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Various religious symbols
Various religious symbols

Religious studies, or Religious education, is the academic field of multi-disciplinary, secular study of religious beliefs, behaviors, and institutions. This is a list of graphical signs icons and symbols See also List of common symbols Religious esoteric metaphysical and mystical symbols A Secularity ( adjective form secular) is the state of being separate from Religion. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically-based, and cross-cultural perspectives.

While theology attempts to understand the subject matter of religion from within a particular religious tradition, religious studies tries to study human religious behavior and belief from outside any particular religious viewpoint. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Religious studies draws upon multiple disciplines and their methodologies including anthropology, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and history of religion. The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across Cultures The sociology of religion is primarily the study of the practices Social structures historical backgrounds development, universal themes and Psychology of religion is the psychological study of Religious experiences Beliefs and activities Philosophy of religion is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the philosophical study of religion including arguments over the nature and existence of God religious The History of religions ( Religiongeschichteschule, school of religious history was a 19th century German school of thought which was the first to systematically

Religions studies originated in late 19th century in Europe, when scholarly and historical analysis of the Bible had flourished, and Hindu and Buddhist texts were first being translated into European languages. Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars Early influential scholars included Friedrich Max Müller, in England, and Cornelius P. Tiele, in the Netherlands. For the Danish Colonel Max Müller see Second War of Schleswig. Cornelis Petrus Tiele, ( 16 December 1830 &ndash1902 was a Dutch Theologian and Scholar. Today religious studies is practiced by scholars worldwide. In its early years, it was known as Comparative Religion or the Science of Religion and, in the USA, there are those who today also know the field as the History of Religion (associated with methodological traditions traced to the University of Chicago in general, and in particular Mircea Eliade, from the late 1950s through to the late 1980s). Comparative religion is a field of Religious study that analyzes the similarities and differences of themes myths rituals and concepts among the world's religions The History of religions ( Religiongeschichteschule, school of religious history was a 19th century German school of thought which was the first to systematically Mircea Eliade ( – April 22, 1986) was a Romanian historian of religion fiction writer philosopher and professor at the University of Chicago The field is known as Religionswissenschaft in Germany and Sciences de la religion in the French-speaking world.

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Religious studies vs. theology

Western philosophy of religion, as the basic ancestor of modern religious studies, is differentiated from theology and the many Eastern philosophical traditions by generally being written from a third party perspective. Philosophy of religion is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the philosophical study of religion including arguments over the nature and existence of God religious The scholar need not be a believer. Theology stands in contrast to the philosophy of religion and religious studies in that, generally, the scholar is first and foremost a believer employing both logic and scripture as evidence. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective At least one theologian has noted that one can study and analyze a symphony to understand it in great detail, but it is the listening that is of greatest significance.

Intellectual foundation and background

Before religious studies became a field in its own right (e. g. , flourishing in the US as of the late-1960s), several key intellectual figures explored religion from a variety of perspectives. One of these figures was the famous pragmatist William James. Pragmatism generally considered to have originated in the late nineteenth century with Charles Peirce, who first stated the Pragmatic maxim. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering His 1902 Gifford lectures and book The Varieties of Religious Experience examined religion from a psychological-philosophical perspective and is still influential today. Year 1902 ( MCMII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting The Gifford Lectures were established by the will of Adam Lord Gifford (died 1887) The Varieties of Religious Experience A Study in Human Nature is a book by the Harvard psychologist and philosopher William James that comprises his edited His essay The Will to Believe defends the rationality of faith.

Max Weber studied religion from an economic perspective in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-5), his most famous work. Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a Book written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist in As a major figure in sociology, he has no doubt influenced later sociologists of religion. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Emile Durkheim also holds continuing influence as one of the fathers of sociology. Émile Durkheim ( April 15, 1858 – November 15, 1917) was a French Sociologist whose contributions were instrumental He explored Protestant and Catholic attitudes and doctrines regarding suicide in his work Suicide. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". In 1912 he published his most memorable work on religion, Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. Year 1912 ( MCMXII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting

History of religious studies

Max Müller
Max Müller

Interest in the general study of religion dates back to at least Hecataeus of Miletus (ca. 550 BCE – ca. Hecataeus of Miletus (c 550&ndashc 476 BC named after the Greek Goddess Hecate, was a Greek Philosopher of a wealthy Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" 476 BCE) and Herodotus (ca. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash 484 BCE – 425 BCE). Later, during the Middle Ages, Islamic scholars studied Persian, Jewish, Christian, and Indian belief and practice. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. The first history of religion was the Treatise on the Religious and Philosophical Sects (1127 CE), written by the Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Shahrastani. Tāj al-Dīn Abū al-Fath Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Karīm ash-Shahrastānī (1086–1153 CE) was an influential historian of religions and a Heresiographer. Peter the Venerable, also working in the twelfth century, studied Islam and made possible a Latin translation of the Qur'an. Peter the Venerable (about 1092 – December 25, 1156 in Cluny, France) also known as Peter of Montboissier, abbot of The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran

Notwithstanding the long interest in the study of religion, the academic discipline Religious Studies is relatively new. Dr. Chris Partridge notes that the "first professorships were established as recently as the final quarter of the nineteenth century. "[1] In the nineteenth century, the study of religion was done through the eyes of science. Max Müller was the first Professor of Comparative Religion at Oxford University, a chair created especially for him. For the Danish Colonel Max Müller see Second War of Schleswig. The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the In his Introduction to the Science of Religion (1873) he wrote that it is "the duty of those who have devoted their life to the study of the principal religions of the world in their original documents, and who value and reverence it in whatever form it may present itself, to take possession of this new territory in the name of true science. "

Partridge writes that "by the second half of the twentieth century the study of religion had emerged as a prominent and important field of academic enquiry. " He cites the growing distrust of the empiricism of the nineteenth century and the growing interest in non-Christian religions and spirituality coupled with convergence of the work of social scientists and that of scholars of religion as factors involved in the rise of Religious Studies.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the term "religious studies" became common and interest in the field increased. The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969 This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. New departments were founded and influential journals of religious studies were initiated (for example, Religious Studies and Religion). In the forward to Approaches to the Study of Religion, Ninian Smart wrote that "in the English-speaking world [religious studies] basically dates from the 1960s, although before then there were such fields as 'the comparative study of religion', the 'history of religion', the 'sociology of religion' and so on. Professor Roderick Ninian Smart (May 6 1927 &ndash January 29 2001 was a Scottish writer and university educator . . "

In the 1980s, in both Britain and America, "the decrease in student applications and diminishing resources in the 1980s led to cut backs affecting religious studies departments. The 1980s was the decade spanning from January 1 1980 to December 31 1989. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the " (Partridge) Later in the decade, religious studies began to pick up as a result of integrating religious studies with other disciplines and forming programs of study that mixed the discipline with more utilitarian study.

Philosophy of religion uses philosophical tools to evaluate religious claims and doctrines. Western philosophy has traditionally been employed by English speaking scholars. (Some other cultures have their own philosophical traditions including Indian, Muslim, and Jewish. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut ) Common issues considered by the (Western) philosophy of religion are the existence of God, belief and rationality, cosmology, and logical inferences of logical consistency from sacred texts. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. See Cosmology (disambiguation. Religious cosmologies are ways of explaining the history and evolution of the Universe based

Although philosophy has long been used in evaluation of religious claims (i. e. Augustine and Pelagius's debate concerning original sin), the rise of scholasticism in the 11th century, which represented "the search for order in intellectual life" (Russell, 170), more fully integrated the Western philosophical tradition (with the introduction of translations of Aristotle) in religious study. Pelagius (ca 354 &ndash ca 420/440 was an ascetic monk who denied the doctrine of Original sin, later developed by Augustine of Hippo, and Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.

There is some amount of overlap between subcategories of religious studies and the discipline itself. Religious studies seeks to study religious phenomena as a whole, rather than be limited to the approaches of its subcategories.

History of religion

The history of religions is not concerned with theological claims apart from their historical significance. The History of religions ( Religiongeschichteschule, school of religious history was a 19th century German school of thought which was the first to systematically Some topics of this discipline are the historicity of religious figures, events, and the evolution of doctrinal matters.

Sociology of religion

Sociology of religion is concerned with the social aspects of religion, both in theory and in practice. The sociology of religion is primarily the study of the practices Social structures historical backgrounds development, universal themes and Social structure, the relationship between individual practitioner and religious community, and the construction of meaning are a few of the concerns of the sociologist of religions. Emile Durkheim was the forefather of the sociological study of religion. Émile Durkheim ( April 15, 1858 – November 15, 1917) was a French Sociologist whose contributions were instrumental In 1912 he stated in The Elementary Forms of Religious Life that religion cannot be separated from society, and vice-versa. Simply put, for the sociologist of religions the social conditions in the local form of Heaven or Pantheon mirror the local social conditions on earth, also often the former act to justify the latter. [1]

Psychology of religion

The psychology of religion is concerned with what psychological principles are operative in religious communities and practitioners. Psychology of religion is the psychological study of Religious experiences Beliefs and activities William James was one of the first academics to bridge the gap between the emerging science of psychology and the study of religion. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and A few issues of concern to the psychologist of religions are the psychological nature of religious conversion, the making of religious decisions, and the psychological factors in evaluating religious claims. Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religious identity or a change from one religious identity to another

Anthropology of religion

The anthropology of religion is principally concerned with the common basic needs of man that religion fulfills. The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across Cultures

Cultural anthropology of religion

The cultural anthropology of religion is principally concerned with the cultural aspects of religion. Of primary concern to the cultural anthropologist of religions are rituals, beliefs, religious art, and practices of piety.

Literary approaches

There are many approaches to the study of sacred texts. One of these approaches is to interpret the text as a literary object. Metaphor, thematic elements, and the nature and motivations of the characters are of interest in this approach. An example of this approach is God: A Biography, by Jack Miles. God A Biography is a nonfiction book by Jack Miles. The book recounts the tale of existence of the Judeo-Christian deity as a protagonist of the Hebrew Tanak Jack Miles (born 1942 is an American author and winner of both the Pulitzer Prize and the MacArthur Fellowship.

Neurological approaches

Recently there has been an interesting meeting between neurology and religion, especially Buddhism. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Also of interest has been the temporal lobe, the "God center" of the brain. (Ramachandran, ch. 9)

Although not a widely accepted discipline within religious studies, neurological findings in regard to religious experience may very well become of more widespread interest to scholars of religion. Scientific investigators have used a SPECT scanner to analyze the brain activity of both Christian contemplatives and Buddhist meditators, finding them to be quite similar. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT or less commonly SPET is a Nuclear medicine tomographic imaging technique using Gamma rays. [2]

Influential figures

Methodologies

A number of methodologies are used in Religious Studies. The " Theses on Feuerbach " are eleven short philosophical notes written by Karl Marx in 1845. The Golden Bough A Study in Magic and Religion is a wide-ranging comparative study of Mythology and Religion, written by Scottish anthropologist Sir For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering The Varieties of Religious Experience A Study in Human Nature is a book by the Harvard psychologist and philosopher William James that comprises his edited Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a Book written by Max Weber, a German Economist and Sociologist in Émile Durkheim ( April 15, 1858 – November 15, 1917) was a French Sociologist whose contributions were instrumental Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Totem and Taboo Resemblances Between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics was a book written by Sigmund Freud published in German as Totem und The Future of an Illusion ( Die Zukunft einer Illusion) is a book written by Sigmund Freud in 1927 Rudolf Otto ( September 25 1869 – 6 March 1937) was an eminent German Lutheran theologian and Scholar The Collected Works of C G Jung is a multi-volume work containing the writings of Psychiatrist Carl Jung. Joseph John Campbell ( March 26, 1904 – October 30, 1987) was an American Mythology Professor, Writer The Hero with a Thousand Faces (first published in 1949 is a non-fiction book and seminal work of Comparative mythology by Joseph Campbell The Power of Myth is a book and six part television documentary originally broadcast on PBS in 1988 as Joseph Campbell and the Power of Myth. Alan Wilson Watts ( January 6, 1915 &ndash November 16, 1973) was a British Philosopher, Writer, speaker and Mircea Eliade ( – April 22, 1986) was a Romanian historian of religion fiction writer philosopher and professor at the University of Chicago Huston Cummings Smith (born May 31, 1919) is among the preeminent Religious studies scholars in the Clifford James Geertz ( August 23 1926, San Francisco – October 30 2006, Philadelphia) was an American Wilfred Cantwell Smith ( July 21[[ 916]] &ndash February 7[[ 000]] was a professor of Comparative religion Sir Edward Evan (E E Evans-Pritchard ( September 21, 1902 – September 11, 1973) was a British anthropologist instrumental Peter Ludwig Berger (born March 17, 1929) is an American sociologist and Lutheran theologian well known for his work The Professor Roderick Ninian Smart (May 6 1927 &ndash January 29 2001 was a Scottish writer and university educator Victor Witter Turner ( May 28, 1920 – December 18, 1983) was a cultural Anthropologist best known for his work on symbols rituals Jonathan Zittell Smith ( J Z Smith) is a Historian of Religions He has researched the theory of Ritual, Hellenistic religions Talal Asad is an Anthropologist at the City University of New York who has made important theoretical contributions to Post-Colonialism, Christianity Methodologies are hermeneutics, or interpretive models, that provide a structure for the analysis of religious phenomena. Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of Theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is "arguably the most influential approach to the study of religion in the twentieth century. " (Partridge) The term was first used by Pierre Daniel Chantepie de la Saussaye in his work Lehrbuch der Religiongeschichte (1887). Chantepie's phenomenology catalogued observable characteristics of religion much like a zoologist would categorize animals or an entomologist would categorize insects.

In part due to Husserl's influence, "phenomenology" came to "refer to a method which is more complex and claims rather more for itself than did Chantepie’s mere cataloguing of facts. Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (ˈhʊsɛrl April 8 1859 – April 26 1938) was a philosopher, known as the father of " (Partridge) Husserl argued that the foundation of knowledge is consciousness. Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the He recognized "how easy it is for prior beliefs and interpretations to unconsciously influence one’s thinking, Husserl’s phenomenological method sought to shelve all these presuppositions and interpretations. " (Partridge) Husserl introduced the term "eidetic vision" to describe the ability to observe without "prior beliefs and interpretations" influencing understanding and perception.

His other main conceptual contribution is the idea of the "epoch": setting aside metaphysical questions and observing phenomena in and of themselves. Husserl "sought to place philosophy on a descriptive and scientific basis. " (Partridge)

Partridge examines the most systematic and thorough example of phenomenology, Gerardus van der Leeuw’s Religion in Essence and Manifestation (1933):

Most phenomenologists are aware of the fact that understanding is asymptotic and there will never be complete and absolute understanding. By setting aside metaphysical issues (such as a Christian phenomenologist would do with monotheism/polytheism while studying Hinduism), phenomenologists keep religious studies separate from theology and (hopefully) decrease their bias and come away with a more accurate picture.

Seven generally agreed upon features of phenomenology are as follows:

source

For the more general philosophical movement of phenomenology, see http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/.

Functionalism

Functionalism, in regard to religious studies, is the analysis of religions and their various communities of adherents using the functions of particular religious phenomena to interpret the structure of religious communities and their beliefs. A major criticism of functionalism is that it lends itself to teleological explanations. Teleology ( Greek: telos: end purpose is the philosophical study of design and Purpose. An example of a functionalist approach is understanding the dietary restrictions contained in the Pentateuch as having the function of promoting health or providing social identity (i. term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to e. a sense of belonging though common practice).

See also

References

  1. ^ Gustav Mensching (Rudolf Otto's primary pupil in Germany), 1968. The following is a list of scholars of Religious studies Karen Armstrong, author of A History of God: The 4000-Year Quest of Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective The Dichotomy between the sacred and the Profane has been identified by French Sociologist Émile Durkheim as the Rudolf Otto ( September 25 1869 – 6 March 1937) was an eminent German Lutheran theologian and Scholar Soziologie der Religion ("Sociology of religion"), Germany: Bonn, p. 60ff (in German).
  2. ^ Newberg, Andrew; Eugene D'Aquili and Vince Raus (2001). Why God Won't Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief. New York: Ballantyne Books. ISBN 0-345-44033-1.  
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Pals, Daniel L. 1996. Seven Theories of Religion. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508725-9

Further reading

External links

Academic societies

Online Works and Sources

Religious Studies as an academic discipline

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