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France is a secular country where freedom of thought and of religion are preserved, in virtue of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Freedom of thought (also called freedom of conscience and freedom of ideas) is the freedom of an individual to hold or consider a fact viewpoint Freedom of religion is the freedom of an individual or community in public or private to manifest religion or belief in teaching practice worship and observance The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining

The Republic is based on the principle of laïcité (or "freedom of conscience," including the lack thereof) enforced by the 1880s Jules Ferry laws and the 1905 French law on the separation of church and state. See also Government of France The Fifth Republic is the fifth and current republican constitution of France, which was introduced on Laïcité (laisiˈte is the French concept of a Secular society, connoting the absence of religious involvement in government affairs Freethought is a philosophical viewpoint that holds that Beliefs should be formed on the basis of Science and Logic and should not be influenced The Jules Ferry laws are a set of French laws which established first Free education ( 1881) then mandatory and laic education ( 1882 The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and State ( French: Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Églises et de l'État) was passed by Roman Catholicism, the religion of a majority of French people, is no longer considered a state religion, as it was before the 1789 Revolution and throughout the various, non-republican regimes of the 19th century (the Restoration, the July Monarchy and the Second Empire). A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second

Contents

Legal status and brief history

France guarantees freedom of religion as a constitutional right and the government generally respects this right in practice. Freedom of religion is the freedom of an individual or community in public or private to manifest religion or belief in teaching practice worship and observance A long history of violent conflict between religious groups led the state to break its ties to the Catholic Church early in the last century and adopt a strong commitment to maintaining a totally secular public sector. [1]



Catholicism as a state religion

Catholicism is the primary religion in France. During the Ancien Régime, France had traditionally been considered the Church's eldest daughter, and the King of France always maintained close links to the Pope. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in List of Queens and Empresses of France Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and This led to various conflicts, in particular during the Reformation and the Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time The French Wars of Religion (1562 to 1598 between French Catholics and Protestants ( Huguenots involved both civil infighting The Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France (or French Calvinists) from the sixteenth to the eighteenth Although a strong Protestant population resided in France, they were persecuted by the state. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual/group by another group These wars continued throughout the 16th century, with the notorious 1572 St. Bartholomew's Day massacre as its bleakest moment, until the 1598 Edict of Nantes issued by Henri IV. The St Bartholomew's Day massacre ( Massacre de la Saint-Barthélemy in French) was a wave of Roman Catholic Mob violence against the Huguenots The Edict of Nantes was issued on April 13, 1598 by Henry IV of France to grant the Calvinist Protestants of Henry IV (Henri IV ( 13 December 1553 &ndash 14 May 1610) ruled as King of France from 1589 to 1610 and as Henry III For the first time, Calvinists (Huguenots) were considered by the state as more than mere schismatics and heretics. Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the The word schism (ˈsɪzəm or /ˈskɪzəm/ from the Greek σχίσμα skhísma (from σχίζω skhízō, "to tear to split" Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief The Edict of Nantes thus opened a path for secularism and tolerance. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs In offering general freedom of conscience to individuals, the edict offered many specific concessions to the Protestants: amnesty, the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the State and to bring grievances directly to the king. Freedom of thought (also called freedom of conscience and freedom of ideas) is the freedom of an individual to hold or consider a fact viewpoint Amnesty (from the Greek amnestia, oblivion is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to

The 1598 Edict also granted the Protestants fifty places of safety (places de sureté), which were military strongholds such as La Rochelle for which the king paid 180,000 écus a year, along with a further 150 emergency forts (places de refuge), to be maintained at the Huguenots' own expense. La Rochelle is a city in western France, and a Seaport on the Bay of Biscay, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. Such an innovative act of toleration stood virtually alone in a Europe where standard practice forced the subjects of a ruler to follow whatever religion that the ruler formally adopted— the application of the principle of cuius regio, eius religio. Cuius regio eius religio is a phrase in Latin that means "Whose region his Religion "

However, religious conflicts resumed in the end of the 17th century, when Louis XIV, the "Sun King", initiated the persecution of Huguenots by the dragonnades, created in 1681, which intimidated the Protestants into converting to Catholicism. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar Early years Birth and ancestry Louis XIV was born in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5 1638 and bore the Heir apparent A policy commonly called in French " dragonnades " was instituted by Louis XIV in 1681 in order to intimidate Huguenot families into either leaving France He officialized this policy with the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Edict of Fontainebleau (October 1685 was an Edict issued by Louis XIV of France, also known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes of As a result, a large number of Protestants — estimates range from 200,000 to 500,000 — left France during the following two decades, seeking asylum in England, the United Provinces, Denmark, the Habsburg's Holy Roman Empire and European colonies in North America and South-Africa. According to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in The start of the European colonization of the Americas is typically dated to 1492 although there was at least one earlier colonization effort [2] On January 17th 1686, Louis XIV himself claimed that out of a Huguenot population of 800,000 to 900,000, only 1,000 to 1,500 had remained in France. A Camisard Huguenot rebellion broke out in 1702 in the Cevennes mountains. Camisards were French Protestants ( Huguenots) of the rugged and isolated Cevennes region of south-central France, who raised an insurrection against The Cévennes are a range of mountains in south-central France, covering parts of the départements ' of Gard, Lozère, Ardèche

The 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes created a state of affairs in France similar to that of virtually every other European country of the period, where only the majority state religion was tolerated. The Edict of Nantes was issued on April 13, 1598 by Henry IV of France to grant the Calvinist Protestants of The experiment of religious toleration in Europe was effectively ended for the time being. In practice, the revocation caused France to suffer a kind of brain drain, as it lost a large number of skilled craftsmen, including key designers such as Daniel Marot. A brain drain or human capital flight is a large emigration of individuals with technical skills or knowledge, normally due to conflict, lack of opportunity Daniel Marot (1661-1752 was a French Protestant, an Architect, Furniture designer and engraver at the forefront of the classicizing Late Upon leaving France, Huguenots took with them knowledge of important techniques and styles — which had a significant effect on the quality of the silk, plate glass, silversmithing for which the Huguenots were renowned, and cabinet making industries of those regions to which they relocated. Some rulers, such as Frederick Wilhelm of Brandenburg, who issued the Edict of Potsdam, encouraged the Protestants to seek refuge in their nations. Frederick William (Friedrich Wilhelm February 16 1620 &ndash April 29 1688) was the Elector of Brandenburg and the Brandenburg-Prussia (Brandenburg-Preußen was a German Monarchy established by the Personal union between the Duchy of Prussia and the The Edict of Potsdam (Edikt von Potsdam was a proclamation issued by Frederick William Elector of Brandenburg, in Potsdam on 29 October 1685

French Revolution

Further information: French Revolution

Bourbon Restoration

After the Bourbon Restoration and the coming to power of the Ultra-royalists in the Chambre introuvable, Roman Catholicism again became the state religion of France. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne The term Ultra-Royalists or simply Ultras refers to a Reactionary faction which sat in the French parliament from 1815 La Chambre introuvable ( French for "Unobtainable Chamber" was the first Chamber of Deputies after the Second Bourbon Restoration (1815-1830 The Church of France, sometimes called the "eldest daughter of the Church" owing to its early communion (second century with the bishop of Rome is part of the worldwide A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Under Villèle's ultra-royalist government, the Chamber voted the 1830 Anti-Sacrilege Act. Jean-Baptiste Guillaume Joseph Marie Anne Séraphin comte de Villèle (14 April 1773 - 13 March 1854 was a French statesman The Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825&ndash1830 was a French law against Blasphemy and Sacrilege passed in January 1825 under King Charles

Third Republic

Further information: French Third Republic

A 1905 law instituted the separation of Church and State and prohibited the government from recognising, salarying or subsidising any religion. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and State ( French: Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Églises et de l'État) was passed by Separation of church and state is a Political and Legal Doctrine that Government and religious institutions are to be kept separate A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos However by the Briand-Ceretti Agreement the state subsequently re-acquired a role in the appointment of Catholic bishops which it has conserved. In the preceding situation, established 1801-1808 by the Concordat, the State used to support the Roman Catholic Church, the Lutheran Church, the Calvinist Church and the Jewish religion and provided for public religious educations in those religions. Year 1801 ( MDCCCI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Tuesday Year 1808 ( MDCCCVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The Concordat of 1801 is a reflection of an agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII that reaffirmed the Roman Catholic Church as the majority The Church of France, sometimes called the "eldest daughter of the Church" owing to its early communion (second century with the bishop of Rome is part of the worldwide Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ For historical reasons, this situation is still current in Alsace-Moselle, which was a German region in 1905: The national government salaries clergy from those four religions as state civil servants, and provides for non-compulsory religious education in those religions in public schools and universities. Alsace-Moselle is the current legal name of the Alsace-Lorraine territory the part of France that was part of Germany from 1871 to 1919 (and then Also, for similar historical reasons, in French Guiana, Catholic priests are civil servants of the local government. French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France

Religious buildings built prior to 1905 at taxpayers' expense are retained by the local and national government, but may be used at no expense by religious organizations. As a consequence, most Catholic churches are owned by the government. The government, since 1905, has been prohibited from owning any pre-1905 publicly built edifices, and thus religions must build and support all religious buildings at their own expense. Some local governments de facto subsidize prayer rooms as part of greater "cultural associations". An ongoing topic of controversy is whether the separation of Church and State should be weakened so that the government should be able to subsidize Muslim prayer rooms and the formation of imams. An imam (إمام plural ائمة A'immah, امام is an Islamic leader often the leader of a Mosque and/or community Advocates of such measures, such as Nicolas Sarkozy, declare that they would incite the Muslim population to better integrate into the fabric of French society. Nicolas Sarkozy (pronounced, Opponents contend that the state should not fund religions. Furthermore, the state ban on wearing conspicuous religious symbols, such as the islamic female headscarf, in public schools has alienated some French Muslims, provoked minor street protests and drawn some international criticism. The For other uses see Headgear. Headscarves are scarves covering most or all of the top of a woman's hair and her head

Religious organizations are not required to register, but may if they wish to apply for tax-exempt status or to gain official recognition. The 1901 and 1905 laws define two categories under which religious groups may register: "associations cultuelles" (associations of worship, which are exempt from certain taxes) and "associations culturelles" (cultural associations, which are not exempt from these taxes). Associations in these two categories are subject to certain management and financial disclosure requirements. An association of worship may organize only religious activities, loosely defined as liturgical services and practices, but no social or diaconal ones. A cultural association may engage in social as well as in profit-making activity. Although a cultural association is not exempt from taxes, it may receive government subsidies for its cultural and educational operations, such as schools. Religious groups normally register under both of these categories; all churches run strictly religious activities through its association of worship and operate a school under its cultural association. In accordance with the provisions of Title IV, Art. 19 of the Law of December 9, 1905, these associations of worship must be exclusively for the purpose of religious ministries, ie: the performance of religious ceremonies and services, the acquisition and maintenance of buildings of worship, the wages and the theological education of their ministers of religion.

Under the 1905 statute, religious groups must apply with the local prefecture to be recognized as an association of worship and receive tax-exempt status. The prefecture reviews the submitted documentation regarding the association's purpose for existence. To qualify, the group's purpose must be solely the practice of some form of religious ministries.

According to the Ministry of the Interior, 109 of 1,138 Protestant associations, 15 of 147 Jewish associations, and approximately 30 of 1,050 Muslim associations have tax-free status. Approximately 100 Catholic associations are tax-exempt; a representative of the Ministry of Interior reports that the number of nontax-exempt Catholic associations is too numerous to estimate accurately. More than 50 associations of the Jehovah's Witnesses have tax-free status.

According to the 1905 law, associations of worship are not taxed on the donations that they receive. However, the prefecture may decide to review a group's status if the association receives a large donation or legacy that comes to the attention of the tax authorities. If the prefecture determines that the association is not in fact in conformity with the 1905 law, its status may be changed, and it may be required to pay taxes at a rate of 60 percent on the present and past donations that fall within a legal category close to that of inheritance. "Heir" and "Heiress" redirect here For the men and women fragrances endorsed by Paris Hilton see Heiress (fragrance.

Social religions

Religion is traditionally considered as the private matter and depending on the context, it may be considered inquisitive to enter religious discussions. The private sphere is the complement or opposite to the Public sphere. Communautarisme, meaning the forming of ethnic or religious communities separate from mainstream life, is much present but often considered suspicious. The term multiculturalism generally refers to a state of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity within the Demographics of a specified The separation of religion from government power is legally referred to as laïcité, in force since the Jules Ferry laws passed at the end of the 19th century and the 1905 French law on the separation of Church and State. Laïcité (laisiˈte is the French concept of a Secular society, connoting the absence of religious involvement in government affairs The Jules Ferry laws are a set of French laws which established first Free education ( 1881) then mandatory and laic education ( 1882 The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and State ( French: Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Églises et de l'État) was passed by [3]

Left wing politicians are often non-practicing or generally do not discuss their religious beliefs and seldom use religious arguments in political debates, with the notable exception of Jacques Delors. Jacques Lucien Jean Delors (born July 20 1925 in Paris) is a French Economist and politician the only person to have served two terms Centrist politicians such as François Bayrou or conservative politicians such as UMP member Christine Boutin (see PACS civil union) are more open about faith. François Bayrou (fʁɑ̃swa·bajʁu Francés Vairon in Occitan) is a French centerist Politician, president of Union for French Democracy Christine Boutin (born in Levroux, Indre, France on February 6, 1944) is a French politician In France, a pacte civil de solidarité ( English: "civil pact of solidarity" commonly known as a PACS /paks/ (or

Religious expressions and Biblical references are coming back in public rhetoric and during the 2007 presidential campaign, Nicolas Sarkozy and Ségolène Royal, both raised as Roman Catholics, made a number of references to their faiths. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin The 2007 French presidential election, the ninth of the Fifth French Republic was held to elect the successor to Jacques Chirac as president of France Nicolas Sarkozy (pronounced, Marie-Ségolène Royal (born 22 September 1953 in Dakar, Senegal, then a French colony known as, (seɡɔlɛn ʁwajal is a [4] [5] For the first time ever, the French media asked all candidates to declare their religious affiliations; out of 12 candidates, all but one accepted to answer. The following is a list of Religions and spiritual traditions, however it excludes modern religions which can be found in List of new religious movements. [6] One of the more significant signs of evolution is on the left: the anti-globalisation activist José Bové feels close to Christianity, Marie-Georges Buffet, head of the fading French Communist Party strongly opposes any anti-religious interpretations of French secularism [7]. " Anti-globalization " is a term that encompasses a number of related ideas Joseph (José Bové (born June 11, 1953) is a French farmer and syndicalist, member of the alter-globalization movement, and spokesman Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of State atheism is the official promotion of Atheism by a Government, typically by active suppression of Religious freedom and practice Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs However, both of them stop short of self-identifying as believers, probably for ideological reasons. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics

Nicolas Sarkozy sees France's main religions as positive contributions to French society. Nicolas Sarkozy (pronounced, He was elected on a platform proposing a modernisation of the Republic’s century-old principle of secularism. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs [8] He visited the pope in December 2007 and publicly acknowledged France's Christian roots, while highlighting the importance of freedom of thought [9], hinting that faith should come back into the public sphere. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Freedom of thought (also called freedom of conscience and freedom of ideas) is the freedom of an individual to hold or consider a fact viewpoint Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in The public sphere is an area in social life where people can get together and freely discuss and identify societal problems and through that discussion influence political action

Islamic fundamentalism is considered by some to be a threat for the cohesion of the French society, although many, including the Canard Enchaîné, Libération and other left-wing newspapers claim that the Minister of Interior overplays the threat in order to justify certain policies. Statistics Estimates of the number of Muslims in France vary widely Le Canard enchaîné (French The Chained Duck) is a Satirical Newspaper published weekly in France. Libération (affectionately known as Libé) is a French Daily Newspaper founded in Paris in 1973 by Jean-Paul Sartre Reasons for tensions include the desire of a very few imams and other Muslims not to abide by French laws, regulations and customs. Following rare cases of conflicts about Muslim girls breaching school dress regulations or refusing to attend certain classes, the French government adopted in 2004 the very controversial French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools. The On the other hand, Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy has created the French Council of the Muslim Faith (CFCM), which has been widely criticized by secular-minded politicians (mainly by supporters of Jacques Chirac) as a sign of Sarkozy's alleged multiculturalism. Nicolas Sarkozy (pronounced, The French Council of the Muslim Faith ( French: Conseil Français du Culte Musulman, usually abbreviated to CFCM) is a non-profit group created on May The term multiculturalism generally refers to a state of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity within the Demographics of a specified These tensions echo earlier quarrels with respect to the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in French society and the influence of the Pope in French public affairs (see gallicanism vs ultramontanism. Gallicanism is the belief that popular civil authority&mdashoften represented by the Monarchs authority or the State 's authority&mdashover the Catholic Ultramontanism is a religious philosophy within the Catholic Church that places strong emphasis on the prerogatives and powers of the Pope. )

The French public and government pay attention to certain minority religious groups, considered as cults and indeed has set up a Parliamentary Commission about Cults in France, which issues a yearly report. This article does not discuss "cult" in the original sense of "veneration" or "religious practice" for that usage see Cult (religious practice The French National Assembly, the lower house of the Parliament of France, set up a Parliamentary Commission on Cults in France ( Commission parlementaire sur This is particularly the case since a much-publicized series of mass murders and suicides inside the Order of the Solar Temple in 1995. The Order of the Solar Temple also known as Ordre du Temple Solaire ( OTS) in French, and the International Chivalric Organization of the Solar Tradition Public concerns include the well-being and education of children in cults that isolate themselves from the community, the advocacy of medical practices generally considered hazardous, the defrauding of members by greedy leaders and sexual abuse. Such concerns have resulted in the foundation of commissions charged with the monitoring of possibly dangerous cults as well as the enactment of legislation easing the prosecution of criminal organizations.

Statistics

The French government does not keep statistics on religious adherence, nor on ethnicity or on political affiliation. Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data. However, some unofficial survey estimates exist from CIA and poll:

According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005,[13]

Cults and new religious movements in France

France created in 2006 the first French parliamentary commission on cult activities which led to a report registering a number of cults considered as dangerous. The French National Assembly, the lower house of the Parliament of France, set up a Parliamentary Commission on Cults in France ( Commission parlementaire sur This article does not discuss "cult" in the original sense of "veneration" or "religious practice" for that usage see Cult (religious practice Supporters of such movements have criticized the report on the grounds of the respect of religious freedom. Freedom of religion is guaranteed in France by the constitutional rights set forth in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Proponents of the measure contend that only dangerous cults have been listed as such, and state secularism insures religious freedom in France.

See also

References

  1. ^ The Secular Principle by Jean Baubérot
  2. ^ Spielvogel, Western Civilization — Volume II: Since 1500 (5th Edition, 2003) p. Buddhism is widely reported to be the fourth largest religion in France, after Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. The Church of France, sometimes called the "eldest daughter of the Church" owing to its early communion (second century with the bishop of Rome is part of the worldwide The Hindu community in France consists of some long-time residents and many recent immigrants Statistics Estimates of the number of Muslims in France vary widely The Jewish community in France presently numbers around 600000 according to the World Jewish Congress and 500000 according to the Appel Unifié Juif de France and is Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes Religious (generally Catholic institutional power and influence real or alleged in all aspects of public and political Agnosticism ( Greek: α- a-, without + γνώσις gnōsis, knowledge after Gnosticism) is the philosophical view that the Anarchism in France dates from the 18th century Many Anarchists such as the Egalitarians took part in the French Revolution. Atheism Laïcité (laisiˈte is the French concept of a Secular society, connoting the absence of religious involvement in government affairs The Jules Ferry laws are a set of French laws which established first Free education ( 1881) then mandatory and laic education ( 1882 The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and State ( French: Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Églises et de l'État) was passed by French Sikhs are a tiny minority in France. Numbering about 10000 most of the Sikhs are based in Bobigny. Jackson J Spielvogel is an associate professor Emeritus at Pennsylvania State University. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. 410
  3. ^ One Hundred Years of French Secularism by Mélina Gazsi
  4. ^ Nicolas Sarkozy au Mont Saint Michel
  5. ^ Jeanne d'Arc, son modèle
  6. ^ Profession de foi des candidats RELIGION, de RTL - L'actu - RTL - Législatives et Présidentielle 2007
  7. ^ Religion : Les candidats font leur profession de foi - France
  8. ^ http://www.lexpress.fr/info/france/dossier/sarkozy/dossier.asp?ida=430149 Religions, République, intégration, Sarkozy s'explique
  9. ^ Sarkozy breaks French taboo on church and politics
  10. ^ Portrait des catholiques, sondage exclusif CSA/Le Monde des religions, October 18-25, 2006
  11. ^ Religion Important for Americans, Italians, Angus Reid Global Monitor, December 30, 2006
  12. ^ (Romanian) Franţa nu mai e o ţară catolică (France is no longer a Catholic country), Cotidianul, 2007-01-11; "France 'no longer a Catholic country'", Daily Telegraph, 10 January 2007
  13. ^ {{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf|title=Eurobarometer on Social Values, Science and technology 2005 - page 11|accessdate=2007-05-05}}

External links

Cotidianul is a Romanian newspaper published Monday to Saturday in Berliner format For "The Daily Telegraph" in Australia see The Daily Telegraph (Australia.
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