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Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, with an emphasis on liberty, rule of law, popular sovereignty and the civic virtue practiced by citizens. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the State is created by the will or consent of its people, who Civic virtue is the cultivation of habits of personal living that are claimed to be important for the success of the community Republicanism always stands in opposition to aristocracy, oligarchy, and dictatorship. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment A dictatorship is usually defined as an autocratic Form of government in which the Government is ruled by a Dictator. More broadly, it refers to a political system that protects liberty, especially by incorporating a rule of law that cannot be arbitrarily ignored by the government. The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law As John Adams put it, “They define a republic to be a government of laws, and not of men. The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law ” Much of the literature deals with the issue of what sort of values and behavior by the citizens is necessary if the republic is to survive and flourish; the emphasis has been on widespread citizen participation, civic virtue, and opposition to corruption. "

Advocates of republicanism argue that it demands a citizenry that puts a premium on civil virtue and opposes corruption. Most authors argue that republicanism is incompatible with office holders using public power for personal gain. [1] Many dictatorships have called themselves "republics," but generally do not protect the rights or liberty of their citizens.

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Radicalism

Main article: Radicalism (historical)

The Radicalism emerged in the European states in the 19th century. For opposition to all forms of government social hierarchy or authority see Anarchism. Although most radical parties later came to be in favor of economic liberalism policies, thus justifying the absorption of radicalism into the liberalism tradition, all 19th century radicals were in favor of the Republic and of universal suffrage, while liberals were at the time in favor of constitutional monarchy and census suffrage. Economic liberalism is the Economic component of Classical liberalism. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is Suffrage (from the Latin suffragium, meaning "voting tablet" and figuratively "right to vote" probably from suffrago "hough" and originally Thus, radicals were as much Republicans as liberals, if not more. This distinction line between Radicalism and Liberalism hasn't totally disappeared in the 20th century, although many radicals simply joined liberal parties or became virtually identical to them. For example, the Left Radical Party in France or the (originally Italian) Transnational Radical Party which exist today have a lot more to do with Republicanism than with simple liberalism. The Radical Party of the Left ( Parti Radical de Gauche, PRG is a minor social-liberal and social-democratic political party in France The Transnational Radical Party (former Radical Party, not to be confused with the Italian Radicals liberal party founded in 2001 is a political

Thus, Chartism in the UK or even the early Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party in France were closer to Republicanism (and the left-wing) than to liberalism, represented in France by the Orleanist who rallied to the Republic only in the late 19th century, after the comte de Chambord's 1883 death and the De Rerum Novarum 1891 papal encyclic. For chartism in financial markets see Technical analysis, and for the British socialist journal see Chartist (magazine Chartism was The Radical Party ( Parti Radical, Rad also known as Parti radical valoisien) is a liberal and centrist political party in France The Orléanists were a French Right-wing / Center-right Political faction or party which arose out of the French Revolution The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe Henri V of France and Navarre ( Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonné d'Artois de France – September 29, 1820 – August 24, 1883 Rerum Novarum (Translation Of New Things) is an Encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII on May 16 1891. Radicalism remained close to Republicanism (which is a term used more commonly to identify the conservative-liberal tradition in France, represented by several parties: Democratic Republican Alliance, Republican Federation, National Center of Independents and Peasants, Independent Republicans, Republican Party,Liberal Democracy) in the 20th century, at least in France where they governed several times with the other left-wing parties (participating in both the Cartel des gauches coalitions as well as the Popular Front). The Democratic Republican Alliance ( Alliance démocratique, AD or Alliance républicaine démocratique, ARD was a French political party (1901-1978 created The Republican Federation ( French: Fédération républicaine, 1903-1940 was the largest Conservative party during the French Third Republic The National Centre of Independents and Peasants ( Centre National des Indépendants et Paysans, CNIP is a liberal-conservative and conservative-liberal The Independent Republicans were a French conservative political group founded in 1962 which became a political party in 1966 The Republican Party ( Parti républicain, PR was a French right-wing Political party founded in 1977 Liberal Democracy ( Démocratie Libérale, DL was a French Political party that advocated Conservative liberalism and Liberal conservatism The Cartel des gauches ( French for Left-wing Coalition) designed the governmental alliance between the Radical-Socialist Party and the socialist The Popular Front (French Front populaire) was an alliance of left-wing movements including the French Communist Party (PCF the Socialist

Discredited after the Second World War, French Radicals split into a left-wing party – the Left Radical Party, a part of the Socialist Party – and the Radical Party "valoisien", associate party of the conservative Union for a Popular Movement (UMP). World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Radical Party of the Left ( Parti Radical de Gauche, PRG is a minor social-liberal and social-democratic political party in France The Socialist Party ( Parti Socialiste, PS is the largest left-wing political party in France. The Radical Party ( Parti Radical, Rad also known as Parti radical valoisien) is a liberal and centrist political party in France Italian Radicals also maintained close links with Republicanism as well as Socialism, with the Partito radicale founded in 1955 which became the Transnational Radical Party in 1989. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution The Transnational Radical Party (former Radical Party, not to be confused with the Italian Radicals liberal party founded in 2001 is a political

Contemporary republicanism

Anti-monarchial republicanism remains a political force of varying importance in many states. In the European monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Sweden there has not been much contemporary popular support for republicanism. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. In such states republicanism is usually motivated by decreasing popularity of the Royal Family, who may be increasingly embroiled in scandal or conflict. A royal family is the extended family of a monarch. Generally the head of a royal family is a king or queen regnant However the classical argument against monarchy versus the egalitarian aspects of republicanism will often remain prominent as well. There are also republican movements of varying size and effect in the Commonwealth nations Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica and Barbados. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. Barbados ( Portuguese word for bearded-ones, bɑrˈbeɪdoʊz -dɒs situated just east of the Caribbean Sea, is an independent Island nation In these countries, republicanism is largely about the post-colonial evolution of their relationships with the United Kingdom.

Further information: Abolished monarchy, Republicanism in Australia, British republicanism, Republicanism in Canada, and Republicanism in New Zealand

Republicanism in political science

A different interpretation of republicanism is used among political scientists. Throughout history monarchies have been abolished either through legislative reforms coups d'etat, or wars Republicanism in Australia is a movement to change Australia 's status as a Constitutional monarchy to a Republican form of government Republicanism, in the United Kingdom, is the movement which seeks to remove the British monarchy and replace it with a Republic that has a non- Canadian republicanism is the advocacy of Constitutional change in Canada, leading to the abolition of the Canadian monarchy and the creation of a Canadian Republicanism in New Zealand is a movement to change the country's current status as a Commonwealth realm and Constitutional monarchy to that of a Commonwealth To them a republic is the rule by many and by laws while a princedom is the arbitrary rule by one. By this definition despotic states are not republics while, according to some such as Kant, constitutional monarchies can be. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Kant also argues that a pure democracy is not a republic, as it is the unrestricted rule of the majority.

Classical antecedents

Ancient India

Vaishali in what is now Bihar, India was one of the first governments in the world to have elements of what we would today consider Republicanism, similar to and preceding those later found in ancient Greece (although it was not a monarchy, ancient Vaishali was perhaps better described as an oligarchy). It continues to be inhabited today and is a major pilgrimage center for the Jains and the Buddhists.

Ancient Greece

In Ancient Greece several philosophers and historians set themselves to analysing and describing forms of government. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca There is no single expression or definition from this era, written down in Greek, that exactly corresponds with a modern understanding of the term "republic". However, most of the essential features of the modern definition are present in the works of Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, and other ancient Greeks. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories These elements include the idea of mixed government and of civic virtue. Mixed government, also known as a mixed constitution, is a form of government that integrated facets of government by Democracy, Oligarchy, and Monarchy Civic virtue is the cultivation of habits of personal living that are claimed to be important for the success of the community It should be noted that the modern title of Plato's dialogue on the ideal state (The Republic) is a misnomer when seen through the eyes of modern political science (see Republic (Plato)). Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece The Republic ( Greek: / Politeía, meaning "political system" Latin: Res Publica, meaning "public business" or Some scholars have translated the Greek concept of "politeia" as "republic", but most modern scholars reject this idea. Politeia (πολιτεία is an Ancient Greek word with no single English translation

A number of Ancient Greek states such as Athens and Sparta have been classified as classical republics, though this uses a definition of republic that was developed much later. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη A classical republic, according to certain modern political theorists is a state of Classical Antiquity that is considered to have a Republican form of government

Ancient Rome

Both Livy (in Latin, living in Augustus' time) and Plutarch (in Greek, a century later) described how Rome had developed its legislation, notably the transition from kingdom to republic, based on Greek examples. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Probably some of this history, composed more than half a millennium after the events, with scant written sources to rely on, is fictitious reconstruction - nonetheless the influence of the Greek way of dealing with government is clear in the state organisation of the Roman Republic. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the

The Greek historian Polybius, writing more than a century before Livy, was one of the first historians describing the emergence of the Roman Empire, and he had a great influence on Cicero, when this orator was writing his politico-philosophical works in the 1st century BC. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman One of these works was De re publica, where Cicero links the Latin res publica concept to the Greek politeia concept. De re publica ( On the commonwealth, see below) is a dialogue by Cicero, written in six Books between 54 and As explained in the res publica article, also this concept only exceptionally links to the modern term "republic" although the word "republic" is derived from res publica. This article is about the Latin phrase For the historical state see Roman Republic; for the dialogue by Cicero see De re publica; for the former Estonian

Among these many meanings of the expression res publica, it is most often translated to "republic" only in the case where the Latin expression refers to the Roman state with the form of government it had between the era of the Kings and the era of the Emperors, which was the Roman Republic. This Roman Republic would in a modern understanding of the word still be qualified as a true republic, even if not excelling in all the features Enlightenment philosophers saw for an ideal government system, for example there was no systematic separation of powers in the Roman Republic. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance

Occasionally Romans could still refer to their state as "res publica" in the era of the early emperors. The reason for this is that on the surface the state organisation of the Roman Republic had been preserved without the slightest alteration by the first emperors. They had only several offices that in the era of the Republic were reserved to separate persons, accumulated in a single person, and had been successful in making some of these offices permanent and thus had gradually built sovereignty in their person. Traditionally, such references to the early empire as "res publica" are not translated as "republic".

As for Cicero, his description of the ideal state in De re publica is more difficult to qualify as a "republic" in modern terminology, it is rather something like enlightened absolutism--not to say benevolent dictatorship--and indeed Cicero's philosophical works, as far as available at that time, were very influential when Enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire developed these concepts. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French Cicero related however with some ambiguity towards the republican form of government: in his theoretical works he defended monarchy (or a monarchy/oligarchy mixed government at best); in his political life he generally opposed to those trying to realise such ideals, like Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and Octavian. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Eventually, that opposition led to his death. So, depending on how one reads history, Cicero could be seen as a victim of his own deep-rooted republican ideals too.

Tacitus, a contemporary of Plutarch, was not concerned with whether on an abstract level a form of government could be analysed as a "republic" or a "monarchy" (see for example Ann. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding IV, 32-33). He analyses how the powers accumulated by the early Julio-Claudian dynasty were all given to the representants of this dynasty by a State that was and remained in an ever more "abstract" way a republic; nor was the Roman Republic "forced" to give away these powers to single persons in a consecutive dynasty: it did so out of free will, and reasonably in Augustus' case, because of his many merits towards the state, freeing it of civil wars and the like. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state

But at least Tacitus is one of the first to follow this line of thought: analysing in which measure such powers were given to the head of state because the citizens wanted to give them, and in which measure they were given because of other principles (for example, because one had a deified ancestor) — such other principles leading more easily to abuse by the one in power. An Imperial cult is a form of State religion in which an Emperor, or a Dynasty of emperors (or rulers of another title are Worshiped as In this sense, that is in Tacitus' analysis, the impossibility to return to the Republic was irreversible only when Tiberius established power shortly after Augustus' death (AD 14, much later than most historians place the start of the Imperial form of government in Rome): by this time too many "untouchable" principles had been mingled in to keep Tiberius away from power, and the age of "sockpuppetry in the external form of a republic", as Tacitus more or less describes this Emperor's reign, began (Ann. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding I-VI).

Classical Republicanism

Main article: Classical Republicanism

The idea of the Republic is drawn from Ancient Greece, Ancient India, and Rome but it was truly created during the Renaissance when scholars built upon their conception of the ancient world to advance their view of the ideal government. Classical republicanism' is a form of Republicanism originating from and inspired by the governmental forms and writings of Classical antiquity. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The usage of the term res publica in classical texts should not be confused with current notions of republicanism. This article is about the Latin phrase For the historical state see Roman Republic; for the dialogue by Cicero see De re publica; for the former Estonian Despite its name Plato's The Republic also has little connection. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece The republicanism developed in the Renaissance is known as classical republicanism because of its reliance on classical models. This terminology was developed by Zera Fink in the 1960s but some modern scholars such as Brugger consider the term confusing as it might lead some to believe that "classical republic" refers to the system of government used in the ancient world. "Early modern republicanism" has been advanced as an alternative term.

Also sometimes called civic humanism, this ideology grew out of the Renaissance writers who developed the idea of the republic. Classical republicanism' is a form of Republicanism originating from and inspired by the governmental forms and writings of Classical antiquity. More than being simply a non-monarchy the early modern thinkers developed a vision of the ideal republic. It is these notions that form the basis of the ideology of republicanism. One important notion was that of a mixed government. Mixed government, also known as a mixed constitution, is a form of government that integrated facets of government by Democracy, Oligarchy, and Monarchy Both Plato and Aristotle saw three basic types of government, democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or First Plato and Aristotle, and especially Polybius and Cicero developed the notion that the ideal republic is a mixture of these three forms of government and the writers of the Renaissance embraced this notion. Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Also central the notion of virtue and the pursuit of the common good being central to good government. Virtue ( Latin virtus; Greek) is moral Excellence. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting individual The common good is a term that can refer to several different concepts Republicanism also developed its own distinct view of liberty, though what exactly that view is much disputed. Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force

Enlightenment republicanism

From the Enlightenment on it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish between the descriptions and definitions of the "republic" concept on the one side, and the ideologies based on such descriptions on the other. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century

Up till then the situation had been different: even those Renaissance authors that spoke highly of republics were rarely critical of monarchies. While Machiavelli's Discourses on Livy is the period's key work on republics he also wrote The Prince on how to best run a monarchy. The Discourses on Livy ( Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Il Principe ( The Prince) is a political Treatise by the Florentine public servant and political theorist One cause of this was that the early modern writers did not see the republican model as one that could be applied universally, most felt that it could be successful only in very small and highly urbanized city-states.

In antiquity writers like Tacitus, and in the renaissance writers like Machiavelli tried to avoid formulating an outspoken preference for one government system or another. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Enlightenment philosophers, on the other hand, always had an outspoken opinion.

However, Thomas More, still before the Age of Enlightenment, must have been a bit too outspoken to the reigning king's taste, even when coding his political preferences in a Utopian tale. Sir Thomas More (7 February 1478 – 6 July 1535 from 1935 Saint Thomas More, was an English Lawyer, author and statesman who in his lifetime gained Utopia is a name for an ideal community taken from the title of a book written in 1516 by Sir Thomas More describing a fictional Island in the

French Enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau and Montesquieu expanded upon and altered the ideas of what an ideal republic would be: some of their new ideas were scarcely retraceable to antiquity or the Renaissance thinkers. Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng Among other things they contributed and/or heavily elaborated notions like social contract and separation of powers. Social contract describes a broad class of republican theories whose subjects are implied agreements by which people form Nations and maintain a Social order Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance They also borrowed from and distinguished it from the ideas of liberalism that were developing at the same time. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Since both liberalism and republicanism were united in their opposition to the absolute monarchies they were frequently conflated during this period. Modern scholars see them as two distinct streams that both contributed to the democratic ideals of the modern world. An important distinction is that while republicanism continued to stress the importance of civic virtue and the common good, liberalism was based on economics and individualism. Civic virtue is the cultivation of habits of personal living that are claimed to be important for the success of the community The common good is a term that can refer to several different concepts It might be argued that while liberalism developed a view of liberty as pre-social and sees all institutions as limiting liberty, republicanism sees some institutions as necessary to create liberty. Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force On the other hand, liberalism is strongly committed to some institutions e. g. the Rule of Law

It has long been agreed that republicanism, especially that of Rousseau played a central role in the French Revolution.

The French Revolution, which was to throw over the French monarchy in the 1790s, installed, at first, a republic; Napoleon turned it into an Empire with a new aristocracy. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an In the 1830s Belgium adopted some of the innovations of the progressive political philosophers of the Enlightenment too. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those

Républicanisme

Républicanisme is a French version of Republicanism. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. It is a social contract concept, that owes to Jean-Jacques Rousseau's idea of a general will. Social contract describes a broad class of republican theories whose subjects are implied agreements by which people form Nations and maintain a Social order The general will ( volonté générale) first enunciated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, is a concept in Political philosophy referring to the desire or interest Ideally, each citizen is engaged in a direct relationship with the state, obviating the need for group identity politics based on local, religious, or racial identification. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Identity politics is Political action to advance the interests of members of a group whose members are oppressed by virtue of a shared and marginalized Identity (such

The ideal of républicanisme, in theory, renders anti-discrimination laws needless, but some critics argue that colour-blind laws serve to perpetuate ongoing discrimination. Color-blind (sometimes called Race-blind) is a term describing activities undertaken and services provided without regard to the racial characteristics of those who [2]

Poland

In Poland moderate republicanism was also an important ideology. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland In Poland republicans were those who supported the status quo of having a very weak monarch and opposed those who felt a stronger monarchy was needed. These Polish republicans such as Lukasz Gornicki, Andrzej Wolan, and Stanislaw Konarski were well read in classical and Renaissance texts and firmly believed that their state was a Republic on the Roman model and called their state the Rzeczpospolita. Łukasz Ogończyk Górnicki (born 1527 in Oświęcim, died 22 July 1603 in Lipniki by Tykocin) Polish humanist writer Stanisław Konarski (actual name Hieronim Konarski; born September 30, 1700 in Żarczyce Duże died August 3, 1773 in Rzeczpospolita ( pronounced) is a Polish word for " Republic " or " Commonwealth " a Calque translation of the Unlike in the other areas Polish republicanism was not the ideology of the commercial, but rather of the landed aristocracy who would be the ones to lose power if the monarchy was expanded.

In the Enlightenment anti-monarchism stopped being coextensive with the civic humanism of the Renaissance. Classical republicanism, still supported by philosophers such as Rousseau and Montesquieu, became just one of a number of ideologies opposed to monarchy. Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng The newer forms of anti-monarchism such as liberalism and later socialism quickly overtook classical republicanism as the leading republican ideologies. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Republicanism also became far more widespread and monarchies began to be challenged throughout Europe.

Perhaps the most interesting influence of republicanism was witnessed in Turkey forming a new democratic Turkish state in 1923 after the fall of the Ottoman Empire through Atatürk's principles (Six Arrows: Republicanism, Populism, Secularism, Reformism, Nationalism, and Statism). Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (19 May 1881 &ndash 10 November 1938 was an army officer revolutionary Statesman Kemalist Ideology " Kemalism " (Kemalist İdeoloji Kemalizm Atatürkçülük Atatürkçü Düşünce or also known as the " Six Arrows " (Altı Populism is a discourse which supports "the people" versus "the Elites " Populism may involve either a political philosophy urging social and political Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Socialist Reformism is the belief that gradual democratic changes in a Society can ultimately change a society's fundamental economic relations and political structures The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Statism (or Etatism) is a very loose and often Derogatory term that is used to describe Specific instances of state intervention in personal social

The British Empire and Commonwealth of Nations

In some countries forming parts of the British Empire, and later the Commonwealth of Nations, republicanism has had very different significance in various countries at various times, dpending on the context. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power.

Irish republicanism is not an ideology essentially opposed to an Irish dynasty having a throne in Dublin - an option never seriously mooted in modern Irish politics - but to Ireland still being in personal union with the other realms of the Commonwealth, as was the situation during the period of the Irish Free State. Irish republicanism (Poblachtánachas is an ideology based on the Irish nationalist belief that all of Ireland should be a single independent Republic A personal union is the combination by which two different States are governed by the same Monarch, while their boundaries their laws and their interests remain distinct A Commonwealth realm is any one of 16 sovereign states within the Commonwealth of Nations that each have Elizabeth II as their respective Monarch The Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann (1922&ndash1937 was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by There is also the fact of Northern Ireland being a part of the United Kingdom, and thus still a part of a constitutional monarchy. Northern Ireland (Tuaisceart Éireann Ulster Scots: Norlin Airlann) is a Country within the United Kingdom, lying in the northeast of The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is

In South Africa, republicanism in the 1960s was identified with the staunch supporters of apartheid, who resented what they considered British interference in the way they treated the country's black majority population, despite the fact that the country was by that point an independent state with its own legally distinct monarchy. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa

In Australia, the debate between republicans and monarchists is still a controversial issue of political life. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Republicanism in Australia is a movement to change Australia 's status as a Constitutional monarchy to a Republican form of government

Neo-republicanism

This new school of historical revisionism has accompanied a general revival of republican thinking. In recent years a great number of thinkers have argued that republican ideas should be adopted. This new thinking is sometimes referred to as neo-republicanism. Engeman referred to republicanism as "an intellectual buzzword" that has been applied to a wide range of theories and postulates that have little in common in order to give them a certain cachet.

The most important theorists in this movement are Philip Pettit and Cass Sunstein who have each written a number of works defining republicanism and how it differs from liberalism. Philip Noel Pettit (born 1945 is an Irish Philosopher and Political theorist. Cass R Sunstein (born 1954 is an American preeminent legal scholar particularly in the fields of constitutional law administrative law environmental law and While a late convert to republicanism from communitarianism, Michael Sandel is perhaps the most prominent advocate in the United States for replacing or supplementing liberalism with republicanism as outlined in his Democracy's Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy. Communitarianism, as a group of related but distinct philosophies began in the late 20th century opposing in its opinion exalted forms of Individualism while advocating phenomena Michael Sandel ( 1953 - is a political philosopher and a professor at Harvard University. As of yet these theorists have had little impact on government. John W. Maynor, argues that Bill Clinton was interested in these notions and that he integrated some of them into his 1995 "new social compact" State of the Union Address. William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States

This revival also has its critics. David Wootton, for instance, argues that throughout history the meanings of the term republicanism have been so diverse, and at times contradictory, that the term is all but meaningless and any attempt to build a cogent ideology based around it will fail.

Republicanism and democracy

Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine

Republicanism is a system that replaces or accompanies inherited rule. The keys are a positive emphasis on liberty, and a negative rejection of corruption. [3] In the late 20th century there has been so much convergence between democracy and republicanism that confusion results. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on As a distinct political theory, republicanism originated in classical history and became important in early modern Europe, as typfied by Machiavelli. It became especially important as a cause of the American Revolution and the French Revolution in the 1770s and 1790s, respectively. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an [4] Republicans in these particular instances tended to reject inherited elites and aristocracies, but the question was open amongst them whether the republic, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an unelected upper chamber, the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts, or should have a constitutional monarch. An upper house is one of two chambers of a Bicameral Legislature, the other chamber being the Lower house. A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is [5]

Although conceptually separate from democracy, republicanism included the key principles of rule by the consent of the governed and sovereignty of the people. In effect republicanism meant that the kings and aristocracies were not the real rulers, but rather the people as a whole were. Exactly how the people were to rule was an issue of democracy – republicanism itself did not specify how. [6] In the United States, the solution was the creation of political parties that were popularly based on the votes of the people, and which controlled the government (see Republicanism in the United States). The First Party System is a term of Periodization used by some political scientists and historians to describe the political system existing in the United States between Republicanism is the Value system of Governance that has been a major part of American civic thought since the American Revolution Many exponents of republicanism, such as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson were strong promoters of representative democracy. Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Thomas Paine (January 29 1737 &ndash June 8 1809 was an English Pamphleteer, Revolutionary, radical, Inventor, and Intellectual Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence However, other supporters of republicanism, such as John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, were more distrustful of majority rule and sought a government with more power for elites. John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. There were similar debates in many other democratizing nations. Democratization ( British English: Democratisation) is the transition to a more democratic Political regime. [7]

Democracy and republic

In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. [8] The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its Head of state is the generic term for the individual or collective office that serves as the chief public representative of a Monarchic or Republican Nation-state President is a Title leaders of Organizations companies, Trade unions universities, and countries. This article focuses on the cases where the Head of Government is a separate office from the Head of State This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. [9]

The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. The Founding Fathers of the United States are the Political leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence or otherwise participated in the Direct Democracy is a movement within the British Conservative Party dedicated to localism and Constitutional reform as a means of reviving public James Madison Jr (March 16 1751 – June 28 1836 was an American Politician, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817 and one of the Founding Federalist No 10 ( Federalist Number 10) is an Essay by James Madison and the tenth of the Federalist Papers, a series arguing What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted,[10] was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend. John Adams (October 30 1735 July 4 1826 was one of the most influential Founding Fathers of the United States. "[11]

Constitutional monarchs and upper chambers

Initially, after the American and French revolutions, the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an upper chamber – the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having lifetime tenures – or should have a constitutional monarch with limited but real powers. An upper house is one of two chambers of a Bicameral Legislature, the other chamber being the Lower house. A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is Some countries (such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Scandinavian countries, and Japan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional ones with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system, whether or not they were replaced with democratic institutions (such as in the US, France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). In Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Papua New Guinea, and some other countries, the monarch is given supreme executive power, but by convention acts only on the advice of his or her ministers. Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures, the members of which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these houses lost power (as in Britain's House of Lords), or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States Senate). The House of Lords is the second house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is also commonly referred to as "the Lords" The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives [12]

See also

This entry is related to, but not included in the Political ideologies series or one of its sub-series. An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics Other related articles can be found at the Politics Portal.

Specific countries

References

European versions

American versions

External links

Greeks   Romans   Comparisons
Lycurgus G L   Numa Pompilius D G L   D G L
Solon D G L P   Poplicola D G L   D G L
  1. ^ Civic Humanism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
  2. ^ Michèle, Lamont; Éloi Laurent. Plutarch 's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly called Parallel Lives or Plutarch's Lives, is a series of Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works John Dryden (– was an influential English poet Literary critic, Translator and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works The Perseus Project is a Digital library project of Tufts University that assembles digital collections of Humanities resources LacusCurtius is a Website specializing in Ancient Rome, currently hosted on a server at the University of Chicago. Numa Pompilius, according to Legend, was the second King of Rome, succeeding Romulus. Solon ( ancient Greek:, c 638 BC&ndash558 BC was an Athenian Statesman, Lawmaker and Lyric poet. "France shows its true colors", International Herald Tribune, June 5, 2006. The International Herald Tribune is a widely read English language international Newspaper Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2006-06-05. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem  
  3. ^ Republicanism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
  4. ^ Pocock (1975)
  5. ^ Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787 (1969)
  6. ^ R. R. Palmer, The Age of the Democratic Revolution: Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800 (1959)
  7. ^ Robert E. Robert Roswell Palmer ( January 11, 1909 &ndash June 11, 2002) commonly known as R Shalhope, "Republicanism and Early American Historiography," William and Mary Quarterly, 39 (Apr. 1982), 334-356
  8. ^ democracy - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
  9. ^ republic - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
  10. ^ Novanglus, no. 7, 6 Mar. 1775
  11. ^ Republican Government: Introduction
  12. ^ Mark McKenna, The Traditions of Australian Republicanism (1996) online version; John W. Maynor, Republicanism in the Modern World. (2003).

Dictionary

republicanism

-noun

  1. The advocacy of a republic as a means of government
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