation theorists saw the development of the revolutions as a two-step process; first, some change results in the present situation being different from the past; second, the new situation creates an opportunity for a revolution to occur. In that situation, an event that in the past would not be sufficient to cause a revolution (ex. a war, a riot, a bad harvest), now is sufficient – however if authorities are aware of the danger, they can still prevent a revolution (through reform or repression). War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Riots are a form of Civil disorders characterized by disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of Violence, Vandalism or other In Agriculture, the harvest is the process of Gathering mature crops from the fields Reaping is the cutting of Grain For other uses see Reform (disambiguation Reform means beneficial change or sometimes more specifically reversion to a pure original [6]
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Many such early studies of revolutions tended to concentrate on four classic cases--famous and uncontroversial examples that fit virtually all definitions of revolutions, like the Glorious Revolution (1688), the French Revolution (1789–1799), the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Chinese Revolution (1927-1949). The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them [6] In his famous "The Anatomy of Revolution", however, the eminent Harvard historian, Crane Brinton, focused on the English Civil War, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Russian Revolution. The first version of the book was published in 1938, with a revised version in 1965, which is still in print Clarence Crane Brinton ( Winsted Connecticut, 1898 - Cambridge Massachusetts, September 7, 1968) was an American historian of France as well [8] In time, scholars began to analyze hundreds of other events as revolutions (see list of revolutions and rebellions), and differences in definitions and approaches gave rise to new definitions and explanations. This is a list of Revolutions and Rebellions BC 499 BC - 493 BC: Ionian Revolt. The theories of the second generation have been criticized for their limited geographical scope, difficulty in empirical verification, as well as that while they may explain some particular revolutions, they did not explain why revolutions did not occur in other societies in very similar situations. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence [6]
The criticism of the second generation led to the rise of a third generation of theories, with writers such as Theda Skocpol, Barrington Moore, Jeffrey Paige and others expanding on the old Marxist class conflict approach, turning their attention to rural agrarian-state conflicts, state conflicts with autonomous elites and the impact of interstate economic and military competition on domestic political change. Theda Skocpol (born May 4 1947) is an American sociologist and Political scientist at Harvard University. Barrington Moore Jr ( 12 May 1913 - 16 October 2005) was an American political sociologist: his most famous work was Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Class conflict, also class war or class warfare, is both the friction that accompanies social relationships between members or groups of different Elite (also spelled Élite) is taken originally from the Latin, eligere, "to elect" An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking Particularly Skocpol's States and Social Revolutions became one of the most widely recognized works of the third generation; Skocpol defined revolution as "rapid, basic transformations of society's state and class structures. States and Social Revolutions A Comparative Analysis of France Russia and China is a 1979 book by Political scientist and Sociologist . . accompanied and in part carried through by class-based revolts from below", attributing revolutions to a conjunction of multiple conflicts involving state, elites and the lower classes. [6]
From the late 1980s a new body of scholarly work began questioning the dominance of the third generation's theories. The old theories were also dealt a significant blow by new revolutionary events that could not be easily explain by them. The Iranian and Nicaraguan Revolutions of 1979, the 1986 People Power Revolution in the Philippines and the 1989 Autumn of Nations in Europe saw multi-class coalitions topple seemingly powerful regimes amidst popular demonstrations and mass strikes in nonviolent revolutions. The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed The Nicaraguan Revolution ( Revolución Nicaragüense or Revolución Popular Sandinista, also RPS) embodies a major historical part not only to Nicaragua Year 1986 ( MCMLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar) The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP "Fall of Communism" redirects here For the fall of the Soviet Union itself see History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991. A general strike is a Strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city region or country A nonviolent revolution is a Revolution using mostly nonviolent protest against governments seen as entrenched and Authoritarian to advocate Democracy Defining revolutions as mostly European violent state versus people and class struggles conflicts was no longer sufficient. Class struggle is the active expression of Class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective The study of revolutions thus evolved in three directions. Firstly, some researchers were applying previous or updated structuralist theories of revolutions to events beyond the previously analyzed, mostly European conflicts. For the use of structuralism in biology see Structuralism (biology Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze Secondly, scholars called for greater attention to conscious agency in the form of ideology and culture in shaping revolutionary mobilization and objectives. Agency is a Philosophical concept of the capacity of an agent to act in a world An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic This article describes military mobilization For other meanings see Mobilization (disambiguation. Third, analysts of both revolutions and social movements realized that those phenomena have much in common, and a new 'fourth generation' literature on contentious politics has developed that attempts to combine insights from the study of social movements and revolutions in hopes of understanding both phenomena. Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of Individuals and/or Organizations focused on specific Contentious politics is the use of disruptive techniques to make a political point or to change government policy [6]
While revolutions encompass events ranging from the relatively peaceful revolutions that overthrew communist regimes to the violent Islamic revolution in Afghanistan, they exclude coups d'états, civil wars, revolts and rebellions that make no effort to transform institutions or the justification for authority (such as Józef Piłsudski's May Coup of 1926 or the American Civil War), as well as peaceful transitions to democracy through institutional arrangements such as plebiscites and free elections, as in Spain after the death of Francisco Franco. "Fall of Communism" redirects here For the fall of the Soviet Union itself see History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991. The Civil war in Afghanistan, also known as Afghan Civil War, began in 1978 and has continued A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state Rebellion is a refusal of obedienceIt may therefore be seen as encompassing a range of Behaviours from Civil disobedience and mass Nonviolent resistance The May Coup d'Etat ( Polish: Przewrót majowy or zamach majowy) was a Coup d'état successfully carried out in Poland by Józef Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita Free election (Polish wolna elekcja) was the Election of individual kings rather than of Dynasties, to the Polish throne between Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde (born December 4, 1892 in Ferrol, died November 20, 1975 in Madrid [6]
Types of revolutions
| “ | Revolution is not a dinner party, nor an essay, nor a painting, nor a piece of embroidery; it cannot be advanced softly, gradually, carefully, considerately, respectfully, politely, plainly, and modestly. A revolution is an insurrection, an act of violence by which one class overthrows another. Class struggle is the active expression of Class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective | ” |
There are many different typologies of revolutions in social science and literature. Mao Zedong ( 26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976) was a Chinese Military and political leader who led For example, classical scholar Alexis de Tocqueville differentiated[10] between 1) political revolutions 2) sudden and violent revolutions that seek not only to establish a new political system but to transform an entire society and 3) slow but sweeping transformations of the entire society that take several generations to bring about (ex. A political revolution, in the Trotskyist theory is an upheaval in which the government is replaced or the form of government altered but in which property relations are predominantly religion). A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos One of several different Marxist typologies divides revolutions into pre-capitalist, early bourgeois, bourgeois, bourgeois-democratic, early proletarian, and socialist revolutions. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. [11] Charles Tilly, a modern scholar of revolutions, differentiated[12] between a coup, a top-down seizure of power, a civil war, a revolt and a "great revolution" (revolutions that transform economic and social structures as well as political institutions, such as the French Revolution of 1789, Russian Revolution of 1917, or Islamic revolution of Iran). Charles Tilly ( May 20, 1929 &ndash April 29, 2008) was an American sociologist, political scientist, and A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state Rebellion is a refusal of obedienceIt may therefore be seen as encompassing a range of Behaviours from Civil disobedience and mass Nonviolent resistance The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed [13] Other types of revolution, created for other typologies, include the social revolutions; proletarian or communist revolutions inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace capitalism with communism); failed or abortive revolutions (revolutions that fail to secure power after temporary victories or large-scale mobilization) or violent vs. The term social revolution may have different connotations depending on the speaker A proletarian revolution is a social and/or political Revolution in which the Working class attempts to overthrow the Bourgeoisie. A communist revolution is a Proletarian revolution inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace Capitalism with Communism, typically Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based nonviolent revolutions. A nonviolent revolution is a Revolution using mostly nonviolent protest against governments seen as entrenched and Authoritarian to advocate Democracy One of the most recent, if perhaps not the most serious of typologies, divides revolutions by color - referring the type of recent revolutions known as the color revolutions (or flower revolutions). Colour revolutions is a term used to describe related movements that developed in post-communist societies in Central and Eastern Europe, and Central
The term revolution has also been used to denote great changes outside the political sphere. Such revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed in society, culture, philosophy and technology much more than political systems; they are often known as social revolutions. A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt A political system is a System of Politics and Government. It is usually compared to the Law system, Economic system, Cultural The term social revolution may have different connotations depending on the speaker [14] Some can be global, while others are limited to single countries. One of the classic examples of the usage of the word revolution in such context is the industrial revolution (note that such revolutions also fit the "slow revolution" definition of Tocqueville). The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the [15]
List of revolutions
For a list of revolutions see:
See also
References
- ^ Aristotle, The Politics V, tr. This is a list of Revolutions and Rebellions BC 499 BC - 493 BC: Ionian Revolt. This is a list of fictional Coups d'état and Revolutions in various media instances that are mentioned or described in fictional works but A revolutionary when used as a noun is a person who either actively engages in some kind of Revolution, or advocates the revolution with recognition from some government or A counter-revolutionary is anyone who opposes a Revolution, particularly those who act after a revolution to try to overturn or reverse it in full or in part A revolutionary wave is a series of Revolutions occurring in various locations Populism is a discourse which supports "the people" versus "the Elites " Populism may involve either a political philosophy urging social and political T. A. Sinclair (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1964, 1972), p. 190.
- ^ a b c d e f Jack Goldstone, "Theories of Revolutions: The Third Generation, World Politics 32, 1980:425-53
- ^ John Foran, "Theories of Revolution Revisited: Toward a Fourth Generation", Sociological Theory 11, 1993:1-20
- ^ Clifton B. Jack A Goldstone is an American Sociologist and Political scientist, specializing in studies of Social movements, Revolutions and International World Politics is an Academic journal founded in 1948. It publishes articles from all subdisciplines of political science Sociological Theory is a peer-reviewed journal published by Blackwell Publishing for the American Sociological Association since 1983 Kroeber, Theory and History of Revolution, Journal of World History 7. The Journal of World History is a refereed Scholarly journal that presents historical analysis from a global point-of-view focusing especially on forces that 1, 1996: 21-40
- ^ Goodwin, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Jack Goldstone, "Towards a Fourth Generation of Revolutionary Theory", Annual Review of Political Science 4, 2001:139-87
- ^ Jeff Goodwin, No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945-1991. This is the article on the publisher Annual Reviews whose titles are invariably called Annual review of. Jeff Goodwin is a Professor of Sociology at New York University. Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 5
- ^ Crane Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolution, revised ed. The first version of the book was published in 1938, with a revised version in 1965, which is still in print (New York, Vintage Books, 1965). First edition, 1938.
- ^ "Che Guevara: Revolutionary & Icon", by Trisha Ziff, Abrams Image, 2006, pg 66
- ^ Roger Boesche, Tocqueville's Road Map: Methodology, Liberalism, Revolution, and Despotism, Lexington Books, 2006, ISBN 0739116657, Google Print, p.86
- ^ (Polish) J. Topolski, "Rewolucje w dziejach nowożytnych i najnowszych (xvii-xx wiek)," Kwartalnik Historyczny, LXXXIII, 1976, 251-67
- ^ Charles Tilly, ''European Revolutions, 1492-1992, Blackwell Publishing, 1995, ISBN 0631199039, Google Print, p.16
- ^ Bernard Lewis, "Iran in History", Moshe Dayan Center, Tel Aviv University
- ^ Irving E. Charles Tilly ( May 20, 1929 &ndash April 29, 2008) was an American sociologist, political scientist, and Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American Fang, A History of Mass Communication: Six Information Revolutions, Focal Press, 1997, ISBN 0240802543, Google Print, p. xv
- ^ Warwick E. Murray, Routledge, 2006, ISBN 0415318009, Google Print, p.226
Bibliography
- Perreau-Sausine, Emile, Les libéraux face aux révolutions : 1688, 1789, 1917, 1933, Commentaire, Spring 2005, pp. 181-193
External links
- Hannah Arendt, On Revolution, 1963, Penguin Classics, New Ed edition: February 8, 1991. ISBN 014018421X
- Revolution in Political Risk Management
- John Kekes, Why Robespierre Chose Terror. The lessons of the first totalitarian revolution, City Journal, Spring 2006.
- Plinio Correa de Oliveira, Revolution and Counter-Revolution, Foundation for a Christian, Third edition, 1993. ISBN 1877905275
- Michael Barker, Regulating revolutions in Eastern Europe: Polyarchy and the National Endowment for Democracy, 1 November 2006.
- Polyarchy Documents: Revolution
Dictionary
revolution
-noun
- A political upheaval in a government or nation state characterized by great change.
- The removal and replacement of a government.
- The turning of an object around an axis.
- In the case of celestial bodies - the traversal of one body through an orbit around another body.
- A sudden, vast change in a situation, a discipline, or the way of thinking and behaving.
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